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Math Level I

The document provides an introduction and overview of the SAT II subject tests. It explains that the SAT II tests examine knowledge of specific subjects like math, history, or science, whereas the SAT I tests critical thinking skills. It discusses factors to consider when deciding which SAT II tests to take, including required tests, recommended tests based on strengths, and how scores are reported as raw scores, percentiles, and scaled scores.
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100% found this document useful (1 vote)
1K views

Math Level I

The document provides an introduction and overview of the SAT II subject tests. It explains that the SAT II tests examine knowledge of specific subjects like math, history, or science, whereas the SAT I tests critical thinking skills. It discusses factors to consider when deciding which SAT II tests to take, including required tests, recommended tests based on strengths, and how scores are reported as raw scores, percentiles, and scaled scores.
Copyright
© Attribution Non-Commercial (BY-NC)
Available Formats
Download as DOCX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Introduction to the SAT II

THE SAT II SUBJECT TESTS ARE CREATED and administered by the College Board and the
Educational Testing Service (ETS), the two organizations responsible for producing the dreaded SAT
I (which most people call the SAT). The SAT II Subject Tests are meant to complement the SAT I.
Whereas the SAT I tests your critical thinking skills by asking math and verbal questions, the SAT II
Subject Tests examine your knowledge of a particular subject, such as Writing, U.S. History, Physics,
or Biology. The SAT I takes three hours; the Subject Tests take only one hour.
In our opinion, the SAT II Subject Tests are better tests than the SAT I because they cover a
definitive, easily studied topic rather than ambiguous critical thinking skills. However, just because
the SAT II Subject Tests do a better job of testing your knowledge of a subject doesn’t mean the tests
are necessarily easier or demand less studying. A “better” test isn’t necessarily better for you in terms
of how easy it will be.
The Good

 Because SAT II Subject Tests cover specific topics, you can study for them effectively. If you
don’t know a topic in mathematics, such as how to find the slope of a line, you can easily look
it up and learn it. The SAT II tests are straightforward: if you know your stuff, you’ll do well.
 Often, the classes you’ve taken in school have already prepared you for the SAT IIs. If you’ve
taken two years of algebra and a year of geometry, you’ll have studied the topics covered by
the SAT II Math IC. All you need is some refreshing and refocusing, which this book
provides.
 In preparing for the Math, History, or Chemistry SAT II tests, you really are learning math,
history, and chemistry. In other words, you are gaining valuable, interesting knowledge. If
you enjoy learning, you might actually find the process of studying for an SAT II test to be
worthwhile and gratifying—few can say the same about studying for the SAT I.

The Bad
Because SAT II Subject Tests quiz you on specific knowledge, it is much harder to “beat” or
“outsmart” an SAT II test than it is to outsmart the SAT I. For the SAT I, you can use all sorts of
tricks or strategies to figure out an answer. There are far fewer strategies to help you on the SAT II.
To do well on the SAT II, you can’t just rely on your natural smarts and wits. You need to study.

Colleges and the SAT II Subject Tests


We’re guessing you didn’t sign up to take the SAT II just for the sheer pleasure of it. You probably
want to get into college, and know that the only reason for taking this test is that colleges want or
require you to do so.
Colleges care about SAT II Subject Tests for two reasons. First, the tests demonstrate your interest,
knowledge, and skill in specific subjects. Second, because SAT II tests are standardized, they show
how your knowledge of Math (or Biology or U.S. History) measures up to that of high school students
nationwide. The grades you get in high school can’t be compared in the same way: some high schools
are more difficult than others, and students of equal ability might receive different grades, even in
classes with relatively similar curriculum.
When it comes down to it, colleges like the SAT IIs because the tests make the colleges’ job easier.
SAT II tests allow colleges to easily compare you to other applicants, and provide you with an
excellent opportunity to shine. If you got a 93% on your Algebra final, and a student at another high
school across the country got a 91%, colleges don’t know how to compare the two grades. They don’t
know whose class was harder or whose teacher was a tougher grader. But if you get a 720 on the SAT
II Math IC, and that other kid gets a 650, colleges will recognize the difference in your scores.
College Placement
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Occasionally, colleges use SAT II tests to determine placement. For example, if you do very well on
the SAT II Math IC, you might be exempted from a basic math class. It’s worth finding out whether
the colleges you’re applying to use the SAT II tests for this purpose.

Scoring the SAT II Subject Tests


There are three different versions of your SAT II score. The “raw score” is a simple score of how you
did on the test, like the grade you might receive on a normal test in school. The “percentile score”
compares your raw score to all the other raw scores in the country, letting you know how you did on
the test in relation to your peers. The “scaled score,” which ranges from 200–800, compares your
score to the scores received by all students who have ever taken that particular SAT II.
The Raw Score
You will never know your SAT II raw score, because it is not included in the score report. But you
should understand how the raw score is calculated, because this knowledge can affect your strategy
for approaching the test.
A student’s raw score is based solely on the number of questions that student got right, wrong, or left
blank:

 You earn 1 point for every correct answer.


 You lose 1/ 4 of a point for each incorrect answer.
 You receive zero points for each question left blank.

Calculating the raw score is easy. Count the number of questions you answered correctly and the
number of questions answered incorrectly. Then multiply the number of wrong answers by 1/4, and
subtract this value from the number of right answers.

The Percentile Score


A student’s percentile is based on the percentage of the total test-takers who received a lower raw
score than he or she did. Let’s say, for example, you had a friend named John Quincy Adams, and he
received a score that placed him in the 37th percentile. This percentile score tells John that he scored
better on the SAT II than 36 percent of the other students who took the same test; it also means that
63 percent of the students taking that test scored as well as or better than he did.
The Scaled Score
ETS takes your raw score and uses a formula to turn it into the scaled score of 200–800 that you’ve
probably heard so much about.
The curve to convert raw scores to scaled scores differs from test to test. For example, a raw score of
33 on the Math IC might scale to a 600, while the same raw score of 33 on the Math IIC will scale to a
700. In fact, the scaled score can even vary between different editions of the same test. A raw score of
33 on the February 2004 Math IIC might scale to a 710, while a 33 in June of 2004 might scale to a
690. These differences in scaled scores exist to accommodate varying levels of difficulty and student
performance from year to year.

Which SAT II Subject Tests to Take


There are three types of SAT II tests: those you must take, those you should take, and those you
shouldn’t take.

 The SAT II tests you must take are those that are required by the colleges you are interested
in.
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 The SAT II tests you should take are tests that aren’t required, but which you’ll do well on,
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thereby impressing the colleges looking at your application.


 You shouldn’t take the unrequired SAT II tests that cover a subject you don’t feel confident
about.

Determining Which SAT II Tests are Required


You’ll need to do a bit of research to find out if the colleges you’re applying to require that you take a
particular SAT II test. Call the schools you’re interested in, look at their websites, or talk to your
guidance counselor. Often, colleges require that you take the following SAT II tests:

 The Writing SAT II test


 One of the two Math SAT II tests (either Math IC or Math IIC)
 Another SAT II in some other subject of your choice

Not all colleges follow these guidelines; you should take the time to verify what tests you need to take
in order to apply to the colleges that interest you.
Deciding Which Math SAT II to Take
Few students take both Math SAT II tests. Instead, you should choose which test to take based on
several factors.

 Test content. The two tests cover similar topics, but the Math IIC covers more material
than the Math IC does. Level IC covers three years of college-preparatory math: two years of
algebra and one year of geometry. Level IIC assumes that in addition to those three years,
you have also taken a year of trigonometry and/or precalculus.

Math IC

Algebra

Plane geometry (lines and angles, triangles, polygons, circles)

Solid geometry (cubes, cylinders, cones, spheres, etc.)

Coordinate geometry (in two dimensions)

Trigonometry (properties and graphs of sine, cosine, and tangent functions, identities)

Algebraic functions

Statistics and sets (distributions, probability, permutations and combinations, groups and sets)

Miscellaneous topics (logic, series, limits, complex and imaginary numbers)

Math IIC (covers all areas in Math IC with some additional concepts)

Algebra
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Plane geometry
Solid geometry

Coordinate geometry (in two and three dimensions, vectors, polar coordinates, parametric equations)

Trigonometry (cosecant, secant, cotangent functions, inverse functions, in non-right triangles)

Statistics and sets

Miscellaneous topics

 Question difficulty. Not only does the Math IIC cover additional topics, it also covers the
basic topics in more difficult ways than the Math IC does.
 College choice. As you choose between the two tests, keep in mind the specific colleges
you’re applying to. Colleges with a strong focus on math, such as MIT and Cal Tech, require
the Math IIC test. Most other colleges have no such requirement, but some may prefer that
you take the IIC.
 Battle of the test curves. The Level IIC test is scored on a much more liberal curve: you
can miss six or seven questions and still achieve a score of 800. On the IC test, however, you
would probably need to answer all the questions correctly to get a perfect score. If you
wanted to score a 600 on either test, you would need around 20 correct answers on the IIC
test and 33 on the IC test. Some students with strong math backgrounds think that they can
get a marvelous score on the less difficult Math IC while their score on the IIC will only be
average. But if you get tripped up by just one or two questions on the Math IC, your score will
not be as impressive as you might expect.

If you have the skills to take the Level IIC test, you should go for it. Some students decide to take the
Math IC because it’s easier, even though they have taken a precalculus course. We don’t recommend
this. Colleges will be more impressed by a student who does fairly well on SAT II Math IIC than one
who does very well on SAT II Math IC. Also, the friendly curve of the Math IIC means that if you
know enough math to take the IIC, you might very well get a better score than you would on the IC.
If after all this you still can’t decide which of the two Math SAT IIs to take, try a taking a practice test
for each.
Deciding If You Should Take an SAT II That Isn’t Required
There are two rules of thumb for deciding which additional test to take beyond the Writing and Math
tests:

1. Go with what you know. If history is your field, a strong score on the American History
test will impress admissions officers far more than a bold but mediocre effort on the Physics
test.
2. Try to show breadth. Scoring well on similar subject tests such as Math, Biology, and
Chemistry will not be as impressive as good scores in more diverse subjects, such as Math,
Writing, World History, and Biology.

Of course, you also have to know what is considered a good score, and whether or not you can get
that score (or higher).
Below we have included a list of the most popular SAT II tests and the average scaled score on each.
If you feel confident that you can get a score that is above the average (50 points or more), taking the
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test will probably strengthen your college application. Please note that if you are planning to attend
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an elite school, you might have to score significantly higher than the national average. The following
table is just a general guideline. It’s a good idea to call the schools that interest you or talk to a
guidance counselor to get a more precise idea of what score you should be shooting for.

TEST AVERAGE SCORE

Writing 590–600

Literature 590–600

American History 580–590

World History 570–580

Math IC 580–590

Math IIC 655–665

Biology 590–600

Chemistry 605–615

Physics 635–645

As you decide which test to take, be realistic with yourself. Don’t just assume you’re going to do great
without at least taking a practice test and seeing where you stand.

When to Take an SAT II Subject Test


The best time to take an SAT II Subject Test is right after you’ve finished a year-long class in that
subject. If, for example, you take U.S. History in eleventh grade, then you should take the SAT II U.S.
History near the end of that year, when the material is still fresh in your mind. (This rule does not
apply for the Writing, Literature, and Foreign Language SAT II tests; it’s best to take those after
you’ve had as much study in the area as possible.)
ETS usually sets testing dates for SAT II Subject Tests in October, November, December, January,
May, and June. However, not every subject test is administered in each of these months. To check
when the test you want to take is being offered, visit the College Board website at
www.collegeboard.com or do some research in your school’s guidance office.
Unless the colleges you’re applying to use the SAT II for placement purposes, there is no point in
taking any SAT II tests after November of your senior year, since you won’t get your scores back from
ETS until after the college application deadline has passed.

Registering for SAT II Tests


To register for the SAT II test(s) of your choice, you have to fill out some forms and pay a registration
fee. We know, we know—it’s ridiculous that you have to pay for a test that colleges require you to
take in order to make their jobs easier. But, sadly, there isn’t anything we, or you, can do about it.
(It’s acceptable here for you to grumble about the unfairness of the world.)
After grumbling, however, you still have to register. There are two ways to go about it: online or by
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mail. To register online, go to www.collegeboard.com. To register by mail, fill out and send in the
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forms enclosed in the Registration Bulletin, which should be available in your high school’s guidance
office. You can also request a copy of the Bulletin by calling the College Board at (609) 771-
7600            (609) 771-7600      , or writing to:
College Board SAT Program
P.O. Box 6200
Princeton, NJ 08541-6200
You can register to take up to three SAT II tests for any given testing day. Unfortunately, even if you
decide to take three tests in one day, you’ll still have to pay a separate registration fee for each.

Introduction to SAT II Math IC


The key to success on any test is simple: know your subject. But just knowing the material isn’t
enough to guarantee a good score on SAT II Math IC—if you walked into an exam completely blind,
with no preparation besides having read a textbook, and no knowledge of how you’d even be tested,
you might spend so much energy trying to figure out how to take the test that you’d only get halfway
through it.
That’s where this chapter comes in handy. We’ve broken down the Math IC by content and format,
giving you a behind-the-scenes look at how your exam is written, organized, and scored. You’ll know
what to expect before you even enter the testing room.

Content of SAT II Math IC


The Math IC test covers a variety of topics. ETS, the company that writes the test, provides the
following breakdown of coverage:

Topic Percent of Test Usual Number of Questions

Algebra 30% 15

Plane Geometry 20% 10

Solid Geometry 6% 3

Coordinate Geometry 12% 6

Trigonometry 8% 4

Functions 12% 6

Statistics and Sets 6% 3

Miscellaneous 6% 3

This breakdown is accurate, but it is too broad to help you direct your studying in any meaningful
way. That’s why we created this more detailed breakdown of the test:

Topic Percent of Test Usual Number of Questions

Algebra 30% 15
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Arithmetic 1–3% 1
Equation solving 18–22% 10

Binomials, polynomials, quadratics 5–7% 3

Plane Geometry 20% 10

Lines and angles 3–5% 2

Triangles, polygons, circles 14–18% 8

Solid Geometry 6% 3

Solids (cubes, cylinders, cones, etc.) 7–9% 4

Inscribed solids, solids by rotation 1–3% 1

Coordinate Geometry 12% 6

Lines and distance 7–9% 4

Graphing 1–3% 1

Conic sections (parabolas, circles) 3–5% 2

Trigonometry 8% 4

Basic functions (sine, cosine, tangent) 3–5% 2

Trigonometric identities 1–3% 1

Functions 12% 6

Basic, compound, inverse functions 7–9% 4

Graphing functions 1–3% 1

Domain and range of functions 1–3% 2

Statistics and Sets 1–3% 2


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Mean, median, mode 6% 3


Probability 1–3% 1

Permutations and combinations 1–2% 0.5

Group questions, sets 1–2% 0.5

Miscellaneous 6% 3

Arithmetic and geometric series 1–2% 0.5

Logic 1–3% 1

Limits 1–2% 0.5

Imaginary numbers 1–2% 0.5

This book is organized according to these categories, allowing you to focus on each topic to whatever
degree you feel necessary. Also, each question in the practice tests at the back of this book is grouped
by the above categories, so that you can very precisely identify your weaknesses and then use this
book to address them

Format of SAT II Math IC


SAT II Math IC is a one-hour test composed of 50 multiple-choice questions. The instructions for the
test are very simple; you should memorize them so you don’t waste time reading them on the day of
the test.

For each of the following problems, decide which is the BEST of the choices given. If the exact
numerical value is not one of the choices, select the choice that best approximates this value. Then fill in
the corresponding oval on the answer sheet.
Have you read the directions? Have you memorized them? Good. Now here’s some specific
information about the test’s format:

 The 50 questions progress in order of difficulty: the easiest questions come first, the
moderately difficult questions are in the middle, and the hardest questions are last.
 You can skip around while taking the test. The ability to skip the occasional question is
helpful, as we explain in the next chapter.
 All questions are worth the same number of points, no matter their difficulty.

The Calculator
Unlike the SAT I, in which a calculator is permitted but not essential to the test, the Math IC test
demands the use of a calculator. In fact, that’s what the “C” in IC stands for. Some questions on the
test are specifically designed to test your calculator-using skills.
It is therefore wise to learn all the essentials about calculators before taking SAT II Math IC. First,
make sure you have the right type of calculator. Virtually any calculator are may be used during the
test, including programmable and graphing calculators. Laptops, minicomputers, or any machine
that prints, makes noise, or needs to be plugged in are prohibited.
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Whatever calculator you use for the test should have all the following functions:
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 Exponential powers
 Base-10 logarithms
 Sine, cosine, tangent

Make sure you practice each of these functions on your calculator before taking the test. We tell you
more about how to use calculators for the test in the next chapter.

Scoring SAT II Math IC


Scoring on the SAT II Math IC is the same as the scoring for all other SAT II tests. For every right
answer, you earn one point. For every wrong answer, you lose 1/4 of a point. For every answer left
blank, you earn zero points. These points combined equal your raw score. ETS converts your raw
score to a scaled score according to a special curve tailored to the particular test you take. We have
included a generalized version of that curve in a table below. Use this table to convert your raw
scores on practice tests into an approximate scaled score.

Average Raw Score Scaled Score Average Raw Score Scaled Score

50 800 18–19 480

49 780 17 470

48 770 16 460

47 760 15 450

46 740 14 440

45 730 13 430

44 720 12 430

43 710 11 420

42 700 10 410

41 690 9 400

40 680 8 390

39 670 7 380

38 660 6 370

37 650 5 370
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36 640 4 360
35 630 3 350

34 610 2 340

33 600 1 330

32 590 0 330

31 580 –1 320

30 570 –2 310

29 560 –3 300

28 550 –4 300

27 550 –5 290

26 540 –6 280

25 530 –7 270

24 520 –8 260

23 510 –9 260

22 510 –10 250

21 500 –11 240

20 490 –12 230

As you can see, this curve is not very forgiving. Getting just one question wrong will lower your score
by 20 points. Reiterating what we said earlier, you can miss a bunch of questions on the Math IIC
and still get the same score you would receive on the Math IC if you missed just one. For example, a
raw score of 41 on the Math IIC test receives an equivalent scaled score as a raw score of 49 on the
Math IC test.
But all is not hopeless on the SAT II Math IC. On a 50-question test, you could score:

 780 if you answered 49 right, 0 wrong, and left 1 blank


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 740 if you answered 46 right, 0 wrong, and left 4 blank


 700 if you answered 43 right, 4 wrong, and left 3 blank
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 650 if you answered 39 right, 8 wrong, and left 3 blank


 650 if you answered 38 right, 4 wrong, and left 7 blank
 600 if you answered 35 right, 8 wrong, and left 7 blank

These sample scores suggest that when taking the test, you shouldn’t imagine your score plummeting
with every question you can’t confidently answer. Don’t get unnecessarily wound up if you run into a
difficult question; the key to doing well on SAT II Math IC is to follow a strategy that ensures you will
see and answer all the questions you can, while intelligently guessing on those slightly fuzzier
questions. We discuss these strategies in the next chapter.

Strategies for SAT II Math IC


A MACHINE, NOT A PERSON, WILL SCORE your Math IC SAT II test. The tabulating machine sees
only the filled-in ovals on your answer sheet, nothing else. So whether you knew the right answer
because you’re a math genius or because you took a lucky guess, you’ll get a point.
Believe it or not, you can use all this to your advantage. ETS only wants right answers, not the
thoughts behind them. So we’ve organized a few of the basic (and not-so-basic) rules and tips for
test-taking that will best enable you to get those right answers quickly.

Basic Rules of SAT II Test-Taking


There are some rules of strategy that apply to all SAT II tests. These rules are so obvious that we
hesitate to even call them “strategies.” Some of these rules will seem more like common sense to you
than anything else. We don’t disagree. But it is amazing how a timed test can warp and mangle
common sense. So we offer the following list.
Avoid Carelessness
There are two types of carelessness, both of which will cost you points. The first type results from
sheer overconfidence. If you speed through the test without a second glance, you make yourself
vulnerable to misinterpreting questions, overlooking answer choices, and making computational
mistakes. As you take the test, make a conscious effort to approach it calmly and methodically, no
matter how comfortable you are with the material. There’s nothing worse than realizing you lost
points due to sloppy mistakes.
Then there’s lack of confidence—a defeatist attitude is your worst enemy when taking the SAT IIs,
because if you automatically assume you won’t be able to answer many of the questions, you’ll give
up at the first sign of difficulty and sabatoge your score. Even if you don’t feel confident about the
material, stay on track and use our techniques for test-taking, and you might find you know more
(and get a better score) then you thought you would.
Be Careful Gridding In Your Answers
The computer that scores SAT II tests is unmerciful. If you answered a question correctly, but
somehow made a mistake in marking your answer grid, the computer will mark that question as
wrong. If you skipped question 5, but put the answer to question 6 in row 5, and the answer to
question 7 in row 6, etc., thereby throwing off your answers for an entire section . . . it gets ugly.
Some test-prep books advise that you fill in your answer sheet five questions at a time rather than
one at a time. Some suggest that you do one question and then fill in the corresponding bubble. We
think you should fill out the answer sheet whatever way feels most natural to you; just make sure
you’re careful while doing it. In our opinion, the best way to ensure that you’re being careful is to talk
silently to yourself. As you figure out an answer in the test booklet and transfer it over to the answer
sheet, say to yourself: “Number 23, B. Number 24, E. Number 25, A.”
Know What’s in the Reference Area
At the beginning of SAT II Math IC, there is a reference area that provides you with basic geometric
formulas and information.
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THE FOLLOWING INFORMATION IS FOR YOUR REFERENCE IN ANSWERING SOME OF THE


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QUESTIONS IN THIS TEST.


Volume of a right circular cone with radius r and height h:

Lateral area of a right circular cone with circumference of the base c and slant height l:

Volume of a sphere with radius r:

Surface area of a sphere with radius r:

Volume of a pyramid with base area B and height h:


You should know all these formulas without needing the reference area; don’t neglect to memorize
and understand the formulas because you have the reference area as a crutch. Instead, see the
reference area as a hint to you about what formulas are likely to be needed on the test. If you know
those formulas without having to flip back to the reference area, you’ll save time, which puts you one
step ahead.
Write All Over Your Test Booklet . . .
Draw diagrams or write out equations to help you think. Mark up graphs or charts as necessary.
Cross out answers that can’t be right. Basically, the test booklet is yours to write all over, and writing
can often help clarify things, allowing you to work more quickly with fewer mistakes.
. . . But Remember that the SAT Rewards Answers, Not Work
That said, we must qualify our advice. Doing math scratchwork can definitely help you avoid careless
errors, but doing pristine work, or more work than necessary, can be more time-consuming than it’s
worth. You must find a balance between speed and accuracy. You need to be able to follow and
understand your work, but other people don’t. Nobody will look at or reward your work, so don’t
write it out as if you’re being judged.

The Importance of the Order of Difficulty


Imagine that you are taking a test that consists of two questions. After your teacher hands out the
test, and before you set to work, a helpful little gnome whispers to you, “The first problem is very
simple, the second is much harder.” Would the gnome’s statement affect the way you approach the
two problems? Yes. For a “very simple” question, it seems likely that you should be able to answer it
quickly and with little or no agonized second-guessing. You will probably have to spend much more
time on a “much harder” question, both to come up with an answer and to check your work to make
sure you didn’t make an error somewhere along the way.
What about all the other students who didn’t hear the gnome? They might labor over the first, easy
question, exhaustively checking their work and wasting time that they’ll need for the tricky second
problem. Then, when those other students do get to the second problem, they might not check their
work or be wary of traps, since they have no idea that the problem is so difficult.
The moral here is you should spend less time on the simpler questions that appear early in the test,
and devote more time to the harder questions appearing later. Because Math IC questions are
ordered by difficulty, it’s as if you have that helpful little gnome sitting next to you for the entire test.
Knowing When to Be Wary
Most students answer the easy Math IC questions correctly. Only some students get moderate
questions right. Very few students get difficult questions right. What does this mean to you? It means
that when you are going through the test, you can often trust your first instincts on an easy question.
With difficult questions, however, you should be more cautious. There is a reason most people get
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these questions wrong: not only are they more difficult, containing more sophisticated vocabulary or
mathematical concepts, they are also often tricky, full of enticing wrong answers that seem as if they
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must be correct. But because the SAT orders its questions by difficulty, the test tips you off about
when to take a few extra seconds to make sure you haven’t been fooled by an answer that only seems
right.
The tricky answers seem right because they are actually the answers you would get if you were to
make a mathematical or logical mistake while working on the problem. For example, let’s say you’re
flying through the test and have to multiply 6 8 3. So you quickly multiply 6 and 8 to get 42 and
then multiply 42 by 3 to get 126. You look down at the answers, and there’s 126! You mark it down as
your answer and you get the question wrong. 6 8 equals 48, not 42, making the correct answer 144.
From this example, you should learn that just because the answer you arrived at is among the
answers does not mean you definitely have it right. The SAT is designed to punish those who make
careless errors. Don’t be one of them. After you get an answer, quickly check your work again.

Math Questions and Time


There are often several ways to answer a Math IC question. You can use trial and error, you can set
up and solve an equation, and, for some questions, you might be able to answer the question quickly,
intuitively, and elegantly, if you can just spot how to do it. These different approaches to answering
questions vary in the amount of time they take. Trial and error generally takes the longest, while the
elegant method of relying on an intuitive understanding of conceptual knowledge takes the least
amount of time.
Take, for example, the following problem:

Which has a greater area, a square with sides measuring 4 cm or a circle with a radius of the same
length?
The most obvious way to solve this problem is simply to plug 4 into the formula for the area of a
square and area of a circle. Let’s do it: Area of a square = s2, so the area of this square = 42 = 16. Area
of a circle = πr2, and the area of this circle must therefore be π42 = 16π. 16π is obviously bigger than
16, so the circle must be bigger. That worked nicely. But a faster approach would have been to draw a
quick to-scale diagram with the square and circle superimposed.

An even quicker way would have been to understand the equations for the area of a square and a
circle so well that it was obvious that the circle was bigger, since the equation for the circle will
square the 4 and multiply it by π, whereas the equation for the square will only square the 4.
While you may be a math whiz and just know the answer, you can learn to look for a quicker route,
such as choosing to draw a diagram instead of working out the equation. And, as with the example
above, a quicker route is not necessarily a less accurate one. Making such choices comes down to
practice, having an awareness that those other routes are out there, and basic mathematical ability.
The value of time-saving strategies is obvious: less time spent on some questions allows you to
devote more time to difficult problems. It is this issue of time that separates the students who do
terrifically on the math section and those who merely do well. Whether or not the ability to find
accurate shortcuts is an actual measure of mathematical prowess is not for us to say (though we can
think of arguments on either side), but the ability to find those shortcuts absolutely matters on this
test.
Shortcuts Are Really Math Intuition
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We’ve told you all about shortcuts, but now we’re going to give you some advice that might seem
strange: you shouldn’t go into every question searching for a shortcut. If you have to search and
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search for a shortcut, it might end up taking longer than the typical route. But at the same time, if
you’re so frantic about calculating out the right answer, you might miss the possibility that a shortcut
exists. If you go into each question knowing there might be a shortcut and keep your mind open, you
have a chance to find the shortcuts you need.
To some extent, you can teach yourself to recognize when a question might contain a shortcut. From
the problem above, you know that there will probably be a shortcut for all those questions that give
you the dimensions of two shapes and ask you to compare them. A frantic test-taker might
compulsively work out the equations every time. But if you are a little calmer, you can see that
drawing a diagram is the best, and quickest, solution.
The fact that we advocate using shortcuts doesn’t mean you shouldn’t focus on learning how to work
out problems. We can guarantee that you’re won’t find a shortcut for a problem unless you know how
to work it out the long way. After all, a shortcut requires using your existing knowledge to spot a
faster way to answer the question. When we use the term math shortcut, we’re really referring to
your math intuition.

Making Your Calculator Work for You


As we’ve already mentioned, the calculator is a very important part of the Math IC test. You need to
have the right kind of calculator, be familiar with its operations, and, above all, know how to use it
intelligently.
There are four types of questions on the test: those that are calculator-friendly, calculator-neutral,
calculator-unfriendly, and calculator-useless. According to ETS, about 60 percent of the test falls
under the calculator-neutral and -friendly categories. That is, calculators are useful or necessary on
30 of the 50 questions on SAT II Math IC. The other 20 questions are calculator-unfriendly and
-useless. The trick is to be able to identify the different types of questions when presented with them
on the test. Here’s a breakdown of each of the four types, with examples. If you’re not certain about
the math discussed in the examples, don’t worry. We cover all these topics in this book.
Calculator-Friendly Questions
A calculator is extremely helpful and often necessary to solve calculator-friendly questions. Problems
demanding exact values for exponents, logarithms, or trigonometric functions will most likely need a
calculator. Computations that you can’t do easily in your head are prime candidates. Here’s an
example:

If f(x) = , then what is f(3.4)?


(A) –18.73
(B) –16.55
(C) –16.28
(D) –13.32
(E) –8.42
This is a simple function question in which you are asked to evaluate f(x) at the value 3.4. As you will
learn in the Functions chapter, all you have to do to solve this problem is plug in 3.4 for the variable
x and carry out the operations in the function. But unless you know the square root and square of 3.4
off the top of your head (which most test-takers wouldn’t), this problem is extremely difficult to
answer without a calculator.
But with a calculator, all you need to do is take the square root of 3.4, subtract twice the square of
3.4, and then add 5. You get answer choice C, –16.28.
Calculator-Neutral Questions
You have two choices when faced with a calculator-neutral question. A calculator is useful for these
types of problems, but it’s probably just as quick and easy to work the problem out by hand.
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If 8x = 4 3 2 3 , what is the value of x?


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(A) 2
(B) 3
(C) 5
(D) 7
(E) 8
When you see the variable x as a power, you should think of logarithms. A logarithm is the power to
which you must raise a given number to equal another number, so in this case, we need to find the
exponent x, such that 8x = 43 23. From the definition of logarithms, we know that if given an
equation of the form ax = b, then loga b = x. So you could type in log8 (43 23) on your trusty
calculator and find that x = 3.
Or, you could recognize that 2 and 4 are both factors of 8, and, thinking a step further, that 2 3 = 8
and 43 = 64 = 82. Put together, 43 23 = 82 8 = 83. We come to the same answer that x = 3 and that
B is the right answer.
These two processes take about the same amount of time, so choosing one over the other is more a
matter of personal preference than one of strategy. If you feel quite comfortable with your calculator,
then you might not want to risk the possibility of making a mental math mistake and should choose
the first method. But if you’re more prone to error when working with a calculator, then you should
choose the second method.
Calculator-Unfriendly Questions
While it’s possible to answer calculator-unfriendly questions using a calculator, it isn’t a good idea.
These types of problems often have built-in shortcuts—if you know and understand the principle
being tested, you can bypass potentially tedious computation with a few simple calculations. Here’s a
problem that you could solve much more quickly and effectively without the use of a calculator:

(A) .3261
(B) .5
(C) .6467
(D) .7598
(E) .9238
If you didn’t take a moment to think about this problem, you might just rush into it wielding your
calculator, calculating the cosine and sine functions, squaring them each and then adding them
together, etc. But take a closer look: cos2(3 63°) + sin2(3 63°) is a trigonometric identity. More
specifically, it’s a Pythagorean identity: sin2q + cos2q = 1 for any angle q. So, the expression {cos2(3
63°) + sin2(3 63°)} 4/2 simplifies to 14 /2 = 1/2 = .5. B is correct.
Calculator-Useless Questions
Even if you wanted to, you wouldn’t be able to use your calculator on calculator-useless problems.
For the most part, problems involving algebraic manipulation or problems lacking actual numerical
values would fall under this category. You should be able to easily identify problems that can’t be
solved with a calculator. Quite often, the answers for these questions will be variables rather than
numbers. Take a look at the following example:

(x + y – 1)(x + y + 1) =
(A) (x + y) 2
(B) (x + y) 2 – 1
(C) x2 – y2
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(D) x + x – y + y2 + 1
2

(E) x2 + y2 + 1
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This question tests you on an algebraic topic—that is, it asks you how to find the product of two
polynomials—and requires knowledge of algebraic principles rather than calculator acumen. You’re
asked to manipulate variables, not produce a specific value. A calculator would be of no use here.
To solve this problem, you need to notice that the two polynomials are in the format of a Difference
of Two Squares: (a + b)(a – b) = a2 – b2. In our case, a = x + y and b = 1. As a result, (x + y – 1)(x + y
+ 1) = (x + y)2 – 1. B is correct.
Don’t Immediately Use Your Calculator
The fact that the test contains all four of these question types means that you shouldn’t get trigger-
happy with your calculator. Just because you’ve got an awesome shiny hammer doesn’t mean you
should try to use it to pound in thumbtacks. Using your calculator to try to answer every question on
the test would be just as unhelpful.
Instead of reaching instinctively for your calculator, first take a brief look at each question and
understand exactly what it’s asking you to do. That short pause will save you a great deal of time later
on. For example, what if you came upon the question:

If (3, y) is a point on the graph of f(x) = , then what is y?


(A) –3
(B) –1.45
(C) 0
(D) .182
(E) 4.87
A trigger-happy calculator user might immediately plug in 3 for x. But the student who takes a
moment to think about the problem will probably see that the calculation would be much simpler if
the function was simplified first. To start, factor 11 out of the denominator:

Then, factor the numerator to its simplest form:

The (x – 4) cancels out, and the function becomes f(x) = (x – 1) ⁄ 11. At this point you could shift to the
calculator and calculate f(x) = (3 – 1) ⁄ 11 = 2/ 11 = .182, which is answer D. If you were very
comfortable with math, however, you would see that you don’t even have to work out this final
calculation. 2⁄11 can’t work out to any answer other than D, since you know that 2⁄11 isn’t a negative
number (like answers A and B), won’t be equal to zero (answer C), and also won’t be greater than 1
(answer E).

Approaching Math IC Questions


Though there are four types of questions on the Math IC, there is a standard procedure that you
should use to approach all of them.

1. Read the question without looking at the answers. Determine what the question is asking and
come to some conclusion about how to solve it. Do not look at the answers unless you decide
that using the process of elimination is the best way to go.
2. If you think you can solve the problem, go ahead. Once you’ve derived an answer, only then
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see if your answer matches one of the choices.


3. Once you’ve decided on an answer, test it quickly to make sure it’s correct, then move on.
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Working Backward: The Process of Elimination
If you run into difficulty while trying to solve a multiple-choice problem, you might want to try the
process of elimination. For every question, the answer is right in front of you, hidden among five
answer choices. So if you can’t solve the problem directly, you might be able to plug each answer into
the question to see which one works.
Not only can this process help you when you can’t figure out a question, there are times when it can
actually be faster than setting up an equation, especially if you work strategically. Take the following
example:

A classroom contains 31 chairs, some of which have arms and some of which do not. If the room
contains 5 more armchairs than chairs without arms, how many armchairs does it contain?
(A) 10
(B) 13
(C) 16
(D) 18
(E) 21
Given this question, you could build the equations:

Then, since y = x – 5 you can make the equation:

There are 18 armchairs in the classroom.


This approach of building and working out the equations will produce the right answer, but it takes a
long time! What if you strategically plugged in the answers instead? Since the numbers ascend in
value, let’s choose the one in the middle: C 16. This is a smart strategic move because if we plug in 16
and discover that it is too small a number to satisfy the equation, we can eliminate A and B along
with C. Alternatively, if 16 is too big, we can eliminate D and E along with C.
So our strategy is in place. Now let’s work it out. If we have 16 armchairs, then we would have 11
normal chairs and the room would contain 27 total chairs. We needed the total number of chairs to
equal 31, so clearly C is not the right answer. But because the total number of chairs is too few, we
can also eliminate A and B, the answer choices with smaller numbers of armchairs. If we then plug
in D, 18, we have 13 normal chairs and 31 total chairs. There’s our answer. In this instance, plugging
in the answers takes less time, and just seems easier in general.
Now, working backward and plugging in is not always the best method. For some questions it won’t
be possible to work backward at all. For the test, you will need to build up a sense of when working
backward can most help you. Here’s a good rule of thumb:
Work backward when the question describes an equation of some sort and the answer choices are
all simple numbers.
If the answer choices contain variables, working backward will often be more difficult than actually
working out the problem. If the answer choices are complicated, with hard fractions or radicals,
plugging in might prove so complex that it’s a waste of time.
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Substituting Numbers
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Substituting numbers is a lot like working backward, except the numbers you plug into the equation
aren’t in the answer choices. Instead, you have to strategically decide on numbers to substitute into
the question to take the place of variables.
For example, take the question:

If p and q are odd integers, then which of the following must be odd?
(A) p+q
(B) p–q
(C) p2 + q2
(D) p2 q2
(E) p + q2
It might be hard to conceptualize how the two variables in this problem interact. But what if you
chose two odd numbers, let’s say 5 and 3, to represent the two variables? You get:

(A) p+q=5+3=8
(B) p–q=5–3=2
(C) p 2 + q 2 = 25 + 9 = 34
(D) p 2 q 2 = 25 9 = 225
(E) p + q 2 = 5 + 9 = 14
The answer has to be D, p2 q2 since it multiplies to 225. (Of course, you could have answered this
question without any work at all, as two odd numbers, when multiplied, always result in an odd
number.)
Substituting numbers can help you transform problems from the abstract to the concrete. However,
you have to remember to keep the substitution consistent. If you’re using a 5 to represent p, don’t
suddenly start using 3. Choose numbers that are easy to work with and that fit the definitions
provided by the question.

Guessing and the Math IC


Should you guess on SAT II Math IC? We’ll answer this question by posing a question of our own:

G. O. Metry is holding five cards, numbered 1–5. Without telling you, he has selected one of the
numbers as the “correct” card. If you pick a single card, what is the probability that you will choose the
correct card?
One out of 5, or 1⁄5, of course! And that’s precisely the situation you’re in when you blindly guess the
answer on any SAT II Math IC question: you have a 1 in 5 chance of getting the question right. If you
were to guess on 10 questions, probability says you’ll get two questions right and eight questions
wrong.

 Two right answers earns you 2 raw points.


 Eight wrong answers gets you –2 raw points (8 – 1/4 points).

Those ten answers, therefore, net you a total of 0 points. And that’s exactly what ETS wants. They
designed the test to make blind guessing pointless.
Educated Guessing
But suppose you’re faced with this question:
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If x + 2x = 6, what is the value of x?


(A) –2
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(B) 2
(C) 3
(D) 0
(E) 1
Let’s say you have no idea how to solve this problem. But you look at the answer choices, and realize
that 0 multiplied by any number equals 0. If you plug that into the equation, cannot add up
to 6. You can eliminate “0” as a possible answer, and now have four choices from which to choose.
Now is it worth it to guess? Yes. Probability states that if you are guessing between four choices you
will get one question right for every three you get wrong. For that one correct answer, you’ll get one
point, and for the three incorrect answers, you’ll lose a total of 3/4 of a point: 1 – 3/4 = 1/4. If you can
eliminate even one answer, the odds of guessing turn in your favor: you become more likely to gain
points than to lose points.
The rule for guessing on the Math IC test is simple: if you can eliminate even one answer-choice on
a question, you should definitely guess

Pacing: The Key to Scoring Well


As we said earlier, the questions on the SAT II Math IC Test are organized from least to most
difficult, with the basic material covered near the beginning and the advanced topics at the end.
Make sure you don’t spend too much time on the easiest questions, putting yourself in the position of
having to leave blank those questions near the end of the test that you could have answered if only
you had more time.
Answering 50 math questions in 60 minutes is not the easiest of tasks, but if you learn how to pace
yourself, you should be able to at least look at every single question on the test. Note that we said
“look at” every question, we didn’t say “answer.”
It is unlikely that you will be able to answer every question on the test. Some questions will stump
you completely. Others might demand so much of your time that answering them becomes more
trouble than it’s worth. While taking five minutes to solve a particularly difficult question might
strike you as a moral victory when you’re taking the test, you could have used that same time to
answer six other questions that would have vastly increased your score. Instead of getting bogged
down on individual questions, you will do better if you learn to skip, and leave for later, the very
difficult questions either that you can’t answer or that will take an extremely long time to solve.
By perfecting your pacing on practice tests, you can make sure that you will see every question on the
test, letting you choose which questions you will and will not answer, rather than running out of time
before reaching the end of the test.
There are a few simple rules that will make pacing yourself much easier.

 Don’t get bogged down on one single question. If you find yourself wasting time on a
question, circle it, move on, and come back to it later.
 Answer every question for which you know the answer, and make an educated guess on every
question for which you can quickly eliminate at least one answer choice.
 Skip questions in which the question and answers refer to concepts completely foreign to
you. If you look at the question and answers and have no idea what topics they cover, you
have little chance of making an educated guess. Mark the question in some way to indicate it
is very difficult. Return to this type of question only if you have answered everything else.
Remember to skip that line on your answer sheet!

Setting a Target Score


You can make the job of pacing yourself much easier if you go into the test knowing how many
questions you have to answer correctly in order to earn the score you want. So, what score do you
want? Obviously, you should strive for the best score possible, but be realistic: consider how much
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you know about math and how well you usually do on SAT-type tests. You should also consider what
exactly defines a good score at the colleges you’re applying to: is it a 620? A 680? Talk to their
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admissions offices, do a little research in college guidebooks, or talk to your guidance counselor. You
should also find out the average scores of students already at the schools you want to attend. Take
that number and set your target score above it (you want to be above average, right?). Then take a
look at the chart we showed you earlier.
You’ll get:

 780 if you answered 49 right, 0 wrong, and left 1 blank


 740 if you answered 46 right, 0 wrong, and left 4 blank
 700 if you answered 43 right, 4 wrong, and left 3 blank
 650 if you answered 39 right, 8 wrong, and left 3 blank
 600 if you answered 35 right, 8 wrong, and left 7 blank

So let’s say the average score for SAT II Math IC for the school you want to attend is a 600, and you
set your target at about 650. According to the chart, you can get 39 questions right, get 8 wrong,
leave 3 questions blank, and still achieve your target score.
If you know all these numbers going into the test, you can pace yourself accordingly. You should use
practice tests to teach yourself the proper pace, increasing your speed if you find that you aren’t
getting to answer all the questions you need to, or decreasing your pace if you find that you’re
rushing and making careless mistakes. If you reach your target score during preparation, give
yourself a cookie and take a break for the day. But just because you hit your target score doesn’t
mean you should stop working altogether. In fact, you should view reaching your target score as a
clue that you can do better than that score: set a new target 50-100 points above your original, and
work to pick up your pace a little bit and skip fewer questions.
By improving your score in manageable increments, you can slowly work up to your top speed,
integrating your new knowledge of the test and how to take it without overwhelming yourself. If you
can handle working just a little faster without becoming careless and losing points, your score will
certainly go up. If you meet your new target score again, repeat the process.

Math IC Fundamentals
ONLY A FEW QUESTIONS (2 to 5 percent) will directly test basic math. But knowledge of basic
math is crucial—almost all of the test’s 50 questions assume in-depth understanding of it, and you’ll
need to be able to apply these fundamentals even when answering the most sophisticated questions.
You probably know some of the Math IC Fundamentals like the back of your hand, while others may
need a refresher. Either way, it can’t hurt to thumb through this chapter. If you know it all, you’ll fly
right through it. If there’s something you don’t know, learn it!

Order of Operations
The order of operations is one of the most instrumental and basic principles of arithmetic. It refers to
the order in which you must perform the various operations in a given mathematical expression. If
operations in an expression could be performed in any random order, a single expression would take
on a vast array of values. For example:

Evaluate the expression


One student might perform the operations from left to right:

Another student might choose to add before executing the multiplication or division:
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As you can see, depending on the order in which we perform the required operations, there are a
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number of possible evaluations of this expression. In order to ensure that all expressions have a
single correct value, we have PEMDAS—an acronym for determining the correct order of operations
in any expression. PEMDAS stands for:

 Parentheses: first, perform the operations in the innermost parentheses. A set of parentheses
supercedes any other operation.
 Exponents: raise any required bases to the prescribed exponent. Exponents include square
roots and cube roots, since those two operations are the equivalent of raising a base to the 1⁄2
and 1⁄3 power, respectively.
 Multiplication and Division: perform multiplication and division.
 Addition and Subtraction: perform these operations last.

Let’s work through a few examples to see how order of operations and PEMDAS work. First, we
should find out the proper way to evaluate the expression . Since nothing is enclosed in
parentheses, the first operation we carry out is exponentiation:

Next, we do all the necessary multiplication and division:

Lastly, we perform the required addition and subtraction. Our final answer is:

Here’s another example, which is a bit trickier. Try it on your own, and then compare your results to
the explanation that follows:

Evaluate .

First, resolve the operations under the square root, which is symbolized by and is also called a
radical.
But wait, you may be thinking to yourself, I thought we were supposed to do everything within a
parentheses before performing exponentiation. Expressions under a radical are special exceptions
because they are really an expression within parentheses that has been raised to a fractional power.
In terms of math, . The radical effectively acts as a large set of
parentheses, so the rules of PEMDAS still apply.
To work out this expression, first execute the operations within the innermost set of parentheses:

Next, perform the required exponentiation:

Then, multiply:
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Finally, add:
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Now that the operations under the radical have been resolved, we can take the square root.

One additional note is important for the division step in the order of operations. When the division
symbol is replaced by a fraction bar (i.e., the expression includes a fraction), you must evaluate
the numerator and the denominator separately before you divide the numerator by the
denominator. The fraction bar is the equivalent of placing a set of parentheses around the whole
numerator and another for the whole denominator.
Order of Operations and Your Calculator
There are two ways to deal with the order of operations while using a calculator:

1. Work out operations one by one on your calculator while keeping track of the entire equation
on paper. This is a slow but accurate process.
2. If you have a graphing calculator, you can type the whole expression into your calculator.
This method will be faster, but can cause careless errors.

If you want to type full expressions into your graphing calculator, you must be familiar with how
your calculator works. You can’t enter fractions and exponents into your calculator the way they
appear on paper. Instead, you have to be sure to recognize and preserve the order of operations.
Practice with the following expression:

If you enter this into a graphing calculator, it should look like this:

Numbers
Before you take the Math IC, you should know the common types of numbers. Of these types, the
most important ones to understand are probably integers and real numbers. They can be spotted in
nearly every question on the test and will be explicitly mentioned at times.

 Whole Numbers. The set of counting numbers, including zero {0, 1, 2, 3, . . .}.
 Natural Numbers. The set of all whole numbers except zero {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, . . .}.
 Integers. The set of all positive and negative whole numbers, including zero. Fractions and
decimals are not included {. . . , –3, –2, –1, 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .}.
 Rational Numbers. The set of all numbers that can be expressed as a quotient of integers.
That is, any number that can be expressed in the form m⁄n , where m and n are integers. The
set of rational numbers includes all integers and all fractions that can be created using
integers in the numerator and denominator.
 Irrational Numbers. The set of all numbers that cannot be expressed as a quotient of
integers. Examples include π, , 1.01001000100001000001 . . . . The sets of irrational
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numbers and rational numbers are mutually exclusive. Any given number must be either
rational or irrational; no number can be both.
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 Real Numbers. Every number on the number line. The set of real numbers includes all
rational and irrational numbers.
 Imaginary Numbers. See the “Miscellaneous Math” chapter later in this book.

On the Math IC, integers and real numbers will appear far more often than any of the other number
types.
Even and Odd Numbers
Even numbers are those numbers that are divisible by two with no remainder.
Only integers can be even or odd, meaning decimals and fractions are not included. Zero, however, is
an integer and thus a member of the set.
. . . , –6, –4, –2, 0, 2, 4, 6, . . .
Odd numbers are those numbers not evenly divisible by two.
. . . , –5, –3, –1, 1, 3, 5, . . .
The set of even numbers and the set of odd numbers are mutually exclusive.
A more rigorous definition of even and odd numbers appears below:
Even numbers are numbers that can be written in the form 2n, where n is an integer. Odd numbers
are the numbers that can be written in the form 2n + 1, where n is an integer.
This definition is nothing more than a technical repetition of the fact that even numbers are divisible
by two, and odd numbers are not. It may come in handy, though, when you need to represent an
even or odd number with a variable.
Operations of Odd and Even Numbers
There are a few basic rules regarding the operations of odd and even numbers that you should know
well. If you grasp the principles behind the two types of signed numbers, these rules should all come
easily.
ADDITION:
even + even = even
odd + odd = even
even + odd = odd
SUBTRACTION:
even – even = even
odd – odd = even
even – odd = odd
MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION:
even even = even
odd odd = odd
even odd = even
Positive and Negative Numbers
Positive and negative numbers are governed by rules similar to those that have to do with even and
odd numbers. First, for their quick definitions:
Positive numbers are numbers that are greater than zero. Negative numbers are numbers that are
less than zero. The number zero is neither positive nor negative.
Operations of Positive and Negative Numbers
The following rules define how positive and negative numbers operate under various operations.
ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION:
When adding and subtracting negative numbers, it helps to remember the following:
Adding a negative number is the same as subtracting its opposite. For example:

Subtracting a negative number is the same as adding its opposite. For example:
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MULTIPLICATION:
positive positive = positive
negative negative = positive
positive negative = negative
DIVISION:
positive positive = positive
negative negative = positive
positive negative = negative
The rules for multiplication and division are exactly the same since any division operation can be
written as a form of multiplication: a b = a/b = a 1/b.
Absolute Value
The absolute value of a number is the distance on a number line between that number and zero. Or,
you could think of it as the positive “version” of every number. The absolute value of a positive
number is that same number, and the absolute value of a negative number is the opposite of that
number.
The absolute value of x is symbolized by |x|.

Solving an equation with an absolute value in it can be particularly tricky. As you will see, the answer
is often ambiguous. Take a look at the following equation:

We can simplify the equation in order to isolate |x|:

Knowing that |x| = 2 means that x = 2 and x = –2 are both possible solutions to the problem. Keep
this in mind; we’ll deal more with absolute values in equations later on in the Algebra chapter.

Factors
A factor is an integer that divides another integer evenly. If a /b is an integer, then b is a factor of a.
The numbers 3, 4, and 6, for example, are factors of 12.
Sometimes it is necessary or helpful to factor an integer completely. This means you need to find all
the factors of that integer. It’s possible that the test will directly require this skill or will make use of
it in a more complicated question. In either case, it’s something you should know how to do.
Factorization
To find all the factors of a number, write them down in pairs, beginning with 1 and the number
you’re factoring. We’ll factor 24 in this example. One and 24 are both factors of 24. Next, try every
integer greater than 1 in increasing order. Here are the factor pairs we find for 24:

 1 and 24 (1 24 = 24)
 2 and 12 (2 12 = 24)
 3 and 8 (3 8 = 24)
24

 4 and 6 (4 6 = 24)
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You know you’ve found all the factors of a number when the next first factor exceeds its
corresponding second factor. For example, after you found that 4 was a factor of 24 and 5 was not,
you would see that 6, the next factor of 24, had already been included in a pair of factors. Thus, all
the factors have been found.
Prime Numbers
A prime number is a number whose only factors are 1 and itself. All prime numbers are positive
(because every negative number has –1 as a factor in addition to 1 and itself). Furthermore, all prime
numbers besides 2 are odd. The first few primes, in increasing order, are:

To determine whether a number is prime, you shouldn’t check whether the number is divisible by
every number less than itself. Such an effort would take an incredible amount of time, and you have
only an hour for the Math IC. Instead, to decide whether a number is prime, all you need to do is
estimate the square root of the number, then check all the prime numbers that fall below your
estimate. For example, to see if 91 is prime, you should estimate the square root of the number:
. Now you should test 91 for divisibility by the prime numbers smaller than 10: 2, 3, 5 and 7.

 Is 91 divisible by 2? No, it does not end with an even number.


 Is 91 divisible by 3? No, 9 + 1 = 10, and 10 is not divisible by 3.
 Is 91 divisible by 5? No, 91 does not end with 0 or 5.
 Is 91 divisible by 7? Yes! 91 7 = 13.

Therefore, 91 is not prime.


Prime Factorization
Another form of factorization is called prime factorization. The prime factorization of an integer
is the listing of the prime numbers whose product is that number.
To find the prime factorization of a number, divide it and all its factors until every remaining integer
is prime. This group of prime numbers is the prime factorization of the original integer. As an
example, let’s find the prime factorization of 36.

It can be helpful to think of prime factorization in the form of a tree:

As you may already have noticed, there is more than one way to find the prime factorization of a
number. We could have first resolved 36 into 6 6, for example, and then determined the prime
factorization from there. So don’t worry—you can’t screw up. No matter which path you take, you will
always get the same result. That is, as long as you do your arithmetic correctly. Just for practice, find
the prime factorizations for 45 and 41.
25
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Since the only factors of 41 are 1 and 41, 41 is a prime number. It is therefore its own prime
factorization.
Greatest Common Factor
The greatest common factor (GCF) of two numbers is the greatest factor that they have in
common. Finding the GCF of two numbers is especially useful in certain applications, such as
manipulating fractions (we explain why later in this section).
In order to find the GCF of two numbers, we must first produce their prime factorizations. What is
the greatest common factor of 18 and 24, for example?
First, their prime factorizations:

The greatest common factor is the greatest integer that can be written as a product of common prime
factors. That is to say, the GCF is the “overlap,” or intersection, of the two prime factorizations. In
this case, both prime factorizations contain 2 3 = 6. This is their GCF.
Here’s another example:

What is the GCF of 96 and 144?


First:

So, the product of the prime factors that they share is 24 3 = 48, which is their GCF.
For practice, find the GCF of the following pairs of integers:

1. 12 and 15
2. 30 and 45
3. 13 and 72
4. 14 and 49
5. 100 and 80

Compare your answers to the solutions:

1. 12 = 22 3. 15 = 3 5. The GCF is 3.
2. 30 = 2 3 5. 45 = 32 5. The GCF is 3 5 = 15.
3. 13 = 1 13. 72 = 23 3. There are no common prime factors. The GCF is 1.
4. 14 = 2 7. 49 = 72. The GCF is 7.
5. 100 = 22 52. 80 = 24 5. The GCF is 22 5 = 20.
26

Relatively Prime Numbers


Two numbers are called relatively prime if they have no common prime factors (i.e., if their GCF is
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1). This doesn’t mean, however, that each number is itself prime. The numbers 8 and 15 are relatively
prime because they have no common primes in their prime factorizations (8 = 2 2 2 and 15 = 3
5), but neither number is prime.

Multiples
A multiple is an integer that can be evenly divided by another integer. If c /d is an integer, then c is a
multiple of d. The numbers 45, 27, and 18, for example, are all multiples of 9. Alternatively, you
could define a multiple as an integer with at least one factor. All that really matters is that you
understand the concept of multiples, and this is best done with a simple example.
What are some multiples of 4?

 12, 20, and 96 are all multiples of 4.

How do we know these numbers are multiples of 4?

Also, note that any integer, n, is a multiple of 1 and n, because 1 n = n.


Least Common Multiple
The least common multiple (LCM) of two integers is the smallest multiple that the two numbers
have in common. The LCM of two numbers is, like the GCF, useful when manipulating fractions:
For example, what is the least common multiple of 4 and 6? We must first find their prime
factorizations.

Their LCM is the smallest prime factorization that contains every prime number in each of the two
original prime factorizations. For the numbers 4 and 6, this is 2 2 3 = 12. It is the smallest prime
factorization that includes 2 2 3. Thus, 12 is the LCM of 4 and 6.
Let’s try a harder example. What is the LCM of 14 and 38? Again, we start by finding the prime
factorizations of both numbers:

Therefore, their LCM is 2 7 19 = 266.


For some quick practice, find the LCM of the following pairs of integers:

1. 12 and 32
2. 15 and 26
3. 34 and 40
4. 3 and 17
5. 18 and 16

Compare your answers to the solutions:


27

1. 12 = 23 3. 32 = 25. The LCM is 25 3 = 96.


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2. 15 = 3 5. 26 = 2 13. The LCM is 2 3 5 13 = 390.


3. 34 = 2 17. 40 = 23 5. The LCM is 23 5 17 = 680.
4. 3 = 1 3. 17 = 1 17. The LCM is 3 17 = 51.
5. 18 = 2 32. 16 = 24. The LCM is 24 32 = 144.

Fractions
Being able to efficiently and correctly manipulate fractions is essential to doing well on the Math IC
test. A fraction describes a part of a whole. It is composed of two expressions, a numerator and a
denominator. The numerator of a fraction is the quantity above the fraction bar, and the
denominator is the quantity below the fraction bar. For example, in the fraction 1 /2, 1 is the
numerator and 2 is the denominator.
Equivalent Fractions
Two fractions are equivalent if they describe equal parts of the same whole. To determine if two
fractions are equivalent, multiply the denominator and numerator of one fraction so that the
denominators of the two fractions are equal. For example, 1/2 = 3/6 because if you multiply the
numerator and denominator of 1 /2 by 3, you get:

As long as you multiply or divide both the numerator and denominator of a fraction by the same
nonzero number, you will not change the overall value of the fraction. Fractions represent a part of a
whole, so if you increase both the part and whole by the same multiple, you will not change their
fundamental relationship.
Reducing Fractions
Reducing fractions makes life with fractions a lot simpler. It takes unwieldy fractions such as 450 /600
and makes them into smaller, easier-to-work-with fractions.
To reduce a fraction to its lowest terms, divide the numerator and denominator by their GCF. For
example, for 450 /600, the GCF of 450 and 600 is 150. So the fraction reduces down to 3⁄4.
A fraction is in reduced form if its numerator and denominator are relatively prime (their GCF is 1).
Thus, it makes sense that the equivalent fractions we studied in the previous section all reduce to the
same fraction. For example, the equivalent fractions 4/6 and 8/12 both reduce to 2/3.
Comparing Fractions
When dealing with integers, large positive numbers with a lot of digits, like 5,000,000, are greater
than numbers with fewer digits, such as 5. But fractions do not work the same way. For example,
200
/20,000 might seem like a big, impressive fraction, but 2 /3 is actually larger, because 2 is a much
bigger part of 3 than 200 is of 20,000.
In certain cases, comparing two fractions can be very simple. If the denominators of two fractions are
the same, then the fraction with the larger numerator is bigger. If the numerators of the two fractions
are the same, the fraction with the smaller denominator is bigger.
However, you’ll most likely be dealing with two fractions that have different numerators and
denominators, such as 200/20,000 and 2/3. When faced with this situation, an easy way to compare these
two fractions is to utilize cross-multiplication. All you have to do is multiply the numerator of each
fraction by the denominator of the other, then write the product of each multiplication next to the
numerator you used to get it. We’ll cross-multiply 200/20,000 and 2/3:

Since 40,000 > 600, 2 /3 is the greater fraction.


Adding and Subtracting Fractions
28

On SAT II Math IC, you will need to know how to add and subtract two different types of fractions.
Sometimes you will be given two fractions with the same denominator, and other times you will have
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two fractions with different denominators.


Fractions with the Same Denominators
Fractions can be extremely easy to add and subtract if they have the same denominator. In addition
problems, all you have to do is add up the numerators:

Subtraction works similarly. If the denominators of the fractions are equal, then you simply subtract
one numerator from the other:

Fractions with Different Denominators


If the fractions do not have equal denominators, the process becomes somewhat more involved. The
first step is to make the denominators the same, and then to subtract as described above. The best
way to do this is to find the least common denominator (LCD), which is simply the LCM of the two
denominators. For example, the LCD of 1/2 and 2/3 is 6, since 6 is the LCM of 2 and 3.
The second step, after you’ve equalized the denominators of the two fractions, is to multiply each
numerator by the same value as their respective denominator. Let’s take a look at how to do this for
our example, 1/ 2 + 2 /3. For 1/2:

So, the new fraction is 3 /6. The same process is repeated for the second fraction, 2 /3:

The new fraction is 4 /6. The final step is to perform the addition or subtraction. In this case, 3/6 + 4/6
= 7/6.
If you think it will be faster, you can always skip finding the LCD and multiply the denominators
together to get a common denominator. In some cases, such as our example, the product of the
denominators will actually be the LCD (2 3 = 6 = LCD). But, other times, the product of the
denominators will be greater than the LCD. For example, if the two denominators are 6 and 8, you
could use 6 8 = 48 as a denominator instead of 24 (the LCD).
The drawback to this second approach is that you will have to work with larger numbers and reduce
your answer in the end.
Multiplying Fractions
Multiplying fractions is quite simple. The product of two fractions is the product of their numerators
over the product of their denominators. Symbolically, this can be represented as:

Or, for a numerical example:

Dividing Fractions
Multiplication and division are inverse operations. It makes sense, then, that to perform division
with fractions, all you have to do is flip the second fraction , which is also called taking its reciprocal,
29

and then multiply.


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Here’s a numerical example:

Mixed Numbers
A mixed number is an integer followed by a fraction, like 11/ 2. It is another form of an improper
fraction, which is a fraction greater than one. But operations such as addition, subtraction,
multiplication, or division can only be performed on the improper fraction form, so you need to
know how to convert between mixed numbers and improper fractions.
Let’s convert the mixed number 11 /2 into an improper fraction. First, you multiply the integer
portion of the mixed number by the denominator, and add that product to the numerator. So 1 2 +
1 = 3, making 3 the numerator of the improper fraction. Now, simply put 3 over the original
denominator, 2, and you have your converted fraction.
Here’s another example:

Decimals
Decimals are just another way to express fractions. After all, to produce a decimal, you simply divide
the numerator of a fraction by the denominator. For example, 1/2 = 1 2 = .5.
Comparing Decimals
Like fractions, comparing decimals can be a bit deceptive. As a general rule, when comparing two
decimals such as .3 with .003, the decimal with more leading zeroes is the smaller one. But if asked
to compare .003 with .0009, you might be tempted to overlook the additional zero, and because 9 is
the larger integer, choose .0009 as the larger decimal. That would be wrong. Use caution to avoid
such mistakes. It might help to line up the decimal points of the two decimals:

 .0009 is clearly smaller than .0030

Similarly,

 .000900 is smaller than .000925

Converting Decimals to Fractions


Knowing how to convert decimals into fractions and fractions into decimals are useful skills.
Sometimes you’ll produce a decimal while solving a question, and then you’ll have to choose from
fractions for test choices. Other times, it may just be easier to work with fractions. Whatever the case,
both conversions can be done easily.
To convert a decimal number to a fraction:

1. Remove the decimal point and make the decimal number the numerator.
2. Let the denominator be the number 1 followed by as many zeroes as there are decimal places
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in the decimal number.


3. Reduce the fraction.
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Let’s convert .3875 into a fraction. First, we eliminate the decimal point and make 3875 the
numerator:

Since .3875 has four digits after the decimal point, we put four zeroes in the denominator:

Then, by finding the GCF of 3875 and 10,000, which is 125, we can reduce the fraction:

To convert from fractions back to decimals is a cinch. Simply carry out the necessary division on your
calculator, such as for 3/5:

Percents
A percent is another way to describe a part of a whole (which means that percents are also another
way to talk about fractions or decimals). Percent literally means “of 100” in Latin, so when you
attend school 25 percent of the time, that means you only go to school 25/ 100 of the time (or .25).
You would probably fail all your classes if your attendance percentage was that low, so don’t get any
ideas from our example. Instead, take a look at this question: 3 is what percent of 15?
This question presents you with a whole, 15, and then asks you to determine how much of that whole
3 represents in percentage form. Since a percent is “of 100,” to solve the question you have to set the
fraction 3/ 15 equal to x⁄100:

You then cross-multiply and solve for x:

Converting Percents into Fractions or Decimals


You should be skilled at converting percents into fractions and decimals, because these problems will
definitely come up on the Math IC test.
Percents relate to decimal numbers very simply and directly. A percent is a decimal number with the
decimal point moved two decimal places to the left.
For example:

To convert from a decimal number to a percent, move the decimal point two places to the right:
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On an even more simplistic level, we can just say that 50% = .5 or 22.346% = .22346. Percentages
greater than 100 exist, too. 235% = 2.35, for example.
To convert from a percent to a fraction, take the percentage number and place it as the numerator
over the denominator 100. 58 percent is the same as 58/ 100.
To convert from a fraction back to a percent, the easiest method is to convert the fraction into a
decimal first and then change the resultant decimal into a percent.

Exponents
An exponent defines the number of times a number is to be multiplied by itself. For example, in ab,
where a is the base, and b the exponent, a is multiplied by itself b times. In a numerical example, 25 =
2 2 2 2 2. An exponent can also be referred to as a power: a number with an exponent of 2 is
raised to the second power. There are some other terms that you should be familiar with:

 Base. The base refers to the 3 in 35. It is the number that is being multiplied by itself
however many times specified by the exponent.
 Exponent. The exponent (or power) is the 5 in 35. The exponent tells how many times the
base is to be multiplied by itself.
 Square. Saying that a number is “squared” means that it has been raised to the second
power, i.e., that it has an exponent of 2. In the expression 62, 6 has been squared.
 Cube. Saying that a number is “cubed” means that it has been raised to the third power, i.e.,
that it has an exponent of 3. In the expression 43, 4 has been cubed.

Common Exponents
It may be worth your while to memorize a few common exponents before the test. Knowing these
regularly used exponents can save you the time it would take to calculate them during the test. Here
is a list of squares from 1 through 10:

Memorizing the first few cubes can be helpful as well:


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Finally, the first few powers of two are useful for many applications:

Adding and Subtracting Numbers with Exponents


In order to add or subtract numbers with exponents, you have to first find the value of each power,
and then add the two numbers. For example, to add 33 + 42, you must expand the exponents to get (3
3 3) + (4 4), and then, finally, 27 + 16 = 43.
If you’re dealing with algebraic expressions that have the same bases and exponents, such as 3x4 and
5x4, then they can simply be added and subtracted. For example, 3x4 + 5x4 = 8x4.
Multiplying and Dividing Numbers with Exponents
To multiply exponential numbers or terms that have the same base, add the exponents together:

To divide two same-base exponential numbers or terms, just subtract the exponents.

To multiply exponential numbers raised to the same exponent, raise their product to that exponent:

To divide exponential numbers raised to the same exponent, raise their quotient to that exponent:

If you need to multiply or divide two exponential numbers that do not have the same base or
exponent, you’ll just have to do your work the old-fashioned way: multiply the exponential numbers
out and multiply or divide the result accordingly.
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Raising an Exponent to an Exponent


Occasionally you might encounter an exponent raised to another exponent, as seen in the following
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formats (32)4 and (x4)3. In such cases, multiply the powers:


Exponents and Fractions
To raise a fraction to an exponent, raise both the numerator and denominator to that exponent:

Exponents and Negative Numbers


As we said in the section on negative numbers, when you multiply a negative number by another
negative number, you get a positive number, and when you multiply a negative number by a positive
number, you get a negative number. These rules affect how negative numbers function in reference
to exponents.

 When you raise a negative number to an even-number exponent, you get a positive number.
For example (–2)4 = 16. To see why this is so, let’s break down the example. (–2)4 means –2
–2 –2 –2. When you multiply the first two –2s together, you get +4 because you are
multiplying two negative numbers. Then, when you multiply the +4 by the next –2, you get –
8, since you are multiplying a positive number by a negative number. Finally, you multiply
the –8 by the last –2 and get +16, since you’re once again multiplying two negative numbers.
 When you raise a negative number to an odd power, you get a negative number. To see why,
all you have to do is look at the example above and stop the process at –8, which equals (–
2)3.

These rules can help a great deal as you go about eliminating answer choices and checking
potentially correct answers. For example, if you have a negative number raised to an odd power, and
you get a positive answer, you know your answer is wrong. Likewise, on that same question, you
could eliminate any answer choices that are positive.
Special Exponents
There are a few special properties of certain exponents that you also need to know.
Zero
Any base raised to the power of zero is equal to 1. If you see any exponent of the form x0, you should
know that its value is 1. Note, however, that 00 is undefinded.
One
Any base raised to the power of one is equal to itself. For example, 2 1 = 2, (–67)1 = –67 and x1 = x.
This can be helpful when you’re attempting an operation on exponential terms with the same base.
For example:

Fractional Exponents
Exponents can be fractions, too. When a number or term is raised to a fractional power, it is called
taking the root of that number or term. This expression can be converted into a more convenient
form:
34

Or, for example, 213 ⁄ 5 is equal to the fifth root of 2 to the thirteenth power:
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The symbol is also known as the radical, and anything under the radical, in this case , is
called the radicand. For a more familiar example, look at 9 , which is the same as
1⁄2
:

Fractional exponents will play a large role on SAT II Math IC, so we are just giving you a quick
introduction to the topic now. Don’t worry if some of this doesn’t quite make sense now; we’ll go over
roots thoroughly in the next section.
Negative Exponents
Seeing a negative number as a power may be a little strange the first time around. But the principle
at work is simple. Any number or term raised to a negative power is equal to the reciprocal of that
base raised to the opposite power. For example:

Or, a slightly more complicated example:

With that, you’ve got the four rules of special exponents. Here are some examples to firm up your
knowledge:

Roots and Radicals


We just saw that roots express fractional exponents. But it is often easier to work with roots in a
different format. When a number or term is raised to a fractional power, the expression can be
converted into one involving a root in the following way:
35
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with the sign as the radical sign, and as the radicand.


Roots are like exponents, only backward. For example, to square the number 3 is to multiply 3 by
itself: 32 = 3 3 = 9. The root of 9, , is 3. In other words, the square root of a number is the
number that, when squared, is equal to the given number.
Square roots are the most commonly used roots, but there are also cube roots (numbers raised to 1⁄3),
fourth roots, fifth roots, etc. Each root is represented by a radical sign with the appropriate number
next to it (a radical without any superscript denotes a square root). For example, cube roots are
shown as , fourth roots as , and so on. These roots of higher degrees operate the same way
square roots do. Because 33 = 27, it follows that the cube root of 27 is 3.
Here are a few examples:

The same rules that apply to multiplying and dividing exponential terms with the same exponent
apply to roots as well. Look for yourself:

Just be sure that the roots are of the same degree (i.e., you are multiplying or dividing all square
roots or all roots of the fifth power).

Scientific Notation
Scientific notation is a convention used to express large numbers. A number written in scientific
notation has two parts:

1. A number between 1 and 10.


2. The power of 10 by which you must multiply the first number in order to get the larger
number that is being represented.

In the following examples, we’ll first write a number and then express it in scientific notation:

Scientific notation is particularly useful when a large number contains many zeroes or needs to be
approximated because of its unwieldy size. Approximating quantities in scientific notation can
prevent unnecessarily messy calculations. Look at the following expression:
36

This is a pretty nasty product to find—even when you’re using a calculator. By approximating each
number using scientific notation, we can make the problem a lot easier:
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When we compare this approximation to the actual product, we find that we were less than 1% off.
Not too shabby.
Also, note the way in which we combined the terms in the last example to make the multiplication a
little simpler:

In general terms:

Often, this sort of simplification can make your calculations easier.


Scientific Notation and Calculators
On many calculators, scientific notation is written differently from what you’ve seen here. Instead of
3.1 1033, your calculator might read 3.1 E33. The capital letter “E” has the same role as the “
10(power)”, only it’s a little shorter. In general, scientific notation allows you to work with numbers
that might either be very tedious to manipulate or too large to fit on your calculator.

Logarithms
Logarithms are closely related to exponents and roots. A logarithm is the power to which you must
raise a given number, called the base, to equal another number. For example, log 2 8 = 3 because 23 =
8. In this case, 2 is the base and 3 is the logarithm.
The Math IC likes to use logarithms in algebra problems, mostly in simple equation-solving
problems (which we cover in the next chapter). For any of these types of questions, the key thing to
remember is that a logarithm problem is really an exponent problem. Keeping this in mind should
help reduce the mystery that seems to surround logarithms. In fact, once you get the hang of it, you’ll
realize that solving logarithmic equations is actually quite simple and easy.
Having defined logarithms in a sentence, let’s show one symbolically. The next three equations are
equivalent:

For example, log4 16 = 2 because 42 = 16 and = 4. You should now be able to see why the three
topics of exponents, roots, and logarithms are often linked together. Each method provides a way to
isolate one of the three variables in these types of equations. In the example above, a is the base, b is
the exponent, and x is the product. Finding the root, logarithm, and exponent isolates these values,
respectively.
Logarithms and Calculators
Unless the logarithm is a very simple one, you won’t be able to mentally calculate it—so the
calculator becomes an important tool. But there is one important thing you need to be aware of. On
your calculator, the LOG button assumes a base of 10. This means that for the equation log 4 16 = 2, if
you punched in LOG 16, you would get log10 16.
Some calculators can calculate a logarithm with any base you want, but less advanced calculators
might not. In general, as long as your calculator is scientific, it should be able to calculate logarithms
37

with different bases.


Calculate a few logarithms for practice:
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Operations on Logarithms
You will rarely see a test question involving basic logarithms such as log10 100, or log2 4. In
particular, on the logarithm questions you’ll see in the Algebra chapter, you’ll need to be able to
manipulate logarithms within equations. So, you should know how to perform the basic operations
on logarithms:

 The Product Rule: when logarithms of the same base are multiplied, the base remains the
same, and the exponents can be added.

 The Quotient Rule: when logarithms of the same base are divided, the exponents must be
subtracted.

 The Power Rule: when a logarithm is raised to a power, the exponent can be brought in
front and multiplied by the logarithm.

You might have noticed how similar these rules are to those for exponents and roots. This similarity
results from the fact that logarithms are just another way to express an exponent.

Review Questions
1.

Evaluate the expression for the value x = 2.


(A)
38

(B) 4
(C) 6
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(D) 8
(E)

2. If a is even and negative, b is negative, and c is even, which of the following choices could be equal to
a b + c 2 + 1?
(A) –71
(B) –16
(C) 0
(D) 4
(D) 9
3. What is the absolute value of the difference between the LCM and GCF of 24 and 42?
(A) 18
(B) 162
(C) 174
(D) 498
(D) 1002
4. Which of the following fractions is not equivalent to the others?
(A)

(B)

(C)

(D)

(D)

5. How many digits are in the number 5 3 3 ?


(A) 23
(B) 24
(C) 25
(D) 33
(D) 38

Explanations
1.      D     
This question tests your understanding of order of operations, exponents, and logarithms.
We’ll solve it step by step. The numerator simplifies to

The denominator is 5, because 25 = 32. So the answer is 40⁄5 = 8.


39

2.      E     
The product of two negative numbers must be positive, and the product of an even number and any other number is even:
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therefore, (a b) must be even and positive. The square of an even number is even and positive, so c2 is even and positive.
Since two positive even numbers will sum to a positive even number, (a b) + c2 must be positive and even. When you add
one to this value, the end result is odd and positive. 9 is the only answer choice that is odd and positive.
3.      B     
Find the prime factorizations of 24 and 42 to find their LCM and GCF.

The LCM of the two numbers is 23 3 7 = 168, and the GCF of the two numbers is 2 3 = 6. Now you just need to find
the absolute value of the difference between the LCM and the GCF: |168 – 6| = |162| = 162.
4.      C     
Fractions are equivalent to each other if the numerator and denominator of one fraction can be multiplied by the same
scalar, and the result is the other fraction. After reducing the first two fractions, you should have realized that they were both
equivalent to 3/7. As soon as you got to the third one and found that it was already in reduced form and not equal to 3 /7, you
could have stopped. If you checked the last two, you found that they, too, are equal to 3/7.
5.      B     

To answer this problem, use scientific notation. When you type 533 into your calculator, it is approximately 1.16 1023. This
means that the decimal point has been moved over 23 decimal places, so there must be 23 + 1 = 24 digits in the full
number.

Algebra
THIS CHAPTER ON ALGEBRA IS A BEHEMOTH. It is by far the longest chapter in this book full of
lengthy chapters. There’s a reason for our extensive treatment: algebra is the most tested topic on the
Math IC test. About 30 percent of the Math IC questions directly test your algebraic abilities, and
some of the questions that focus on geometry or trigonometry still involve some sort of algebraic
technique or concept.
Before this information all starts to sound overwhelming, there is some good news. First, the algebra
tested on the math subject tests is not all that difficult. Second, the Math IC test-writers focus on a
limited set of algebraic topics. Only the topics you do need to know are covered in this chapter.

Math IC Algebra Strategies


There are several ways to answer most algebra problems. You could try to solve a problem by using
standard algebra and setting up and solving an equation. Alternatively, you could try to avoid algebra
and simply plug the answer choices back into the question until one of them works out. Or you can
pick numbers to substitute into the various expressions given as answer choices.
None of these methods is necessarily better than the others. Remain flexible in your approach to
each question and choose the method that best suits the problem. For a problem you know how to
solve, using algebra is probably the quickest method. In contrast, a tough problem that you are
unsure how to solve might become easy if you try to plug in some answers. When you study your
practice tests and look over the algebra questions you got wrong, you should think about the method
you employed. Did you plug in answers when you should have used algebra? Did you use algebra
when you should have plugged in answers?
We’ll lay out for you the different problem-solving approaches and tell you all you need to know
about them. Then you can decide for yourself which method to choose.
Let’s use a sample algebra problem to illustrate these separate approaches:

A baseball player travels from his home city, Jasonville, to Giambia City for a baseball game. He drives
at 50 miles an hour. After the game, he travels back home and takes a flight that travels at 500 miles an
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hour. If the distance from Jasonville to Giambia City is 250 miles, and it took him j hours longer to
drive than to fly, what is j?
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(A) 1
(B) 3.5
(C) 4
(D) 4.5
(D) 12
Using Algebra
This question is a simple rate problem that can be solved with a few basic equations. Since traveling
time = distance speed, it took him:

to drive to Giambia City. To find the duration of his flight, we use the same rate formula:

It took the player:

longer to drive. D is the correct answer.


Plugging In Answers
Sometimes you might not be sure how to approach a problem or don’t have the time to think out the
proper equations. In such instances, plugging in might be the best method for you, especially as you
come across the more difficult questions at the end of the test. All you have to do is substitute the
answer choices back into the problem, and see whether the given information holds true.
The process of plugging in is simple. First, you should make full use of the fact that the answer
choices on Math IC are always presented in ascending value. So start by plugging in answer choice C,
since if it doesn’t turn out to be the answer, you can usually tell whether to try a smaller or larger
answer choice. Now, to solve the question: it takes the baseball player 250 50 = 5 hours to drive to
Giambia City. So, if it takes him C 4 hours more to drive, than it takes him 5 – 4 = 1 hour to fly back
to Jasonville. But the question tells us that in 1 hour, he could fly 500 miles. Therefore, it must take
him longer than 4 hours more to drive than to fly. Next, we try D 4.5. It takes him 5 – 4.5 = .5 hours
to fly, which means that he travels 500 .5 = 250 miles on his flight. D is the answer.
Picking Numbers
Picking numbers is a variation of plugging in and should only be used when the answer choices
contain variables. A modified version of our original sample question shows what kind of problems
might lend themselves to picking numbers.

A baseball player travels from his home city, Jasonville, to Giambia City for a baseball game. He drives
at m miles an hour. After the game, he travels back home, and takes a flight instead at p miles an hour. If
the distance from Jasonville to Giambia City is v miles, and it took him j longer to drive than to fly,
what is j?
(A)

(B)

(C)

(D)
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(D)
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This question asks you to figure out which set of variables in the answer choices is the right one. But
thinking in terms of variables can be confusing to some people. Picking numbers allows you to
transform variables into concrete numbers.
To use the picking numbers method, you need to select numbers and plug them into the answer
choices. You’re essentially testing the relationships between the variables in each given answer and
ensuring they remain true. It doesn’t matter what specific numbers you plug into a problem. The
same answer choice will always surface as long as you plug in consistently and follow all guidelines
given by the problem.
For example, in the baseball player problem, let m = 5, v = 100, and p = 10. Clearly, these numbers
aren’t realistic (who flies at 10 miles an hour?), but your goal is to pick easy-to-manipulate numbers.
Using our numbers, it takes the baseball player 100 5 = 20 hours to drive and 100 10 = 10 hours
to fly. So, it takes him 20 – 10 = 10 hours longer to drive. After plugging m, v, and p into all the
answer choices, we find that only D produces an answer of 10.
Very rarely, more than one answer choice will result in the correct answer for the first set of numbers
you picked. When this occurs, simply plug in a different set of numbers. You will almost never have
to plug in more than two sets of numbers.
When picking numbers, you must check through all the answer solutions with your chosen numbers.
Obviously, this will slow you down, but that’s the price you pay for using this method. Picking
numbers gives you a mechanical method of solving tricky problems, and it also allows you to check
your math for careless calculations, but it is time-consuming.
Finally, when you are picking numbers, avoid 0, 1, or any numbers that appear in the answer choices.
Picking these numbers can overly simplify the expressions you are dealing with and cause you to pick
the wrong answer.
The Bottom Line
As you can see, there is no “right” method to solving all algebra problems. Some methods work best
some times, and others work best at other times. Part of your practice for the Math IC test will be to
get comfortable with algebra questions so that you can choose which method you want to use for
every question.
Now, we’ll review the algebra topics covered in the Math IC Subject Test.
Equation-Solving
There are a number of algebraic terms you should know in order to be able to talk and think about
algebra:

 Variable. An unknown quantity, written as a letter. The letters x and y are the most
commonly used letters for variables, but a variable can be represented by any letter in the
English alphabet. Greek letters are also used quite often. Variables will sometimes represent
specified quantities, like apples or dollars, for example. Other times, a specific meaning won’t
be attached to them. You’ll need to manipulate variables just to show that you understand
certain algebraic principles.
 Constant. A quantity that does not change. In other words, a number.
 Term. The product of a constant and a variable. Another way to define a term is as any
quantity that is separated from other quantities by addition or subtraction. For example, in
the equation below, the left side contains four terms {x3, 2x2, –7x, 4} and the right side
contains two terms {x, –1}. The constants, 4 and –1, are considered terms because they are
considered coefficients of variables raised to the zero power. For constant 4, 4 = 4x0. So every
term, including constants, is the product of a constant and a variable raised to some power.
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 Expression. Any combination of terms. An expression can be as simple as a single constant
term, like 5. Or an expression can be as complicated as the sum or difference of many terms,
each of which is a combination of constants and variables, such as {(x2 + 2)3 – 6x} ⁄ 7x5.
Expressions don’t include an equal sign, which is what differentiates expressions from
equations. Expressions therefore cannot be solved; they can only be simplified.
 Equation. Two expressions linked by an equal sign. A lot of the algebra that you’ll have to
perform on the SAT II Math tests will consist of solving an equation with one variable. Most
of this chapter, in fact, deals with different techniques for simplifying expressions and
solving different types of equations. First, we’ll review how to write an equation.

Writing Equations
For some questions on the Math IC test, you’ll need to translate the problem from a language you’re
used to—English—into a more useful, albeit less familiar language. We’re talking about the language
of math, of course, and one of your major test-taking responsibilities is being able to write an
equation based on the pertinent information you’re given by a problem.
In other cases, you’ll simply be asked to find an expression for a certain quantity described in a word
problem. The best way to learn how to do these things quickly and effectively is to practice. Here’s a
sample problem:

In a sack of 50 marbles, there are 20 more red marbles than blue marbles. All of the marbles in the sack
are either red or blue. How many blue marbles are in the sack?
To start with, you can write r + b = 50, where r is the number of red marbles, and b is the number of
blue marbles in the sack. This equation tell us that all of the 50 marbles in the sack are either red or
blue.
Now that we have a starting equation, you need to decipher what exactly the question is asking for.
This problem gives a clear-cut request: how many blue marbles are in the sack? You must therefore
find the value of b.
Unfortunately, you can’t do that with just this equation. More information needs to be incorporated.
For example, use the knowledge that there are 20 more red marbles than blue marbles. This part of
the word problem can be written in the form of an equation as r = b + 20. You could also write b = r
– 20 to signify the same concept.
Let’s list the two equations we have so far:

Using both of these equations, you can solve for b. After a little manipulation, which we’ll cover in
the coming sections, you’ll find that b = 15 (and r = 35). Don’t worry about the solution for now—just
focus on how we translated the word problem into equations that lead to the solution.
That problem was easy. Here’s a harder one:

Stan sells oranges for c cents apiece. The minimum number of oranges that Stan will sell to an
individual is r, but the first f oranges are free (f < r). Find an expression for the price in dollars of 35
oranges, if 35 > r.
According to the problem, we need to find an expression (notice, not an equation) for the price in
dollars of 35 oranges. The key to a problem like this one is working step by step. First, find out how
many of the 35 oranges aren’t free of charge:
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because f is the number of oranges that are free, and 35 > f. Next, find the price of those oranges:
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But wait. Did you notice that the question asked for the price of 35 oranges in dollars? The writers of
the Math IC are a clever bunch, if not a little sneaky. They figure that a good number of test-takers
will see only the word price, and they will not notice what units are asked for. Be careful not to fall
into their carefully laid trap.
We know there are 100 cents per dollar, so we can easily convert the price by dividing by 100:

Before we move to another problem, note that the variable r didn’t appear anywhere in the answer.
Egad! It is yet another attempt (and a common one at that) by those devious test-writers to lower
your score. You may come across many problems, especially word problems, in which extraneous
information is provided only to confuse you. Just because a variable or number appears in a problem
doesn’t mean that it will be useful in finding the answer.
Here’s one last problem:

Gus needs to paint his house, which has a surface area of x square feet. The brand of paint he buys (at a
cost of p dollars a can) comes in cans that cover y square feet each. Gus also needs to buy ten pairs of
new jeans (he is uncoordinated and spills often). They cost d dollars a pair. If Gus makes these
purchases, what is the difference (in dollars) between the cost of the paint and the cost of the jeans?
Assume he doesn’t buy any excess paint—that is, the required amount is not a fraction of a can.
This word problem is long and complicated, but you need to carry out just four steps to solve it:

1. Gus must buy x/ y cans of paint to cover his house.


2. This will cost him xp/ y dollars.
3. The jeans Gus buys cost 10d dollars.
4. Thus, the difference, in dollars, between the cost of the paint and the cost of the jeans is xp/ y
– 10d.

For the rest of this chapter, we’ll constantly be converting word problems into equations. If you’re
still uncomfortable doing this, don’t worry. You’ll get a lot more practice in the sections to come

Manipulating Equations
Now that you know how to set up the equation, the next thing to do is to solve for the value that the
question asks for. First and foremost, the most important thing to remember when manipulating
equations is to do exactly the same thing to each side of the equation. If you divide one side of an
equation by 3, you must divide the other side by 3. If you take the square root of one side of an
equation, take the square root of the other.
By treating the two sides of the equation in the same way, you can rest easy that you won’t change the
meaning of the equation. You will, of course, change the form of the equation—that’s the point of
manipulating it. But the equation will always remain true as long as you always do the same thing to
both sides.
For example, let’s look at what happens when you manipulate the equation 3x + 2 = 5, with x = 1.

1. Subtract 2 from both sides:


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1. Multiply both sides by 2:

1. Add 4 to both sides:

These examples show that you can tamper with the equation in any way you want, as long as you
commit the same tampering on both sides. If you follow this rule, you can manipulate the question
how you want without affecting the value of its variables.
Solving an Equation with One Variable
To solve an equation with one variable, you must isolate that variable. Isolating a variable means
manipulating the equation until the variable is the only thing remaining on one side of the equation.
Then, by definition, that variable is equal to everything on the other side, and you have successfully
“solved for the variable.”
For the quickest results, take the equation apart in the reverse order of operations. That is, first add
and subtract any extra terms on the same side as the variable. Then, multiply and divide anything on
the same side of the variable. Next, raise both sides of the equation to a power or take their roots
according to any exponent attached to the variable. And finally, do anything inside parentheses. This
process is PEMDAS in reverse (SADMEP!). The idea is to “undo” everything that is being done to the
variable so that it will be isolated in the end. Let’s look at an example:

In this equation, the variable x is being squared, multiplied by 3, added to 5, etc. We need to do the
opposite of all these operations in order to isolate x and thus solve the equation.
First, subtract 1 from both sides of the equation:
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Then, multiply both sides of the equation by 4:

Next, divide both sides of the equation by 3:

Now, subtract 5 from both sides of the equation:

Again, divide both sides of the equation by 3:

Finally, take the square root of each side of the equation:

We have isolated x to show that x = ±5.


Sometimes the variable that needs to be isolated is not conveniently located. For example, it might be
in a denominator or an exponent. Equations like these are solved the same way as any other
equation, except that you may need different techniques to isolate the variable. Let’s look at a couple
of examples:

Solve for x in the equation + 2 = 4.

The key step is to multiply both sides by x to extract the variable from the denominator. It is not at all
uncommon to have to move the variable from side to side in order to isolate it.
Remember, performing an operation on a variable is mathematically no different than performing
that operation on a constant or any other quantity.
Here’s another, slightly more complicated example:
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This question is a good example of how it’s not always simple to isolate a variable. (Don’t worry
about the logarithm in this problem—we’ll review these later on in the chapter.) However, as you can
see, even the thorniest problems can be solved systematically—as long as you have the right tools. In
the next section, we’ll discuss factoring and distributing, two techniques that were used in this
example.
So, having just given you a very basic introduction to solving equations, we’ll reemphasize two
things:

1. Do the same thing to both sides.


2. Work backward (with respect to the order of operations).

Now we get into some more interesting tools you will need to solve certain equations.
Distributing and Factoring
Distributing and factoring are two of the most important techniques in algebra. They give you ways
of manipulating expressions without changing the expression’s value. So it follows that you can
factor or distribute one side of the equation without doing the same for the other side of the
equation.
The basis for both techniques is the following property, called the distributive property:

Similarly:

a can be any kind of term, from a variable to a constant to a combination of the two.
Distributing
When you distribute a factor into an expression within parentheses, you simply multiply each term
inside the parentheses by the factor outside the parentheses. For example, consider the expression
3y(y2 – 6):

If we set the original, undistributed expression equal to another expression, you can see why
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distributing facilitates the solving of some equations. Solving 3y (y2 – 6) = 3y3 + 36 looks quite
difficult. But if you distribute the 3y, you get:
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Subtracting 3y3 from both sides gives us:

Factoring
Factoring an expression is essentially the opposite of distributing. Consider the expression 4x3 – 8x2
+ 4x, for example. You can factor out the GCF of the terms, which is 4x:

The expression simplifies further:

See how useful these techniques are? You can group or ungroup quantities in an equation to make
your calculations easier. In the last example from the previous section on manipulating equations,
we distributed and factored to solve an equation. First, we distributed the quantity log 3 into the sum
of x and 2 (on the right side of the equation). We later factored the term x out of the expression x log
2 – x log 3 (on the left side of the equation).
Distributing eliminates parentheses, and factoring creates them. It’s your job as a Math IC
mathematician to decide which technique will best help you solve a problem.
Let’s see a few examples:

Combining Like Terms


After factoring and distributing, there are additional steps you can take to simplify expressions or
equations. Combining like terms is one of the simpler techniques you can use, and involves adding or
subtracting the coefficients of variables that are raised to the same power. For example, by
combining like terms, the expression:

can be simplified to:

by adding the coefficients of the variable x3 together and the coefficients of x2 together.
Generally speaking, when you have an expression in which one variable is raised to the same power
in different terms, you can factor out the variable and add or subtract the coefficients, combining
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them into one coefficient and therefore combining the “like” terms into one term. A general formula
for combining like pairs looks something like this:
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Zero Product
When the product of any number of terms is zero, you know that at least one of the terms is equal to
zero. For example, if xy = 0, you know that either:

1. x = 0, and y ≠ 0
2. y = 0, and x ≠ 0
3. x = y = 0.

This is useful in a situation like the following:

In this equation, either x = –4 or x = 3, since one of the expressions in parentheses must be equal to
0.
Consider this equation:

Again, since 3x2 or (x + 2) must equal 0, we know that either x = 0 or x = –2.


Keep your eye out for a zero product—it’s a big time-saver, especially when you have multiple-choice
answers to choose from.

Absolute Value
To solve an equation in which the variable is within absolute value brackets, you must divide the
equation into two equations.
The most basic example of this is an equation of the form |x| = c. In this case, either x = c or x = –c.
A slightly more complicated example is this:

In this problem, you must solve two equations: First, solve for x in the equation x + 3 = 5. In this
case, x = 2. Then, solve for x in the equation x + 3 = –5. In this case, x = –8. So the solutions to the
equation |x + 3| = 5 are x = {–8, 2}.
Generally speaking, to solve an equation in which the variable is within absolute value brackets, first
isolate the expression within the absolute value brackets and then divide the equation into two. Keep
one of these two equations the same, while in the other negate one side of the equation. In either
case, the absolute value of the expression within brackets will be the same. This is why there are
always two solutions to absolute value problems (unless the variable is equal to 0).
Here is one more example:

Solve for x in terms of y in the equation 3 = y 2 – 1.


First, isolate the expression within the absolute value brackets:
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Then solve for the variable as if the expression within absolute value brackets were positive:

Next, solve for the variable as if the expression within absolute value brackets were negative:

The solution set for x is {y2 – 3, –y2 –1}.

Inequalities
Before you get too comfortable with expressions and equations, we should introduce inequalities. An
inequality is like an equation, but instead of relating equal quantities, it specifies exactly how two
quantities are not equal. There are four types of inequalities:

1. x > y: “x is greater than y.”


2. x < y: “x is less than y.”
3. x ≥ y: “x is greater than or equal to y.”
4. x ≤ y: “x is less than or equal to y.”

Solving inequalities is exactly like solving equations except for one very important difference: when
both sides of an inequality are multiplied or divided by a negative number, the direction of the
inequality switches.
Here are a few examples:

Solve for x in the inequality – 3 < 2y.

Solve for x in the inequality ≥ –2.


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Notice that in the last example, the inequality had to be reversed. Another way to express the
solution is x ≥ –2. To help remember that multiplication or division by a negative number reverses
the direction of the inequality, remember that if x > y, then –x < –y, just as 5 > 4 and –5 < –4.
Intuitively, this idea makes sense, and it might help you remember this special rule of inequalities.
Absolute Value and Inequalities
When absolute values are included in inequalities, the solutions come in two varieties.

1. If the absolute value is less than a given quantity, then the solution is a single range, with a
lower and an upper bound. For example,

Solve for x in the inequality |2x – 4| ≤ 6.

 First, solve for the upper bound:

 Second, solve for the lower bound:

 Now, combine the two bounds into a range of values for x. –1 ≤ x ≤ 5 is the solution.

1. The other solution for an absolute value inequality involves two disjoint ranges: one whose
lower bound is negative infinity and whose upper bound is a real number, and one whose
lower bound is a real number and whose upper bound is infinity. This occurs when the
absolute value is greater than a given quantity. For example,

Solve for x in the inequality |3x + 4| > 16.

 First, solve for the upper range:

 Then, solve for the lower range:


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 Now combine the two ranges to form the solution, which is two disjoint ranges: –∞ < x < –20⁄3
or 4 < x < ∞.

When working with absolute values, it is important to first isolate the expression within absolute
value brackets. Then, and only then, should you solve separately for the cases in which the quantity is
positive and negative.
Ranges
Inequalities are also used to express the range of values that a variable can take. a < x < b means that
the value of x is greater than a and less than b. Consider the following word-problem example:

A very complicated board game has the following recommendation on the box: “This game is only
appropriate for people older than 40 but no older than 65.” What is the range of the age of people for
which the board game is appropriate?
Let a be the age of people for which the board game is appropriate. The lower bound of a is 40, and
the upper bound is 65. The range of a does not include its lower bound (it is appropriate for people
“older than 40”), but it does include its upper bound (“no older than 65”, i.e., 65 is appropriate, but
66 is not). Therefore, the range of the age of people for which the board game is appropriate can be
expressed by the inequality:

Here is another example:

A company manufactures car parts. As is the case with any system of mass production, small errors
occur on virtually every part. The key for this company to succeed in making viable car parts is to keep
the errors within a specific range. The company knows that a particular piece they manufacture will not
work if it weighs less than 98% of its target weight or more than 102% of its target weight. If the target
weight of this piece is 21.5 grams, in what range of weights must the piece measure for it to function?
The boundary weights of this car part are .98 21.5 = 21.07 and 1.02 21.5 = 21.93 grams. The
problem states that the piece cannot weigh less than the minimum weight or more than the
maximum weight in order for it to work. This means that the part will function at boundary weights
themselves, and the lower and upper bounds are included. The answer to the problem is 21.07 ≤ x ≤
21.93, where x is the weight of the part in grams.
Finding the range of a particular variable is essentially an exercise in close reading. Every time you
come across a question involving ranges, you should carefully peruse the problem to pick out
whether a particular variable’s range includes its bounds or not. This inclusion is the difference
between “less than or equal to” and simply “less than.”
Operations on Ranges
Operations like addition, subtraction, and multiplication can be performed on ranges just like they
can be performed on variables. For example:

If 4 < x < 7, what is the range of 2x + 3?


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To solve this problem, simply manipulate the range like an inequality until you have a solution.
Begin with the original range:
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Then multiply the inequality by 2:

Add 3 to the inequality, and you have the answer:

There is one crucial rule you need to know about multiplying ranges: if you multiply a range by a
negative number, you must flip the greater-than or less-than signs. For instance, if you multiply the
range 2 < x < 8 by –1, the new range will be –2 > x > –8. Math IC questions that ask you to perform
operations on ranges of one variable will often test your alertness by making you multiply the range
by a negative number.
Some range problems on the Math IC will be made slightly more difficult by the inclusion of more
than one variable. In general, the same basic procedures for dealing with one-variable ranges applies
to adding, subtracting, and multiplying two-variable ranges.
ADDITION WITH RANGES OF TWO OR MORE VARIABLES

If –2 < x < 8 and 0 < y < 5, what is the range of x + y?


Simply add the ranges. The lower bound is –2 + 0 = –2. The upper bound is 8 + 5 = 13. Therefore, –2
< x + y < 13.
SUBTRACTION WITH RANGES OF TWO OR MORE VARIABLES

Suppose 4 < s < 7 and –3 < t < –1. What is the range of s – t?
In this case, you have to find the range of –t. By multiplying the range of t by –1 and reversing the
direction of the inequalities, we find that 1 < –t < 3. Now we can simply add the ranges again to find
the range of s – t. 4 + 1 = 5, and 7 + 3 = 10. Therefore, 5 < s – t < 10.
In general, to subtract ranges, find the range of the opposite of the variable being subtracted, and
then add the ranges as usual.
MULTIPLICATION WITH RANGES OF TWO OR MORE VARIABLES

If –1 < j < 4 and 6 < k < 12, what is the range of jk?
First, multiply the lower bound of one variable by the lower and upper bounds of the other variable:

Then, multiply the upper bound of one variable with both bounds of the other variable:

The least of these four products becomes the lower bound, and the greatest is the upper bound.
Therefore, –12 < jk < 48.
Let’s try one more example of performing operations on ranges:
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If 3 ≤ x < 7 and , what is the range of 2(x + y)?


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The first step is to find the range of x + y. Notice that the range of y is written backward, with the
upper bound to the left of the variable. Rewrite it first:

Next add the ranges to find the range of x + y:

We have our bounds for the range of x + y, but are they included in the range? In other words, is the
range 0 < x + y < 11, 0 ≤ x + y ≤ 11, or some combination of these two?
The rule to answer this question is the following: if either of the bounds that are being added,
subtracted, or multiplied is non-inclusive (< or >), then the resulting bound is non-inclusive. Only
when both bounds being added, subtracted, or multiplied are inclusive (≤ or ≥) is the resulting
bound also inclusive.
The range of x includes its lower bound, 3, but not its upper bound, 7. The range of y includes both
its bounds. Therefore, the range of x + y is 0 ≤ x + y < 11, and the range of 2(x + y) is 0 ≤ 2(x + y) <
22.

Systems of Equations
Sometimes, a question will have a lone equation containing two variables, and using the methods
we’ve discussed up until now will not be enough to solve for the variables. Additional information is
needed, and it must come in the form of another equation.
Say, for example, that a single equation uses the two variables x and y. Try as you might, you won’t
be able to solve for x or y. But given another equation with the same two variables x and y, then the
values of both variables can be found.
These multiple equations containing the same variables are called systems of equations. For the
Math IC, there are essentially two types of systems of equations that you will need to be able to solve.
The first, easier type involves substitution, and the second involves manipulating equations
simultaneously.
Substitution
Simply put, substitution is when the value of one variable is found and then substituted into the
other equation to solve for the other variable. It can be as easy as this example:

If x – 4 = y – 3 and 2y = 6, what is x?
In this case, we have two equations. The first equation contains x and y. The second contains only y.
To solve for x, you must solve for y in the second equation and substitute that value for y in the first
equation. If 2y = 6, then y = 3, and then x = y – 3 + 4 = 3 – 3 + 4 = 4.
Here is a slightly more complicated example.

Suppose 3x = y + 5 and 2y – 2= 12k. Solve for x in terms of k.


Again, you cannot solve for x in terms of k using just the first equation. Instead, you must solve for y
in terms of k in the second equation, and then substitute that value in the first equation to solve for x.
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Then substitute y = 6k + 1 into the equation 3x = y + 5.


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Simultaneous Equations
Simultaneous equations refer to equations that can be added or subtracted from each other in order
to find a solution. Consider the following example:

Suppose 2x + 3y = 5 and –1x – 3y = –7. What is x?


In this particular problem, you can find the value of x by adding the two equations together:

Here is another example:

6x + 2y = 11 and 5x + y = 10. What is x + y?


By subtracting the second equation from the first:

Some test-takers might have seen this problem and been tempted to immediately start trying to solve
for x and y individually. The better test-taker notices that by subtracting the second equation from
the first, the answer is given.
Give this last example a try:

2x + 3y = –6 and –4x + 16y = 13. What is the value of y?


The question asks you to solve for y, which means that you should find a way to eliminate one of the
variables by adding or subtracting the two equations. 4x is simply twice 2x, so by multiplying the first
equation by 2, you can then add the equations together to find y.
2 (2x + 3y = –6) = 4x + 6y = –12
Now add the equations and solve for y.

When you solve for one variable, like we have in this last example, you can solve for the second
variable using either of the original equations. If the last question had asked you to calculate the
value of xy, for example, you could solve for y, as above, and then solve for x by substitution into
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either equation. Once you know the independent values of x and y, you can multiply them together.
Simultaneous equations on the Math IC will all be this simple. They will have solutions that can be
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found easily by adding or subtracting the equations given. Only as a last resort should you solve for
one variable in terms of the other and then plug that value into the other equation to solve for the
second variable.

Common Word Problems


The writers of the Math IC love word problems. These problems force you to show your range as a
mathematician. They demand that you read and comprehend the problem, set up an equation or two,
and manipulate the equations to find the solution. Luckily, the Math IC uses only a few types of word
problems, and we have the nitty-gritty on all of them.
Rates
A rate is a ratio of related qualities that have different units. For example, speed is a rate that relates
the two quantities of distance and time. Here is the general rate formula:

No matter the specifics, the key to a rate problem is correctly placing the given information in the
three categories. Then, you can substitute the values into the rate formula. We’ll look at the three
most common types of rate: speed, work, and price.
Speed
In the case of speed, time is quantity a and distance is quantity b. For example, if you traveled for 4
hours at 25 miles per hour, then:

Note that the hour units canceled out, since the hour in the rate is at the bottom of the fraction. But
you can be sure that the Math IC test won’t simply give you one of the quantities and the rate and ask
you to plug it into the rate formula. Because rate questions are in the form of word problems, the
information that you’ll need to solve the problem will often be given in a less straightforward
manner.
Here’s an example:

Jim rollerblades 6 miles per hour. One morning, Jim starts rollerblading and doesn’t stop until he has
gone 60 miles. How many hours did he rollerblade?
This question provides more information than simply the speed and one of the quantities. We know
unnecessary facts such as how Jim is traveling (by rollerblades) and when he started (in the
morning). Ignore them and focus on the facts you need to solve the problem.

 Time a: x hours rollerblading


 Rate: 6 miles per hour
 Quantity b: 60 miles

So, we can write:

Jim was rollerblading for 10 hours. This problem requires a little analysis, but basically we plugged
some numbers into the rate equation and got our answer. Here’s a slightly more difficult rate
problem:
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At a cycling race, there are 50 cyclists in all, each representing a state. The cyclist from California can
cumulatively cycle 528,000 feet per hour. If the race is 480 miles long, how long will it take him to
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finish the race?


Immediately, you should pick out the given rate of 528,000 feet per hour and notice that 480 miles
are traveled. You should also notice that the question presents a units problem: the given rate is in
feet cycled per hour, and the distance traveled is in miles.
Sometimes a question will give you inconsistent units, like in this example. Always read over the
problem carefully and don’t forget to adjust the units—the answer choices are bound to include non-
adjusted options, just to throw you off.
For this question, since we know there are 5,280 feet in a mile, we can find the rate for miles per
hour:

We can now plug the information into the rate formula:

 Time: x hours cycling


 Rate: 100 miles per hour
 Distance: 480 miles

So it takes the cyclist 4.8 hours to finish the race.


Work
In work questions, you will usually find the first quantity measured in time, the second quantity
measured in work done, and the rate measured in work done per time. For example, if you knitted
for 8 hours and produced two sweaters per hour, then:

Here is a sample work problem. It is one of the harder rate questions you might come across on the
Math IC:

Four men can dig a 40 foot well in 4 days. How long would it take for 8 men to dig a 60 foot well?
Assume that these 8 men work at the same pace as the 4 men.
First, let’s examine what that problem says: 4 men can dig a 40 foot well in 4 days. We are given a
quantity of work of 40 feet and a time of 4 days. We need to create our own rate, using whichever
units might be most convenient, to carry over to the 8-men problem. The group of 4 men dig 40 feet
in 3 days. Dividing 40 feet by 4 days, you find that the group of 4 digs at a pace of 10 feet per day.
From the question, we know that 8 men dig a 60 foot well. The work done by the 8 men is 60 feet,
and they work at a rate of 10 feet per day per 4 men. Can we use this information to answer the
question? Yes. The rate of 10 feet per day per 4 men converts to 20 feet per day per 8 men, which is
the size of the new crew. Now we use the rate formula:

 Time: x days of work


 Rate: 20 feet per day per eight men
 Total Quantity: 60 feet
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This last problem required a little bit of creativity—but nothing you can’t handle. Just remember the
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classic rate formula and use it wisely.


Price
In rate questions dealing with price, you will usually find the first quantity measured in numbers of
items, the second measured in price, and the rate in price per item. Let’s say you had 8 basketballs,
and you knew that each basketball cost $25 each:

Percent Change
In percent-change questions, you will need to determine how a percent increase or decrease affects
the values given in the question. Sometimes you will be given the percent change, and you will have
to find either the original value or new value. Other times, you will be given one of the values and be
asked to find the percent change. Take a look at this sample problem:

A professional golfer usually has an average score of 72, but he recently went through a major slump.
His new average is 20 percent worse (higher) than it used to be. What is his new average?
This is a percent-change question in which you need to find how the original value is affected by a
percent increase. First, to answer this question, you should multiply 72 by .20 to see what the change
in score was:

Once you know the score change, then you should add it to his original average, since his new
average is higher than it used to be:

It is also possible to solve this problem by multiplying the golfer’s original score by 1.2. Since you
know that the golfer’s score went up by twenty percent over his original score, you know that his new
score is 120% higher than his old score. If you see this immediately, you can skip a step and multiply
72 1.2 = 86.4.
Here’s another example of a percent-change problem:

A shirt whose original price was 20 dollars has now been put on sale for 14 dollars. By what percentage
did its price drop?
In this case, you have the original price and the sale price and need to determine the percent
decrease. All you need to do is divide the amount by which the quantity changed by the original
quantity. In this case, the shirt’s price was reduced by 20 – 14 = 6 dollars. So, 6 20 = .3, a 30% drop
in the price of the shirt.
Double Percent Change
A slightly trickier version of the percent-change question asks you to determine the cumulative effect
of two percent changes in the same problem. For example:

A bike has an original price of 300 dollars. Its price is reduced by 30%. Then, two weeks later, its price
is reduced by an additional 20%. What is the final sale price of the bike?
One might be tempted to say that the bike’s price is discounted 30% + 20% = 50% from its original
price, but the key to solving double percent-change questions is to realize that each percentage
change is dependent on the last. For example, in the problem we just looked at, the second percent
decrease is 20 percent of a new, lower price—not the original amount. Let’s work through the
problem carefully and see. After the first sale, the price of the bike drops 30 percent:
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The second reduction in price knocks off an additional 20 percent of the sale price, not the original
price:

The trickiest of the tricky percentage problems go a little something like this:

A computer has a price of 1400 dollars. Its price is raised 20%, and then lowered 20%. What is the final
selling price of the computer?
If this question sounds too simple to be true; it probably is. The final price is not the same as the
original. Why? Because after the price was increased by 20 percent, the reduction in price was a
reduction of 20 percent of a new, higher price. Therefore, the final price will be lower than the
original. Watch and learn:

Now, after the price is reduced by 20%:

Double percent problems can be more complicated than they appear. But solve it step by step, and
you’ll do fine.
Exponential Growth and Decay
These types of word problems take the concept of percent change even further. In questions
involving populations growing in size or the diminishing price of a car over time, you need to
perform percent-change operations repeatedly. Solving these problems would be time-consuming
without exponents. Here’s an example:

If a population of 100 grows by 5% per year, how great will the population be in 50 years?
To answer this question, you might start by calculating the population after one year:

Or use the faster method we discussed in percent increase:

After the second year, the population will have grown to:

And so on and so on for 48 more years. You may already see the shortcut you can use to avoid having
to do, in this case, 50 separate calculations. The final answer is simply:

In general, quantities like the one described in this problem are said to be growing exponentially.
The formula for calculating how much an exponential quantity will grow in a specific number of
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years is:
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Exponential decay is mathematically equivalent to negative exponential growth. But instead of a
quantity growing at a constant percentage, the quantity shrinks at a constant percentage.
Exponential decay is a repeated percent decrease. That is why the formulas that model these two
situations are so similar. To calculate exponential decay:

The only difference between the two equations is that the base of the exponent is less than 1, because
during each unit of time the original amount is reduced by a fixed percentage. Exponential decay is
often used to model population decreases, as well as the decay of physical mass.
Let’s work through a few example problems to get a feel for both exponential growth and decay
problems.
Simple Exponential Growth Problems

A population of bacteria grows by 35% every hour. If the population begins with 100 specimens, how
many are there after 6 hours?
The question, with its growing population of bacteria, makes it quite clear that this is an exponential
growth problem. To solve the problem, you just need to plug the appropriate values into the formula
for a repeated percent increase. The rate is .035, the original amount is 100, and the time is 6 hours:

Simple Exponential Decay Problem

A fully inflated beach ball loses 6% of its air every day. If the beach ball originally contains 4000 cubic
centimeters of air, how many cubic centimeters does it hold after 10 days?
Since the beach ball loses air, we know this is an exponential decay problem. The decay rate is .06,
the original amount is 4000 cubic centimeters of air, and the time is 10. Plugging the information
into the formula:

More Complicated Exponential Growth Problem

A bank offers a 4.7% interest rate on all savings accounts, compounded monthly. If 1000 dollars is
initially put into a savings account, how much money will the account hold two years later?
This problem is a bit tricky for the simple reason that the interest on the account is compounded
monthly. This means that in the 2 years that question refers to, there will be 2 12 = 24
compoundings of interest. The time variable in the equation is affected by these monthly
compoundings: it will be 24 instead of 2. Thus, our answer is:

Here’s another compounding problem:

Sam puts 2000 dollars into a savings account that pays 5% interest compounded annually. Chris puts
2500 dollars into a different savings account that pays 4% annually. After 15 years, whose account will
have more money in it, if no more money is added or subtracted from the principal?
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Sam’s account will have $2000 1.0515 ≈ $4157.85 in it after 15 years. Chris’s account will have
$2500 1.0415 ≈ $4502.36 in it. So, Chris’s account will still have more money in it after 15 years.
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Notice, however, that Sam’s account is gaining on Chris’s account.


Logarithms
Logarithms have important uses in solving problems with complicated exponential equations.
Consider the following example:

The population of a small town is 1000 on January 1, 2001. It grows at a constant rate of 2% per year. In
what year does the population of the town first exceed 1500?
This question is like the exponential growth problems we’ve just seen but with a twist. Here, we’re
given the growth rate, the initial quantity, and the ending quantity. We need to find the number of
percent changes (in this case, the number of years) that links all these values. Since logarithms are
the power to which you must raise a given number to equal another number, they are the perfect tool
for solving this sort of problem.

In this case, it will take roughly 20.5 years for the town’s population to exceed 1500. So about
halfway through the year 2021, the population will first exceed 1500.
The general form for a problem like this one, in which the exponent is unknown, is to isolate the
exponential term, take the logarithm of both sides, and then use the power rule of logarithms to
bring the variable out of the exponent. You can then isolate the variable on one side of the equation.
The base of the logarithms is insignificant. You could choose a base-10 logarithm or a logarithm of
any other base, as long as it is consistently used.
Here’s a simple example to illustrate this process:

If 6x = 5 1 0 0 0 , then find the value of x.


This problem would be vastly more difficult if we didn’t have logarithms. How would you possibly
calculate 51000 anyhow? And how do you solve for x when it’s the exponent of a number? But by
taking the logarithm of each side of the equation, and utilizing the power rule of logarithms:

The confusion clears, and we see that we have a logarithm problem that can be methodically solved.

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Polynomials
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A polynomial is an expression that contains one or more algebraic terms, each consisting of a
constant multiplied by a variable raised to a power greater than or equal to zero. For example,
is a polynomial with three terms (the third term is . , on the other hand, is not
a polynomial because x is raised to a negative power. A binomial is a polynomial with exactly two
terms: and are both binomials.
The rest of this chapter will show you how to perform different operations on and with polynomials.
Multiplying Binomials
There is a very simple acronym that is useful in remembering how to multiply binomials. It is FOIL,
and it stands for First, Outer, Inner, Last. This is the order that you multiply the terms of two
binomials to get the right product.

For example, if asked to multiply the binomials:

You first multiply the first terms of each binomial:

Next, multiply the outer terms of the binomials:

Then, multiply the inner terms:

Finally, multiply the last terms:

Combine like terms and you have your product:

Here are a few more examples:

Multiplying Polynomials
Every once in a while, the Math IC test will ask you to multiply polynomials. It may seem like a
daunting task. But when the process is broken down, multiplying polynomials requires nothing more
than distribution and combining like terms.
Consider the polynomials (a + b + c) and (d + e + f). To find their product, just distribute the terms
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of the first polynomial into the second polynomial individually and combine like terms to formulate
your final answer:
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Here’s another example:

As you can see, multiplying polynomials is little more than rote multiplication and addition.
Quadratic Equations
A quadratic, or quadratic polynomial, is a polynomial of the form ax2 + bx + c, where a ≠ 0. The
following polynomials are quadratics:

A quadratic equation sets a quadratic polynomial equal to zero. That is, a quadratic equation is an
equation of the form ax2 + bx + c = 0. The values of x for which the equation holds are called the
roots, or solutions, of the quadratic equation. Most of the questions on quadratic equations involve
finding their roots.
There are two basic ways to find roots: by factoring and by using the quadratic fo-rmula.
Factoring is faster, but it can’t always be done. The quadratic formula takes longer to work out, but it
works for all quadratic equations. We’ll study both in detail.
Factoring
To factor a quadratic, you must express it as the product of two binomials. In essence, factoring a
quadratic involves a reverse-FOIL process. Take a look at this quadratic:

In the example above, the leading term has a coefficient of 1 (since 1x2 is the same as x2). Since the
two x variables are multiplied together during the FIRST step of foiling to get the first term of the
quadratic polynomial, we know that the binomials whose product is this quadratic must be of the
form (x + m)(x + n), where m and n are constants. You also know that the sum of m and n is 10, since
the 10x is derived from multiplying the OUTER and INNER terms of the binomials and then adding
the resulting terms together (10x = mx + nx, so m + n must equal 10). Finally, you know that the
product of m and n equals 21, since 21 is the product of the two last terms of the binomials.
Now you just need to put the pieces together to find the values of m and n. You know that x is the
first term of both binomials, and you know that the sum of m and n is 10 and the product of m and n
is 21. The pair of numbers that fit the bill for m and n are 3 and 7. Thus, x2 + 10x + 21 = (x + 3)(x + 7).
The quadratic expression has now been factored and simplified.
On the Math IC, though, you will often be presented with a quadratic equation. The only difference
between a quadratic equation and a quadratic expression is that the equation is set equal to 0 (x2 +
10x + 21 = 0). If you have such an equation, then once you have factored the quadratic you can solve
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it. Because the product of two terms is zero, one of the terms must be equal to zero. Thus, since x + 3
= 0 or x + 7 = 0, the solutions (also known as the roots) of the quadratic must be x = –3 and x = –7.
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Quadratics with Negative Terms


So far we’ve dealt only with quadratics in which the terms are all positive. Factoring a quadratic that
has negative terms is no more difficult, but it might take slightly longer to get the hang of it, simply
because you are less used to thinking about negative numbers.
Consider the quadratic equation x2 – 4x – 21 = 0. There are a number of things you can tell from this
equation: the first term of each binomial is x, since the first term of the quadratic is x2; the product of
m and n is –21; and the sum of a and b equals –4. The equation also tells you that either m or n must
be negative but that both cannot be negative, because the multiplication of one positive and one
negative number can only result in a negative number. Now you need to look for the numbers that fit
these requirements for m and n. The numbers that multiply together to give you –21 are: –21 and 1,
–7 and 3, 3 and –7, and 21 and –1. The pair that works in the equation is –7 and 3.
Two Special Quadratic Polynomials
There are two special quadratic polynomials that pop up quite frequently on the Math IC, and you
should memorize them. They are the perfect square and the difference of two squares. If you
memorize the formulas below, you may be able to avoid the time taken by factoring.
There are two kinds of perfect square quadratics. They are:

1. a2 + 2ab + b2 = (a + b)(a + b) = (a + b)2. Example: a2 + 6ab + 9 = (a + 3)2


2. a2 – 2ab + b2 = (a – b)(a – b) = (a – b)2. Example: a2 – 6ab + 9 = (a –3)2

Note that when you solve for the roots of a perfect square quadratic equation, the solution for the
equation (a + b)2 = 0 will be –b, while the solution for (a + b)2 = 0 will be b.
The difference of two squares quadratics follow the form below:

Here’s an instance where knowing the perfect square or difference of two square equations can help
you:

Solve for x: 2x 2 + 20x + 50 = 0.


To solve this problem by working out the math, you would do the following:

If you got to the step where you had 2(x2 + 10x +25) = 0 and realized that you were working with a
perfect square of 2(x + 5)2, you could immediately have divided out the 2 from both sides of the
equation and seen that the solution to the problem is –5.
Practice Quadratics
Since the ability to factor quadratics relies in large part on your ability to “read” the information in
the quadratic, the best way to get good is to practice, practice, practice. Just like perfecting a jump
shot, repeating the same drill over and over again will make you faster and more accurate. Take a
look at the following examples and try to factor them on your own before you peek at the answers.
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The Quadratic Formula
Factoring using the reverse-FOIL method is really only practical when the roots are integers.
Quadratics, however, can have decimal numbers or fractions as roots. Equations like these can be
solved using the quadratic formula. For an equation of the form ax2 + bx + c = 0, the quadratic
formula states:

Consider the quadratic equation x2 + 5x + 3 = 0. There are no integers with a sum of 5 and product of
3. So, this quadratic can’t be factored, and we must resort to the quadratic equation. We plug the
values, a = 1, b = 5, and c = 3 into the formula:

The roots of the quadratic are approximately {–4.303, –.697}.


FINDING THE DISCRIMINANT:
If you want to find out quickly how many roots an equation has without calculating the entire
formula, all you need to find is an equation’s discriminant. The discriminant of a quadratic is the
quantity b2 – 4ac. As you can see, this is the radicand in the quadratic equation. If:

1. b2 – 4ac = 0, the quadratic has one real root and is a perfect square.
2. b2 – 4ac > 0, the quadratic has two real roots.
3. b2 – 4ac < 0, the quadratic has no real roots, and two complex roots.

This information is useful when deciding whether to crank out the quadratic formula on an equation,
and it can spare you some unnecessary computation. For example, say you’re trying to solve for the
speed of a train in a rate problem, and you find that the discriminant is less than zero. This means
that there are no real roots (a train can only travel at speeds that are real numbers), and there is no
reason to carry out the quadratic formula.

Key Formulas
Distributive Property
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Perfect Square of a Binomial

Difference of Two Squares

Quadratic Formula
In a quadratic equation of the form ax2 + bx + c = 0, where a ≠ 0:

Review Questions
1.

Solve for x in the equation


(A) x = –3
(B) x=0
(C) x=6
(D) x = 12
(D) x = 24
2.
Solve for x in the following inequality: >3
(A) x < –13
(B) x ≥ –13
(C) x ≤ –5
(D) x < –5
(D) x > –5
3. Solve for x in the following equation: 3 + |2 x – 7| = x + 2
(A) x = –6
(B) x=8
(C)
x = { , 8}
(D) x = {6, 8}
(D)
x = { , 6}
4. If x = 2y – 4 and y = 7s + 1, what is the value of s in terms of x?
(A)

s=
66

(B)
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s=
(C)

s=
(D)
s= +2+
(D)
s=
5. Jim and Ryan run laps around a track which is 1 / 4 of a mile long. If Jim runs h laps per hour, Ryan
runs half as fast as Jim, and Jim starts running half an hour before Ryan, how many miles farther than
Ryan has Jim run two hours after Jim starts?
(A)

(B)

(C)

(D)

(D)

6. Ken buys a shirt on a 30% sale from its original price of 10 dollars. He then resells it at a 60%
increase from the price at which he bought it. How much does Ken sell the shirt for?
(A) $4.20
(B) $11.20
(C) $13.00
(D) $13.30
(D) $14.20
7. A train leaves the station traveling due east at a rate of 45 miles per hour. A second train leaves a
different station an hour later, traveling due west on the same track, going 60 miles per hour. If the
stations are 255 miles apart, how many miles from the halfway point between the stations will the
trains collide?
(A) 0
(B) 5
(C) 7.5
(D) 12.5
(D) 25
8. A snowman weighing 250 pounds begins to melt in the spring. It loses 4% of its weight every day.
How many full days will pass before it weighs less than 100 pounds?
(A) 17
(B) 22
(C) 23
(D) 27
(D) 45
9. What is (a + b + 3c)(2a + 3b + 4c)?
(A) 3a + 4b + 7c
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(B) 2a 2 + 3b 2 + 12c 2
(C) 2a 2 + 10ac + 12c 2
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(D) 2a + 3ab + 10ac + 9bc + 12c 2


2
(D) 2a 2 + 3b 2 + 12c 2 + 5ab + 10ac + 13bc
10. Solve for x in the following equations: 3x 2 + 24x – 27 = 0
(A) x=1
(B) x = –9
(C) x = {1, –9}
(D) x = {–1, 9}
(D) x = {3, 27}

Explanations
1.      D     
To solve this problem, just isolate the variable:

2.      D     
Solving for a variable in an inequality is similar to solving for a variable in a normal equation, with one big difference: you
isolate the variable. But remember that if you multiply or divide an inequality by a negative number, you must reverse the
direction of the inequality symbol:

3.      E     
First, isolate the expression within the absolute value brackets:

Then divide the equation into two equations. In this first case, the expression within absolute value brackets is positive:

Next, let the expression within absolute value brackets be negative:


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The two solutions are x = {8⁄3, 6}.
4.      B     
First, solve for s in terms of y:

Next, solve for y in terms of x:

Finally, substitute this value for y in the equation with s:

5.      A     
This is a rate question, and we are given the input and rate in order to find the output. So, we can plug the known values into
the rate formula:

Jim runs h laps per hour for 2 hours, so his total distance traveled is 2h laps, which equals 2h⁄4 miles. Ryan runs .5h laps per
hour for 1.5 hours, so in total he runs 0.75h laps. This is equal to .75h⁄4 miles. The difference between the distance traveled by
Jim and the distance traveled by Ryan is 2h⁄4 – .75h⁄4 = 1.25h⁄4 miles.
6.      B     
This is a double percent-change problem, and so we perform each percent change one by one. First, Ken bought the shirt at
a discount of 30%. The price at which he paid was:

He then sold it for 60% more than he paid:

He sold the shirt for $11.20.


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7.      C     
The toughest part of this rate problem is translating the word problem into an equation. The point at which the trains will
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collide is the point at which their combined distance traveled is 255 miles. Using this fact and the rates at which the trains
travel, we can find out when the collision occurs, in relation to when the trains left their respective stations. Finally, from this
newly calculated information, we can find where the collision occurred. Here is the rate formula we’ll be using:

Let x represent the number of hours before the trains collide. We then have the equation:

This equation explains the situation before the collision: that the train going 45 miles per hour traveled for x hours and the
train traveling 60 miles per hour traveled for x – 1 hours. Their combined distance traveled is 255. Now solve the equation
for x:

3 hours pass before the trains collide. From this, we know that the collision happened 3 45 = 135 miles from the western
255
station, and 2 60 = 120 miles from the eastern station. The halfway point between the stations is ⁄2 = 127.5 miles from
either station, so it happened 135 – 127.5 = 7.5 miles from the halfway point between the stations.
8.      C     
This problem fits the classic exponential decay model. So we plug the given information into the formula:

Then we solve:

Thus, it takes approximately 22.5 days to reach the 100 pound mark, or, as the question asked, 23 full days.
9.      E     
To multiply polynomials two at a time, just distribute the terms of one polynomial into the other one individually:

10.      C     
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The equation given is in the form of a quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0, so you can use either the reverse FOIL or the
quadratic formula to solve for the roots. Before doing either of those things, first factor out 3 from the equation:
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Factoring takes less time than working out the quadratic formula, so check to see if factoring is possible. It is, and you get:

The solution set for x is {1, –9}.

Plane Geometry
ROUGHLY 20 PERCENT OF THE QUESTIONS on the Math IC test cover plane geometry. In
addition, questions that deal more specifically with solid geometry, coordinate geometry, and
trigonometry assume a thorough knowledge of plane geometry. In all, a whopping 45 percent of the
Math IC test involves plane geometry either directly or indirectly.

Lines and Angles


A line is a collection of points that extends without limit in a straight formation. A line can be named
by a single letter, like line l, or it can be named according to two points that it contains, like line AB.
The second way of naming a line indicates an important property common to all lines: any two points
in space determine a line. For example, given two points, J and K:

a line is determined:

This line is called JK.


Line Segments
A line segment is a section of a line. It is named and determined by its endpoints. Unlike a line,
whose length is infinite, a line segment has finite length. Line segment AB is pictured below.

Distance and Midpoint of a Line Segment


The midpoint of a line segment is the point on the segment that is equidistant (the same distance)
from each endpoint. Because a midpoint splits a line segment into two equal halves, the midpoint is
said to bisect the line segment.
Because a midpoint cuts a line segment in half, knowing the distance between the midpoint and one
endpoint of a line segment allows you to calculate the length of the entire line segment. For example,
if the distance from one endpoint to the midpoint of a line segment is 5, the length of the whole line
segment is 10.
The Math IC test often asks questions that focus on this property of midpoints. The Math IC writers
usually make their questions a little trickier though, by including multiple midpoints. Take a look:

X is the midpoint of WZ and Y is the midpoint of XZ. If M is the midpoint of XY and MY = 3, what is the
length of WX?
All the midpoints flying around in this question can get quite confusing. Instead of trying to visualize
what is being described in your head, draw a sketch of what the question describes.
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Once you’ve drawn a sketch, you can see how the three midpoints, and the new line segments that
the midpoints create, all relate to each other.

 Since X is the midpoint of WZ, you know that WX = XZ and that both WX and XY are equal
to 1⁄2WZ.
 Since Y is the midpoint of XZ, you know that XY = YZ and that both XY and YZ are equal to
1
⁄2XZ and 1⁄4WZ.
 Since M is the midpoint of XY, you know that XM = MY and that both XM and MY are equal
to 1⁄2XY and 1⁄8WZ.

Please note that you don’t have to write out these relationships when answering this sort of question.
If you draw a good sketch, it’s possible to see the relationships.
Once you know the relationships, you can solve the problem. For this question, you know that MY is
equal to 1⁄8WZ. Since, as the question tells you, MY = 3, you can calculate that WZ = 24. The question
asks for the length of WX, which is equal to 1⁄2WZ, so WX = 12.
Angles
Technically speaking, an angle is the union of two rays (lines that extend infinitely in just one
direction) that share an endpoint (called the vertex of the angle). The measure of an angle is how far
you must rotate one of the rays such that it coincides with the other.
In this guide and for the Math IC, you don’t really need to bother with such a technical definition.
Suffice it to say, angles are used to measure rotation. One full revolution around a point creates an
angle of 360 degrees, or 360 . A half-revolution, also known as a straight angle, is 180 degrees. A
quarter revolution, or right angle, is 90 .

In text, angles can also be indicated by the symbol .


Vertical Angles
When two lines or line segments intersect, two pairs of congruent (equal) angles are created. The
angles in each pair of congruent angles created by the intersection of two lines are called vertical
angles:

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In this figure, and are vertical angles (and therefore congruent), as are and .
Supplementary and Complementary Angles
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Supplementary angles are two angles that together add up to 180º. Complementary angles
are two angles that add up to 90º.
Whenever you have vertical angles, you also have supplementary angles. In the diagram of vertical
angles above, and , and , and , and and are all pairs of supplementary
angles.
Parallel Lines Cut by a Transversal
Lines that will never intersect are called parallel lines, which are given by the symbol ||. The
intersection of one line with two parallel lines creates many interesting angle relationships. This
situation is often referred to as “parallel lines cut by a transversal,” where the transversal is the
nonparallel line. As you can see in the diagram below of parallel lines AB and CD and transversal EF,
two parallel lines cut by a transversal will form eight angles.

Among the eight angles formed, three special angle relationships exist:

1. Alternate exterior angles are pairs of congruent angles on opposite sides of the
transversal, outside of the space between the parallel lines. In the figure above, there are two
pairs of alternate exterior angles: and , and and .
2. Alternate interior angles are pairs of congruent angles on opposite sides of the
transversal in the region between the parallel lines. In the figure above, there are two pairs of
alternate interior angles: and , and and .
3. Corresponding angles are congruent angles on the same side of the transversal. Of two
corresponding angles, one will always be between the parallel lines, while the other will be
outside the parallel lines. In the figure above, there are four pairs of corresponding angles:
and , and , and , and and .

In addition to these special relationships between angles, all adjacent angles formed when two
parallel lines are cut by a transversal are supplementary. In the previous figure, for example, and
are supplementary.
Math IC questions covering parallel lines cut by a transversal are usually straightforward. For
example:

In the figure below, if lines m and n are parallel and = 110º, then f – g =

If you know the relationships of the angles formed by two parallel lines cut by a transversal,
answering this question is easy. and are alternate exterior angles, so . is adjacent
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to , so it must be equal to 180º – 110º = 70º. From here, it’s easy to calculate that f – g = 110º –
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70º = 40º.
Perpendicular Lines
Two lines that intersect to form a right (90º) angle are called perpendicular lines. Line segments
AB and CD are perpendicular.

A line or line segment is called a perpendicular bisector when it intersects a line segment at the
midpoint, forming vertical angles of 90º in the process. For example, in the figure above, since AD =
DB, CD is the perpendicular bisector of AB.
Keep in mind that if a single line or line segment is perpendicular to two different lines or line
segments, then those two lines or line segments are parallel. This is actually just another example of
parallel lines being cut by a transversal (in this case, the transversal is perpendicular to the parallel
lines), but it is a common situation when dealing with polygons. We’ll examine this type of case later.

Triangles
The importance of triangles to the plane geometry questions on the Math IC test cannot be
overstated. Not only will you encounter numerous questions specifically about triangles, you will also
need a solid understanding of triangles in order to answer other questions about polygons,
coordinate geometry, and trigonometry. Luckily for you, the essential rules governing triangles are
few and simple to master.
Basic Properties
Every triangle adheres to four main rules, outlined below:
1. Sum of the Interior Angles
If you were trapped on a desert island and had to take the Math IC test, this is the one rule about
triangles you should bring along: the sum of the measures of the interior angles is 180º. With this
rule, if you know the measures of two of a triangle’s angles, you will be able to find the third. Helpful,
don’t you think?

2. Measure of an Exterior Angle


Another property of triangles is that the measure of an exterior angle of a triangle is equal to the sum
of the measures of the remote interior angles.
An exterior angle of a triangle is the angle formed by extending one of the sides of the triangle past a
vertex (the point at which two sides meet). An exterior angle is always supplementary to the interior
angle with which it shares a vertex, and equal in measure to the sum of the measures of the remote
interior angles. Take a look at the figure below, in which d, the exterior angle, is supplementary to
interior angle c:
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It doesn’t matter which side of a triangle you extend to create an exterior angle; the exterior angle
will always be supplementary to the interior angle with which it shares a vertex and therefore
(because of the 180º rule) equal to the sum of the remote interior angles.
3. Triangle Inequality
The third important property of triangles is the triangle inequality rule, which states: the length of a
side of a triangle is less than the sum of the lengths of the other two sides and greater than the
difference of the lengths of the other two sides.
Observe the figure below:

From the triangle inequality, we know that c – b < a < c + b. The exact length of side a depends on
the measure of the angle created by sides b and c. If this angle is large (close to 180º) then a will be
large (close to b + c). If this angle is small (close to 0º), then a will be small (close to b – c).
For an example, take a look at this triangle:

Using the triangle inequality, we can tell that 9 – 4 < x < 9 + 4, or 5 < x < 13. The exact value of x
depends on the measure of the angle opposite side x.
4. Proportionality of Triangles
This brings us to the last basic property of triangles, which has to do with the relationships between
the angles of a triangle and the lengths of the triangle’s sides. In every triangle, the longest side is
opposite the largest angle and the shortest side is opposite the smallest angle.

In this figure, side a is clearly the longest side and is the largest angle. Conversely, side c is the
shortest side and is the smallest angle. It follows, therefore, that c < b < a and C < B < A. This
proportionality of side lengths and angle measures holds true for all triangles.
We did not assign measures and lengths to the angles and sides for the figure above. If we had
limited information about those values, however we could make certain assumptions about the other
unknown side lengths and angles measures. For example, if we knew the measures of two of the
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angles in the triangle, we could find the measure of the third angle and therefore decide which side is
the longest (it would be the side opposite the largest angle). This is the kind of reasoning that you
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might have to use when dealing with triangles on the test.


What is one possible value of x if angle C < A < B?
(A) 1
(B) 6
(C) 7
(D) 10
(D) 15
The largest angle in triangle ABC is , which is opposite the side of length 8. The smallest angle in
triangle ABC is , which is opposite the side of length 6. This means that the third side, of length x,
measures between 6 and 8 units in length. The value 7 is the only choice that fits the criteria.
Special Triangles
There are several special triangles that have particular properties. Knowing these triangles and what
makes each of them special will help you immeasurably on the Math IC test.
But before getting into the different types of special triangles, we must take a moment to explain the
markings we use to describe the properties of each particular triangle. For example, the figure below
has two pairs of sides of equal length and three congruent angle pairs: these indicate that the sides
have equal length. The arcs drawn into and indicate that these angles are congruent. In some
diagrams, there might be more than one pair of equal sides or congruent angles. In this case, double
hash marks or double arcs can be drawn into a pair of sides or angles to indicate that they are equal
to each other, but not necessarily equal to the other pair of sides or angles:

Now, on to the special triangles.


Scalene Triangles
A scalene triangle has no equal sides and no equal angles.

In fact, the special property of scalene triangles is that they don’t really have any special qualities.
Scalene triangles almost never appear on the Math IC.
Isosceles Triangles
A triangle that contains two sides of equal length is called an isosceles triangle. In an isosceles
triangle, the two angles opposite the sides of equal length are congruent. These angles are usually
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referred to as base angles. In the isosceles triangle below, side a = b and :


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If you know the value of one of the base angles in an isosceles triangle, you can figure out all the
angles. For example, if one base angle of an isosceles triangle is 35º, then you know that the other
base angle is also 35º. Since the three angles in a triangle must add up to 180º, you can figure out the
value of the third angle: 180º – 35º – 35º = 110º.
Equilateral Triangles
A triangle whose sides are all of equal length is called an equilateral triangle. All three angles in
an equilateral triangle are congruent as well; the measure of each is 60º.

If you know that a triangle has three equal sides, then the proportionality rule states that the triangle
must also have three equal angles. Similarly, if you know that a triangle has three equal angles, then
you know it has three equal sides.
Right Triangles
A triangle that contains a right angle is called a right triangle. The side opposite the right angle is
called the hypotenuse of the right triangle, and the other two sides are called legs. The angles
opposite the legs of a right triangle are complementary.

In the figure above, is the right angle (as indicated by the box drawn in the angle), side c is the
hypotenuse, and sides a and b are the legs.
The Pythagorean Theorem
The Pythagorean theorem is crucial to answering most of the right-triangle questions that you’ll
encounter on the Math IC. The theorem will also come in handy later on, as you study coordinate
geometry and trigonometry. The theorem states that in a right triangle a2 + b2 = c2:

where c is the length of the hypotenuse, and a and b are the lengths of the two legs. The theorem
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states that the square of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares of the two legs.
If you know the measures of two sides of a right triangle, you can always use the Pythagorean
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theorem to find the third.


PYTHAGOREAN TRIPLES
Because right triangles obey the Pythagorean theorem, only a few have side lengths which are all
integers. For example, a right triangle with legs of length 3 and 5 has a hypotenuse of length
= 5.83.
The few sets of three integers that do obey the Pythagorean theorem and can therefore be the lengths
of the sides of a right triangle are called Pythagorean triples. Here are some common ones:
{3, 4, 5}
{5, 12, 13}
{7, 24, 25}
{8, 15, 17}
In addition to these Pythagorean triples, you should also watch out for their multiples. For example,
{6, 8, 10} is a Pythagorean triple, since it is a multiple of {3, 4, 5}.
The Math IC is full of right triangles whose side lengths are Pythagorean triples. Study the ones
above and their multiples. If you can recognize a Pythagorean triple on a triangle during the test, you
can drastically reduce the amount of time you need to spend on the problem since you won’t need to
do any calculations.
Special Right Triangles
Right triangles are pretty special in their own right. But there are two extraspecial right triangles that
appear frequently on the Math IC. They are 30-60-90 triangles and 45-45-90 triangles.
30-60-90 Triangles
A 30-60-90 triangle is a triangle with angles of 30º, 60º, and 90º. What makes it special is the
specific pattern that the lengths of the sides of a 30-60-90 triangle follow. Suppose the short leg,
opposite the 30 degree angle, has length x. Then the hypotenuse has length 2x, and the long leg,
opposite the 60 degree angle, has length x . The sides of every 30-60-90 triangle will follow this
ratio of 1 : 2 : .

The constant ratio of the lengths of the sides of a 30-60-90 triangle means that if you know the
length of one side in the triangle, you will immediately know the lengths of all the sides. If, for
example, you know that the side opposite the 30º angle is 2 meters long, then by using the 1 : 2 :
ratio, you will know that the hypotenuse is 4 meters long, and the leg opposite the 60º angle is 2
meters. On the Math IC, you will quite often encounter a question that will present you with an
unnamed 30-60-90 triangle, allowing you to use your knowledge of this special triangle. You could
solve these questions by using the Pythagorean theorem, but that method takes a lot longer than
simply knowing the proper 30-60-90 ratio.
45-45-90 Triangles
A 45-45-90 triangle is a triangle with two 45º angles and one right angle. This type of triangle is also
sometimes referred to as an isosceles right triangle, since it’s both isosceles and right. Like the 30-
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60-90 triangle, the lengths of the sides of a 45-45-90 triangle also follow a specific pattern that you
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should know. If the legs are of length x (they are always equal), then the hypotenuse has length x .
Take a look at this diagram:
As with 30-60-90 triangles, knowing the 1: 1: ratio for 45-45-90 triangles can save you a great
deal of time on the Math IC.
Similar Triangles
Two triangles are called similar if the ratio of the lengths of their corresponding sides is constant. In
order for this to be true, the corresponding angles of each triangle must be congruent. In essence,
similar triangles have exactly the same shape but not necessarily the same size. Take a look at a few
similar triangles:

As you may have assumed from the above figure, the symbol for “is similar to” is ~. So if triangle
ABC is similar to triangle DEF, you will write ABC ~ DEF.
When you say that two triangles are similar, it is important to know which sides of each triangle
correspond to each other. After all, the definition of similar triangles is that “the ratio of the lengths
of their corresponding sides is constant.” So, considering that ABC ~ DEF, you know that the ratio of
the short sides equal the ratio of the larger sides. AB/DE = BC/EF = CA/FD.
Just as similar triangles have corresponding sides, they also have corresponding angles. If ABC ~
DEF, then
Occasionally, the Math IC may present you with two separate triangles and tell you that the two are
similar. More often, the Math IC will present you with a single triangle that contains a line segment
parallel to one base. This line segment creates a second, smaller, similar triangle. In the figure below,
for example, line segment DE is parallel to CB, and triangle ABC is similar to triangle AED.

After presenting you with a diagram like the one above, the Math IC will test whether you
understand similarity by asking a question like:
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If = 6 and = , what is ?
This question doesn’t tell you outright that DE and CB are parallel, but it implicitly tells you that the
two lines are parallel by indicating that both lines form the same angle, xº, when they intersect with
BA. Once you realize that ABC ~ AED, you know that the corresponding sides of the two triangles are
in constant proportion. The question tells you what this proportion is when it tells you that AD = 2⁄3
AC. To solve for DE, you have to plug it into the proportion along with CB:

Area of a Triangle
It’s quite likely that you will have to calculate the area of a triangle for the Math IC. The formula for
the area of a triangle is:

where b is the length of a base of the triangle, and h is height (also called the altitude).
In the previous sentence we said “a base” instead of “the base” because you can actually use any of
the three sides of the triangle as the base; a triangle has no particular side that is the base until you
designate one. The height of the triangle depends on the base, which is why the area formula always
works, no matter which side you choose to be the base. The heights of a few triangles are pictured
with their altitudes drawn in as dotted lines.

Study the triangle on the right. Its altitude does not lie in the interior of the triangle. This is why the
altitude of a triangle is defined as a line segment perpendicular to the line containing the base and
not simply as perpendicular to the base. Sometimes the endpoint of the altitude does not lie on the
base; it can be outside of the triangle, as is the case of the second example above.
On the Math IC, you may be tested on the area of a triangle in a few different ways. You might be
given the altitude of a triangle along with the length of the base, but it’s unlikely you’d get such an
easy question. It’s more probable that the altitude would have to be found, using other tools and
techniques from plane geometry. For example, try to find the area of the triangle below:
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To find the area of this triangle, draw in the altitude from the base (of length 9) to the opposite
vertex. Notice that now you have two triangles, and one of them (the smaller one on the right) is a
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30-60-90 triangle.
The hypotenuse of this 30-60-90 triangle is 4, so the short side is 2 and the medium side, which is
also the altitude of the original triangle, is 2 . Now you can use the area formula to find the area of
the original triangle: ⁄2bh = ⁄2(9)(2
1 1
)=9 ≈ 15.6.

Polygons
Polygons are enclosed geometric shapes that cannot have fewer than three sides. As this definition
suggests, triangles are actually a type of polygon, but they are so important on the Math IIC that we
gave them their own section. Polygons are named according to the number of sides they have, as you
can see in the chart below.

All polygons, no matter the number of sides they possess, share certain characteristics:

 The sum of the interior angles of a polygon with n sides is (n – 2) . So, for example, the
sum of the interior angles of an octagon is (8 – 2) =6 = .
 The sum of the exterior angles of any polygon is .
 The perimeter of a polygon is the sum of the lengths of its sides. The perimeter of the
hexagon below, for example, is 35.

Regular Polygons
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Most of the polygons with more than four sides that you’ll deal with on the Math IIC will be regular
polygons—polygons whose sides are all of equal length and whose angles are all congruent (neither of
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these conditions can exist without the other). Below are diagrams, from left to right, of a regular
pentagon, a regular octagon, and a square (also known as a regular quadrilateral):

Area of a Regular Polygon


There is one more characteristic of polygons with which to become familiar. It has to do specifically
with regular hexagons. A regular hexagon can be divided into six equilateral triangles, as the figure
below shows:

If you know the length of just one side of a regular hexagon, you can use that information to calculate
the area of the equilateral triangle that uses the side. To find the area of the hexagon, simply multiply
the area of that triangle by 6.
Quadrilaterals
The most frequently seen polygon on the Math IC is the quadrilateral, which is a general term for a
four-sided polygon. In fact, there are five types of quadrilaterals that pop up on the test: trapezoids,
parallelograms, rectangles, rhombuses, and squares. Each of these five quadrilaterals has special
qualities, as shown in the sections below.
Trapezoids
A trapezoid is a quadrilateral with one pair of parallel sides and one pair of nonparallel sides.
Below is an example of a trapezoid:

In the trapezoid pictured above, AB is parallel to CD (shown by the arrow marks), whereas AC and
BD are not parallel.
The area of a trapezoid is:

where s1 and s2 are the lengths of the parallel sides (also called the bases of the trapezoid), and h is
the height. In a trapezoid, the height is the perpendicular distance from one base to the other.
Try to find the area of the trapezoid pictured below:

To find the area, draw in the height of the trapezoid so that you create a 45-45-90 triangle. You know
that the length of the leg of this triangle—and the height of the trapezoid—is 4. Thus, the area of the
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trapezoid is 6+10⁄2 4 = 8 4 = 32. Check out the figure below, which includes all the information we
know about the trapezoid:
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Parallelogram
A parallelogram is a quadrilateral whose opposite sides are parallel. The figure below shows an
example:

Parallelograms have three very important properties:

1. Opposite sides are equal.


2. Opposite angles are congruent.
3. Adjacent angles are supplementary (they add up to 180º).

To visualize this last property, simply picture the opposite sides of the parallelogram as parallel lines
and one of the other sides as a transversal:

The area of a parallelogram is given by the formula:

where b is the length of the base, and h is the height.

In area problems, you will likely have to find the height using techniques similar to the one used in
the previous example problem with trapezoids.
The next three quadrilaterals that we’ll review—rectangles, rhombuses, and squares—are all special
types of parallelograms.
Rectangles
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A rectangle is a quadrilateral in which the opposite sides are parallel and the interior angles are all
right angles. A rectangle is essentially a parallelogram in which the angles are all right angles. Also
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similar to parallelograms, the opposite sides of a rectangle are equal.


The formula for the area of a rectangle is:

where b is the length of the base, and h is the height.


A diagonal through the rectangle cuts the rectangle into two equal right triangles. In the figure below,
the diagonal BD cuts rectangle ABCD into congruent right triangles ABD and BCD.

Because the diagonal of the rectangle forms right triangles that include the diagonal and two sides of
the rectangle, if you know two of these values, you can always calculate the third with the
Pythagorean theorem. If you know the side lengths of the rectangle, you can calculate the diagonal; if
you know the diagonal and one side length, you can calculate the other side.
Rhombuses
A rhombus is a quadrilateral in which the opposite sides are parallel and the sides are of equal
length.

The formula for the area of a rhombus is:

where b is the length of the base, and h is the height.


To find the area of a rhombus, use the same methods as used to find the area of a parallelogram. For
example:

If ABCD is a rhombus, AC = 4, and ABD is an equilateral triangle, what is the area of the rhombus?
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If ABD is an equilateral triangle, then the length of a side of the rhombus is 4, and angles ADB and
ABD are 60º. Draw an altitude from a to DC to create a 30-60-90 triangle, and you can calculate the
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length of this altitude to be 2 . The area of a rhombus is bh, so the area of this rhombus is 4 2
=8 .
Squares
A square is a quadrilateral in which all the sides are equal and all the angles are right angles. A
square is a special type of rhombus, rectangle, and parallelogram:

The formula for the area of a square is:

where s is the length of a side of the square. Because all the sides of a square are equal, it is also
possible to provide a simple formula for the perimeter: P = 4s, where s is, once again, the length of a
side.
A diagonal drawn into the square will always form two congruent 45-45-90 triangles:

From the properties of a 45-45-90 triangle, we know that . In other words, if you know the
length of one side of the square, you can easily calculate the length of the diagonal. Similarly, if you
know the length of the diagonal, you can calculate the length of the sides of the square.

Circles
Circles are another popular plane-geometry test topic. Unlike polygons, all circles are the same shape
and vary only in size. Circles have certain basic characteristics, and test questions will focus on your
understanding of these properties.
Basic Definitions of Circles
A circle is the collection of all points equidistant from a given point, called the center. A circle is
named after its center point. The distance from the center to any point on the circle is called the
radius, (r), which is the most important measurement in a circle. If you know the radius of a circle,
you can figure out all its other characteristics. The diameter (d) of a circle is twice as long as the
radius (d = 2r), and stretches between endpoints on the circle, making sure to pass through the
center. A chord also extends from endpoint to endpoint on the circle, but it does not necessarily
pass through the center. In the figure below, point C is the center of the circle, r is the radius, and AB
is a chord.
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Tangent Lines
A line that intersects the circle at only one point is called a tangent line. The radius whose endpoint
is the intersection point of the tangent line and the circle is always perpendicular to the tangent line.

Every point in space outside the circle can extend exactly two tangent lines to the circle. The distance
from the origin of the two tangents to the points of tangency are always equal. In the figure below,
XY = XZ.

The Math IC often includes tangent lines in the test. For example:

What is the area of triangle QRS, if RS is tangent to circle Q?

If RS is tangent to circle Q, then QR is perpendicular to RS, and therefore QRS is a 30-60-90


triangle. Given that QR = 4, we know that RS = 4 , and the area of triangle QRS is 1⁄2(4)(4 )=8
.
Central Angles and Inscribed Angles
An angle whose vertex is the center of the circle is called a central angle.
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The degree of the circle (the slice of pie) cut by a central angle is equal to the measure of the angle. If
a central angle is 25º, then it cuts a 25º arc in the circle.
An inscribed angle is an angle formed by two chords in a circle that originate from a single point.

An inscribed angle will always cut out an arc in the circle that is twice the size of the degree of the
inscribed angle. If an inscribed angle has a degree of 40º, it will cut an arc of 80º in the circle.
If an inscribed angle and a central angle cut out the same arc in a circle, the central angle will be
twice as large as the inscribed angle.

Circumference of a Circle
The circumference of a circle is the length of the 360º arc that forms the circle. In other words, if
you were to trace around the edge of the circle, it is the distance from a point on the circle back to
itself. The circumference is the perimeter of the circle. The formula for circumference is:

where r is the radius. The formula can also be written C = πd, where d is the diameter. Using the
formula, try to find the circumference of the circle below:

Plugging the radius into the formula, C = 2πr = 2π (3) = 6π.


Arc Length
An arc is part of a circle’s circumference. An arc contains two endpoints and all the points on the
circle between the endpoints. By picking any two points on a circle, two arcs are created: a major arc,
which is by definition the longer arc, and a minor arc, which is the shorter one.
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Since the degree of an arc is defined by the central or inscribed angle that intercepts the arc’s
endpoints, you need only know the measure of either of those angles and the measure of the radius of
the circle to calculate the arc length. The arc length formula is:

where n is the measure of the degree of the arc, and r is the radius. The formula could be rewritten as
arc length = n⁄360 C, where C is the circumference of the circle.
A Math IC question might ask:

Circle D has radius 9. What is the length of arc AB?

In order to figure out the length of arc AB, you need to know the radius of the circle and the measure
of , which is the inscribed angle that intercepts the endpoints of AB. The question tells you the
radius of the circle, but it throws you a little curveball by not providing you with the measure of .
Instead, the question puts in a triangle and tells you the measures of the other two angles in the
triangle. Using this information you can figure out the measure of . Since the three angles of a
triangle must add up to 180º, you know that:

Since angle c is an inscribed angle, arc AB must be 120º. Now you can plug these values into the
formula for arc length
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Area of a Circle
The area of a circle depends on the radius of the circle. The formula for area is:

where r is the radius. If you know the radius, you can always find the area.
Area of a Sector
A sector of a circle is the area enclosed by a central angle and the circle itself. It’s shaped like a slice
of pizza. The shaded region in the figure below is a sector:

The area of a sector is related to the area of a circle the same way that the length of an arc is related
to circumference. To find the area of a sector, simply find what fraction of 360º the sector comprises
and multiply this fraction by the area of the circle.

where n is the measure of the central angle which forms the boundary of the sector, and r is the
radius.
Try to find the area of the sector in the figure below:

The sector is bounded by a 70º central angle in a circle whose radius is 6. Using the formula, the area
of the sector is:

Polygons and Circles


You could potentially see a question or two on the Math IC that involve polygons and circles in the
same figure. Here’s an example:

What is the length of major arc BE if the area of rectangle ABCD is 18?
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To find the length of major arc BE, you must know two things: the measure of the central angle that
intersects the circle at its endpoints and the radius of the circle. Because ABCD is a rectangle, and
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rectangles only have right angles, figuring out the measure of the central angle is simple. is
90º, so the measure of the central angle is 360º – 90º = 270º.
Finding the radius of the circle is a little tougher. From the diagram, you can see that it is equal to the
height of the rectangle. To find the height of the rectangle, you can use the fact that the area of the
rectangle is 18, and the length is 6. Since A = bh, and you know the values of both a and b,

With a radius of 3, we can use the arc length formula to find the length of major arc BE.

Key Formulas
Pythagorean Theorem
a2 + b2 = c2, where a and b are the lengths of the legs of a right triangle, and c is the length of the
hypotenuse.
Area of a Triangle

Area = bh, where b is the length of the base and h is height.


Sum of the Interior Angles of a Polygon
The sum of the interior angles of a polygon is (n – 2)180°, where n is the number of sides in the
polygon.
Area of a Trapezoid

Area = h, where s1 and s2 are the lengths of the bases of the trapezoid, and h is the height.
Area of a Parallelogram, Rectangle, and Rhombus
Area = bh, where b is the length of the base, and h is the height.
Area of a Square
Area = s2, where s is the length of a side of the square.
Circumference of a Circle
Circumference = 2πr, where r is the radius of the circle.
Arc Length

Arc Length = 2πr, where n is the measure of the degree of the arc, and r is the radius of the
circle.
Area of a Circle
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Area = πr2, where r is the radius of the circle.


Area of a Sector
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Area of Sector = πr2, where n is the measure of the central angle which forms the boundary of
the sector, and r is the radius of the circle.

Review Questions
1. In the figure below, lines l and m are parallel, and AB = 5. What is the perpendicular distance between
lines l and m?

Note: Figure may not be drawn to scale.


(A)

(B)

(C)

(D)
5
(D)
5
2. In the figure below, line CF is the perpendicular bisector of AB, and the area of triangle CDB is equal
to the area of triangle CEA. Which of the following statements must be true?
  I. Line CF is the perpendicular bisector of ED.
 II. E and D are the midpoints of BF and AF, respectively.
III. Triangles CEB and CDA have the same area.

Note: Figure may not be drawn to scale.


(A) I only
(B) II only
(C) III only
(D) I and II only
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(D) I and III only


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3. A triangle and a square have the same base and equal areas. If the length of the common base is x and
the height of the triangle is h, what is the height of the triangle in terms of x?
(A)

(B)

(C) 2x
(D)

(D) 4x
4. If ABCD is a rhombus and ABD is an equilateral triangle, what is the area of the rhombus?

Note: Figure may not be drawn to scale.


(A)
4
(B)
4
(C)

(D)
8
(D) 16
5. Circle D has radius 8. What is the length of arc AB in terms of a, b, and c?

Note: Figure may not be drawn to scale.


(A)

(B)

(C)

(D)

(D)
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Explanations
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1.      C     
Because lines l and m are parallel and line AB is a transversal, the angle whose measure is labeled as 120º is
supplementary to .

Now we have a 30-60-90 triangle whose longer leg, AC, is also the distance between lines l and m. Using the : : side
ratios for 30-60-90 triangles you can use the hypotenuse length to calculate the lengths of the other two legs. The short leg
has a : ratio to the hypotenuse, so its length is 5/2. The long leg has a : ration to the short leg, so its length is 5 ⁄2.
2.      E     
Let’s analyze each statement separately.

1. This statement implies that DF = EF. We know that BF = AF because it is given that line CF is
the perpendicular bisector of AB, and by definition, F is the midpoint of AB. It is also given
that the area of triangle CDB is equal to the area of triangle CEA. These two triangles share
the same height, and since the area of a triangle is found by the formula 1⁄2 b h, it follows
that if their areas are equal, their bases are equal too. If BD = AE, then by subtracting DE
from each segment, we have BE = AD and thus EF = DF. So statement I is true.
2. This statement is simply not backed by any evidence. All we know is that BE = AD, EF = DF,
and BF = AF. As long as points E and D are equidistant from F, all these conditions hold, so
there is no guarantee that they are the midpoints of BF and AF, respectively. E and D could
be anywhere along BF and AF, respectively, as long as they are equidistant from F. Thus, this
statement is not necessarily true.
3. Triangles CDB and CEA are equal in area; this is given. By subtracting the area of triangle
CED from each of these triangles, we see that triangles CEB and CDA must have the same
area. This statement is true.

Only statements I and III must be true.


3.      C     
The area of a triangle with base x and height h is given by the formula 1⁄2xh. The area of a square with sides of length x is x2.
Since you know the two shapes have equal areas, you can set the two expressions equal to each other and solve for h:

The correct answer is h = 2x.


4.      D     
If ABD is an equilateral triangle, then AD = AB = BD = 4, and all the sides of the rhombus have a length of 4 (by definition of
a rhombus, all sides are congruent). Also, by definition of a rhombus, opposite angles are congruent, so
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. Draw an altitude from a to DC to create a 30-60-90 triangle, and from the length ratio of x :
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x : 2x among the sides, you can calculate the length of this altitude to be 2 . The area of a rhombus is bh, so the area
of this rhombus is 4 2 =8 .
5.      D     
The length of the arc depends on the circumference of the circle and the measure of the central angle that intercepts that
arc. The formula is:

where n is the measure of the central angle that intercepts the arc and r is the radius.
Angle c is the inscribed angle or one-half as large as the central angle that intercepts the circle at the same points. So the
measure of this angle is 2cº.

Now simply plug the values into the formula: the length of arc AB is:

2π(8) = =

Solid Geometry
SOLID GEOMETRY ADDS LITERALLY ANOTHER dimension to the plane geometry explained in
the previous chapter—instead of squares and circles, we now have cubes and spheres. These three-
dimensional shapes may be more difficult to visualize, but there are only a few specific solids that
you’ll need to know about for the Math IC. We’ll review them one by one.

Prisms
Most of the solids you’ll see on the Math IC test are prisms, or variations on prisms. A prism is
defined as a geometric solid with two congruent bases that lie in parallel planes. You can create a
prism by dragging any two-dimensional triangle, circle, or polygon through space without rotating or
tilting it. The three-dimensional space defined by the moving triangle or polygon is the body of the
prism. The prism’s two bases are the planes where the two-dimensional shape begins and ends. The
perpendicular distance between the bases is the height of the prism.
The figures below are all prisms. The bases of these prisms are shaded, and the altitude (the height)
of each prism is marked by a dashed line:

There are two main aspects of geometric solids that are relevant for the Math IC: volume and surface
area.
Volume of a Prism
The volume of a prism is the amount of space taken up by that prism. The general formula for
calculating the volume of a prism is very simple:
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where B is the area of the base, and h is the prism’s height. Certain geometric solids have slightly
different formulas for calculating volume that we will cover on a case-by-case basis.
Surface Area
The surface area of a prism is the sum of the areas of all the prism’s sides. The formula for the
surface area of a prism therefore depends on the type of prism with which you are dealing. As with
volume, we cover the specifics of calculating surface area as we cover each type of geometric solid.
Rectangular Solids
A rectangular solid is a prism with a rectangular base and lateral edges that are perpendicular to
its base. In short, a rectangular solid is shaped like a box.

A rectangular solid has three important dimensions: length (l), width (w), and height (h). If you
know these measurements, you can find the solid’s surface area, volume, and diagonal length.
Volume of a Rectangular Solid
The volume of a rectangular solid is given by the following formula:

where l is the length, w is the width, and h is the height. Notice how this formula corresponds with
the general formula for the volume of a prism: the product lw is the area of the base. Now try to find
the volume of the prism in the following example:

In this solid, l = 3x, w = x, and h = 2x. Simply plug the values into the formula given for volume, and
you would find Volume = (3x)(2x)(x) = 6x3.
Surface Area
The surface area of a rectangular solid is given by the following formula:

where l is the length, w is the width, and h is the height.

The six faces of a rectangular solid consist of three congruent pairs. The surface area formula is
derived by simply adding the areas of the faces—two faces have areas of l w, two faces have areas of
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l h, and two faces have areas of w h.


To practice, try to find the surface area of the rectangular solid we used as an example for volume.
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Here’s the figure again:


All you have to do is enter the given values into the formula for surface area:

Diagonal Length of a Rectangular Solid


The diagonal of a rectangular solid, d, is the line segment whose endpoints are opposite corners of
the solid. Every rectangular solid has four diagonals, each with the same length, that connect each
pair of opposite vertices. Here’s one diagonal drawn in:

The formula for the length of a diagonal is:

where l is the length, w is the width, and h is the height.


You can look at this formula as the Pythagorean theorem in three dimensions. In fact, you can derive
this formula using the Pythagorean theorem. First, find the length of the diagonal along the base.
This is . Then use the Pythagorean theorem again, incorporating height to find the length of

the diagonal from one corner to the other: . Thus, and


. A Math IC question might ask you:

What is the length of diagonal AH in the rectangular solid below if AC = 5, GH = 6, and CG = 3?

The question gives the length, width, and height of the rectangular solid, so you can just plug those
numbers into the formula:
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The length of the diagonal AH (as well as BG, CF, and DE) is .
Cubes
Just as a square is a special kind of rectangle, a cube is a special kind of rectangular solid. A cube is a
rectangular solid whose edges are each the same length. In other words, the length, width, and height
are equal, and each of its six faces is a square.

Volume of a Cube
The formula for finding the volume of a cube is essentially the same as the formula for the volume of
a rectangular volume. However, since a cube’s length, width, and height are all equal, the cube
volume formula is:

where s is the length of one edge of the cube.


Surface Area of a Cube
Since a cube is just a rectangular solid whose sides are all equal, the formula for finding the surface
area of a cube is the same as that for a rectangular solid, except with s = l = w = h:

where s is the length of one edge of the cube.


Diagonal Length of a Cube
The same is true for measuring the diagonal length of a cube. The formula for the diagonal of a cube
is simply adapted from the formula for the diagonal length of a rectangular solid, with s = l = w = h:

where s is the length of one edge of the cube.


Cylinders
A cylinder is a prism with circular bases.

The height of a cylinder, h, is the length of the line segment whose endpoints are the centers of the
bases. The radius of a cylinder, r, is the radius of its base. If you know the height and radius of a
cylinder, you can easily calculate its volume and surface area.
Volume of a Cylinder
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The volume of a cylinder is the product of the area of its base and its height. Because a cylinder has a
circular base, the volume of a cylinder is:
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where r is the radius of the circular base and h is the height. Try to find the volume of the cylinder
below:

This cylinder has a radius of 4 and a height of 6. Using the volume formula:

Surface Area of a Cylinder


The surface area of a cylinder is the sum of the areas of the two bases and the lateral face of the
cylinder. The bases are congruent circles, so their areas can be found easily. The lateral face is the
tubing that connects the two bases. When “unrolled,” the lateral base is simply a rectangle whose
length is the circumference of the base and whose width is the height of the cylinder. Therefore, the
surface area of a cylinder is given by this formula:

where r is the radius and h is the height. As with finding the volume of a cylinder, finding the surface
area involves plugging the height and radius of the base into the formula. To find the surface area of
the cylinder in the practice example on volume,

just plug the values into the formula:

Solids That Aren’t Prisms


Some of the solids that appear on the Math IC do not have two congruent bases that lie in parallel
planes, so they cannot be considered prisms. As with prisms, you need to know how to calculate the
volume and surface area of these non-prisms. The formulas for the volume and surface area of the
non-prisms are a little more complex than those for the prisms, but not too difficult.
Cones
A cone is not a prism, but it is similar to a cylinder. A cone is essentially a cylinder in which one of
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the bases is collapsed into a single point at the center of the base.
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The radius of a cone is the radius of its one circular base. The height of a cone is the distance from
the center of the base to the apex (the point on top). The lateral height, or slant height, of a cone is
the distance from a point on the edge of the base to the apex. In the figure above, these three
measurements are denoted by r, h, and l, respectively.
Notice that the height, radius, and lateral height of a cone form a right triangle. This means that if
you know the value for any two of these measurements, you will always be able to find the third by
using the Pythagorean theorem.
Volume of a Cone
Since a cone is similar to a cylinder except that it is collapsed to a single point at one end, the formula
for the volume of a cone is a fraction of the formula for the volume of a cylinder:

where r is the radius and h is the height.


For practice, find the volume of the cone pictured below:

To answer this question, just use the formula for the volume of a cone with the following values
plugged in: r = x, l = 2x, and h = x . The volume is:

Surface Area of a Cone


The surface area of a cone consists of the lateral surface area and the area of the base. Because the
base is a circle, it has an area of πr2. The lateral surface is the cone “unrolled,” which, depending on
the shape of the cone, can be the shape of a triangle with a curved base, a half-circle, or a “Pacman”
shape. The area of the lateral surface is related to the circumference of the circle times the lateral
height, l. This is the formula:

where r is the radius and l is the lateral height.


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The total surface area is the sum of the base area and lateral surface area:
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When you are finding the surface area of a cone, be careful not to find only the lateral surface area
and then stop. Students often forget the step of adding on the area of the circular base. Practice by
finding the total surface area of the cone pictured below:

The total surface area is equal to the area of the base plus the area of the lateral surface. The area of
the base = πx2. The lateral surface area = πx 2x. The total surface area therefore equals πx2 + π2x2 =
3πx2.
Pyramids
A pyramid is like a cone, except that it has a polygon for a base. Though pyramids are not tested
very often on the Math IC test, you should be able to recognize them and calculate their volume.

The shaded area in the figure above is the base, and the height is the perpendicular distance from the
apex of the pyramid to its base.
Volume of a Pyramid
The formula for calculating the volume of a pyramid is:

where B is the area of the base and h is the height. Try to find the volume of the pyramid below:

The base is just a square with a side of 3, and the height is 3 /2. B = 32 = 9, and the total volume of
the pyramid is:
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Surface Area of a Pyramid


The surface area of a pyramid is rarely tested on the Math IC test. If you come across one of those
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rare questions that covers the topic, you can calculate the area of each face individually using
techniques from plane geometry, since the base of a pyramid is a square and the sides are triangles.
Practice by finding the surface area of the same pyramid in the figure below:

To calculate the surface area, you need to add together the area of the base and the areas of the four
sides. The base is simply a square, and we’ve seen that B = 32 = 9. Each side is an equilateral triangle,
and we can use the properties of a 30-60-90 triangle to find their areas:

For each triangle, Area = 1 /2 3 3


/2 = 9 / 4. The sum of the areas of the four triangles is 4 9
/4 =
9 The total surface area of the pyramid is 9 + 9
Spheres
A sphere is the collection of points in three-dimensional space that are equidistant from a fixed
point, the center of the sphere. Essentially, a sphere is a 3-D circle. The main measurement of a
sphere is its radius, r, the distance from the center to any point on the sphere.

If you know the radius of a sphere you can find both its volume and surface area. The equation for
the volume of a sphere is:

The equation for the surface area of a sphere is:

Relating Length, Surface Area, and Volume


The Math IC tests not only whether you’ve memorized the formulas for the different geometric
solids, but also whether you understand those formulas. The test gauges your understanding by
asking you to calculate the lengths, surface areas, and volumes of various solids. The Math IC will ask
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you about the relationship between these three properties. The Math IC includes two kinds of
questions covering these relationships.
Comparing Dimensions
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The first way the Math IC will test your understanding of the relationship among the basic
measurements of geometric solids is by giving you the length, surface area, or volume of different
solids and asking you to compare their dimensions. The math needed to answer comparing-
dimensions questions isn’t that hard. But in order to do the math, you need to have a good grasp of
the formulas for each type of solid and be able to relate those formulas to one another algebraically.
For example,

The surface area of a sphere is the same as the volume of a cylinder. What is the ratio of the radius of
the sphere to the radius of the cylinder?
This question tells you that the surface area of a sphere and the volume a cylinder are equal. A
sphere’s surface area is 4π(rs)2, where rs is the radius of the sphere.
A cylinder’s volume is π(rc)2 h, where rc is the radius of the cylinder, and h is its height. Therefore,

The question asks for the ratio between the radii of the sphere and the cylinder. This ratio is given by
r s/rc. Now you can solve the equation 4πrs2 = πrc2 h for the ratio rs/rc.

Changing Measurements
The second way the Math IC will test your understanding of the relationships among length, surface
area, and volume is by changing one of these measurements by a given factor, and then asking how
this change will influence the other measurements.
When the lengths of a solid in the question are increased by a single constant factor, a simple rule
can help you find the answer:

 If a solid’s length is multiplied by a given factor, then the solid’s surface area is multiplied by
the square of that factor, and its volume is multiplied by the cube of that factor.

Remember that this rule holds true only if all of a solid’s dimensions increase in length by a given
factor. So for a cube or a sphere, the rule holds true when just a side or the radius changes, but for a
rectangular solid, cylinder, or other solid, all of the length dimensions must change by the same
factor. If the dimensions of the object do not increase by a constant factor—for instance, if the height
of a cylinder doubles but the radius of the base triples—you will have to go back to the equation for
the dimension you are trying to determine and calculate by hand.
Example 1

If you double the length of the side of a square, by how much do you increase the area of that square?
If you understand the formula for the area of a square, this question is simple. The formula for the
area of a square is A = s2, where s is the length of a side. Replace s with 2s, and you see that the area
of a square quadruples when the length of its sides double: (2s)2 = 4s2.
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Example 2

If a sphere’s radius is halved, by what factor does its volume decrease?


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The radius of the sphere is multiplied by a factor of 1⁄2 (or divided by a factor of 2), and so its volume
multiplies by the cube of that factor: (1⁄2)3 = 1⁄8. Therefore, the volume of the sphere is multiplied by a
factor of 1⁄8 (divided by 8), which is the same thing as decreasing by a factor of 8.
Example 3

A rectangular solid has dimensions x y z (these are its length, width, and height), and a volume of
x y
64. What is the volume of a rectangular solid of dimensions /2 /2 z?
If this rectangular solid had dimensions that were all one-half as large as the dimensions of the solid
whose volume is 64, then its volume would be (1⁄2)3 64 = 1⁄8 64 = 8. But dimension z is not
multiplied by 1⁄2 like x and y. To answer a question like this one, you should use the volume formula
for rectangular solids: Volume = l w h. It is given in the question that xyz = 64. So, x⁄2 y⁄2 z = 1⁄4
xyz = 1⁄4 64 = 16.

Inscribed Solids
An inscribed solid is a solid placed inside another solid, with the edges of the two solids touching.
The figures below are, from left to right, a cylinder inscribed in a sphere, a sphere inscribed in a cube,
and a rectangular solid inscribed in a sphere.

Math IC questions that involve inscribed solids don’t require any techniques other than those you’ve
already learned. These questions do require an ability to visualize inscribed solids and an awareness
of how certain line segments relate to both of the solids in a given figure.
Most often, an inscribed-solid question will present a figure of an inscribed solid and give you
information about one of the solids. For example, you may be given the radius of a cylinder, and then
be asked to find the volume of the other solid, say a rectangular solid. Using the figure as your guide,
you need to use the radius of the cylinder to find the dimensions of the other solid so that you can
answer the question. Here’s an example:

In the figure below, a cube is inscribed in a cylinder. If the length of the diagonal of the cube is 4
and the height of the cylinder is 5, what is the volume of the cylinder?

The formula for the volume of a cylinder is πr2(h). The question states that h = 5, but there is no
value given for r. So in order to solve for the volume of the cylinder, we need to first find the value of
r.
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The key step in this problem is to recognize that the diagonal of a face of the cube is also the
diameter, or twice the radius, of the cylinder. To see this, draw a diagonal, d, in either the top or
bottom face of the cube.
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In order to find this diagonal, which is the hypotenuse in a 45-45-90 triangle, we need the length of
an edge of the cube, or s. We can find s from the diagonal of the cube (not to be confused with the
diagonal of a face of the cube), since the formula for the diagonal of a cube is s where s is the
length of an edge of the cube. The question states that the diagonal of the cube is 4 so it follows
that s = 4. This means that the diagonal along a single face of the cube is 4 (using the special

properties of a 45-45-90 triangle). Therefore, the radius of the cylinder is 4 / 2 = 2 Plug that into
the formula for the volume of the cylinder, and you get π (2 ) 2
5 = 40π.
Helpful Tips
Math IC questions involving inscribed solids are much easier to solve when you know how the lines
of different solids relate to one another. For instance, the previous example showed that when a cube
is inscribed in a cylinder, the diagonal of a face of the cube is equal to the diameter of the cylinder.
The better you know the rules of inscribed solids, the better you’ll do on these questions. So without
further ado, here are the rules of inscribed solids that most commonly appear on the Math IC.
Cylinder Inscribed in a Sphere
The diameter of the sphere is equal to the diagonal of the cylinder’s height and diameter.

Sphere Inscribed in a Cube


The diameter of the sphere is equal to the length of the cube’s edge.

Sphere Inscribed in a Cylinder


Both the cylinder and the sphere have the same diameter and radius.
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Solids Produced by Rotating Polygons
Another type of Math IC question that you may come across involves a solid produced by the rotation
of a polygon. The best way to explain how this type of problem works is to provide a sample question:

What is the surface area of the geometric solid produced by the triangle below when it is rotated 360
degrees about the axis AB?

When this triangle is rotated about AB, a cone is formed. To solve the problem, the first thing you
should do is sketch the cone that the triangle will form.

The question asks you to figure out the surface area of the cone. The formula for surface area is πr2 +
πrl, which means you need to know the lateral height of the cone and the radius of the circle. If
you’ve drawn your cone correctly, you should see that the lateral height is equal to the hypotenuse of
the triangle. The radius of the circle is equal to side BC of the triangle. You can easily calculate the
length of BC since the triangle is a 30-60-90 triangle. If the hypotenuse is 2, then BC, being the side
opposite the 30º angle, must be 1. Now plug both values of l and r into the surface area formula and
then simplify:

Common Rotations
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You don’t need to learn any new techniques or formulas for problems that deal with rotating figures.
You just have to be able to visualize the rotation as it’s described and be aware of which parts of the
polygons become which parts of the geometric solid. Below is a summary of which polygons, when
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rotated a specific way, produce which solids.


A rectangle rotated about its A semicircle rotated about its A right triangle rotated about one of
edge produces a cylinder. diameter produces a sphere. its legs produces a cone.

A rectangle rotated about a A circle rotated about its An isosceles triangle rotated about
central axis (which must contain diameter produces a sphere. its axis of symmetry (the altitude
the midpoints of both of the from the vertex of the non-congruent
sides that it intersects) produces angle) produces a cone.
a cylinder.

Key Formulas
Length of a Diagonal of a Cube
d= =s where s is the length of one edge of the cube.
Length of a Diagonal of a Rectangular Solid
d= , where l is the length, w is the width, and h is the height of the rectangular solid.
Surface Area of a Cube
Surface Area = 6s2, where s is the length of one edge.
Surface Area of a Rectangular Solid
Surface Area = 2lw + 2lh + 2wh, where l is the length, w is the width, and h is the height.
Surface Area of a Cylinder
Surface Area = 2πr2 + 2πrh, where r is the radius and h is the height.
Surface Area of a Sphere
Surface Area = 4πr2, where r is the radius.
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Lateral Surface Area of a Cone


Lateral Surface Area = πrl, where r is the radius of the base and l is the cone’s lateral height.
Total Surface Area of a Cone
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Surface Area = πr2 + πrl, where r is the radius of the base, and l is the cone’s lateral height.
Volume of a Cube
Volume = s3, where s is the length of one edge.
Volume of a Rectangular Solid
Volume = lwh, where l is the length, w is the width, and h is the height.
Volume of a Prism
Volume = Bh, where B is the area of the base, and h is the height.
Volume of a Cylinder
Volume = πr2h, where r is the radius of the circular base and h is the cylinder’s height.
Volume of a Cone
Volume = πr2h, where r is the radius and h is the height.
Volume of a Pyramid
Volume = Bh, where B is the area of the base and h is the height.
Volume of a Sphere
Volume = πr3, where r is the radius.

Review Questions
1. If the length, width, and height of a rectangular solid are all doubled, by what factor is the length of its
diagonal multiplied?
(A)

(B)

(C) 2
(D) 4
(D) 8
2. A cylinder’s radius is equal to its height. If its surface area is 100Ï €, what is its volume?
(A) 25π
(B) 50π
(C) 100π
(D) 125π
(D) 625π
3. Cone A has volume 24. When its radius and height are multiplied by the same factor, the cone’s
surface area doubles. What is Cone A’s new volume?
(A)

(B) 48
(C)

(D) 96
(D) Not enough information to tell
4. A rectangle stands so that its 6 inch side lies flat against the ground. If the rectangle is rotated
around the axis of one of its two 4 inch sides, what is the volume of the resulting cylinder?
(A) 24π
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(B) 36π
(C) 64π
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(D) 96π
(D) 144π
Explanations
1.      C     

The formula for the length of the diagonal of a rectangular solid is where l, w, and h are the dimensions
of the solid. Substitute 2l, 2w, and 2h for these values:

The length of the diagonal doubles, just like the rectangular solid’s other dimensions.
2.      D     

The volume of a cylinder is given by the formula . In the case of this cylinder, the radius is equal to height (r = h), so

Since we have a value only for the surface area of this cylinder, to find r, we must use the surface area formula, which is
Because r = h in this cylinder, the surface area of this cylinder is

With the information given by the question, we can find the radius by setting either 4πr2 = 100π or r2 = 100π⁄4π = 25. Either
way, the radius of the cylinder works out to 5, which means that the volume of the cylinder is π5 3 = 125π.
3.      C     
The formula for a cone’s surface area is πr2 + πrl. A cone’s volume is 1/ 3πr2h. So if the dimensions of a cone are multiplied
by the same factor, a,

then its surface area multiplies by the square of that factor. If the dimensions of a cone are multiplied by the same factor, the
volume becomes multiplied by the cube of that factor:

In general, for solids, if each dimension of a cone is multiplied by the same factor, the solid’s surface area is multiplied by
the square of that factor, and its volume increases by the cube of that factor. If the surface area of Cone A doubles, its
dimensions are multiplied by a factor of Thus, the cone’s volume is multiplied by a factor of Cone A’s
new volume is
4.      E     
If the rectangle is rotated about a side of length 4, then the height of the cylinder will be 4 and the radius will be 6.
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Once you visualize the cylinder, you can plug in the values for the volume of a cylinder:

Coordinate Geometry
COORDINATE GEOMETRY QUESTIONS make up about 10 percent of the Math IC test. Many of the
basic concepts in this chapter may be familiar to you from plane geometry, but they have a twist: the
coordinate plane gives us new ways to analyze shapes and figures. Coordinate geometry also covers a
number of topics that plane geometry doesn’t, such as slope, parabolas, and coordinate space.

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