Lesson One: Revision: phonology and phonetics, a quick reminder.

1) Definitions
1.Phonetics: is the general study or description of the characteristics of human speech sounds.
Articulators: are the different set of muscles that are used in the speech production and
articulation (the organs of speech transform the sound into an intelligible speech sound).
3.Articulatory (articulatory phonetics) : is the study of how speech sounds are produced
(articulated)
4. Phonology is the study of the sound systems found in human languages and the study of the
functions of speech sounds. Phonology studies then phrases, sentences and takes meaning into
account.
Phonetics is concerned with the physical manifestation of language in sound waves and how
they are produced, transmitted, and perceived, and also
“provides methods for their description, classification, and transcription”
(Crystal 2008: 363).
Phonology “studies the sound systems of languages” (ibid: 365) and how sounds function in
relation to each other in a language. So, phonology is tied to meaning of sounds in sentences
and not isolated words.
5.Suprasegmental phonology deals with aspects carried by the syllable such as stress and
intonation.
6. Words like 'seat' /siːt/ and 'heat' /hiːt/ are called minimal pairs as they differ
with respect to only one phoneme.
7.Both phonemes and allophones are sounds.
8.A phoneme is the smallest phonological unit in a language that can change meaning. So the
sound /p/ in pot and that of /k/ in cot do change the meaning of the words. Phonemes are then
the small number of regularly used sounds in daily speech. In English Phonetic system, there
are 20 vowel phonemes and 24 consonant phonemes

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9.The allophone is the realization of the phoneme. Allophones do not change meaning. For
example/l/ can have at least two allophones, dark /l/ and clear/l/, still the allophone does not
change meaning whether your pronounce, for example, "mall" with a clear or dark /l/.
10.We use slashes / / in phonemic transcription and square brackets [ ] in
phonetic also called allophonic transcription. Phonemic transcription is sometimes called
phonological.
11. Allophonic transcription is sometimes called phonetic.
12. IPA is the International Phonetic Association.
13.Accent is the variety of language in pronunciation only.
14.Dialect is the variety of language in pronunciation, word order, grammar and vocabulary
15.BBC pronunciation ( Received Pronunciation - RP) is the standard accent of English
language which is widely used by educated people and also recommended for foreigners to
learn and use.
16.English spelling is somewhat unreliable in that there are a lot of deceiving words which may
mislead learners who then misprounce them. For instance, the vowel /i/ can be spelled in
numerous ways. All the letters put in brackets in the following words represent /i/: h(e), s(ee),
s(ea), bel(ie)ve, rec(ei)ve, p(i)zza, p(eo)ple, k(ey). So instead of relying on the spelling,
phoneticians use transcription. There are two types: (1) phonemic transcription, indicating
phonemes only; this type, as we have seen, is normally placed inside slant brackets / /, e.g.,
part /pɑ:t/; (2) phonetic transcription, showing more detailed allophonic distinctions, enclosed
by square brackets [ ], e.g., part [ pʰɑ:t]. To indicate the allophonic distinctions, we often use
diacritics, i.e., marks added to symbols to provide extra information, e.g., [pʰ]. The rounded
allophone of /t/ is shown as [tw].
17. Sometimes, words with different meanings are spelled completely differently but are
pronounced in the same way, as in "key" and "quay" . Such words are called homophones (same
pronunciation, different meaning). English has a great many of these. Other examples of
homophones are wait/ weight, know/no, sea/see, cite/sight/site. To confuse matters even more,
the opposite also occurs. It’s possible for words that are spelled identically to be pronounced
differently called homographs.
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18) English sonorants are sounds that are voiced and do not cause sufficient obstruction to the
airflow to prevent normal voicing from continuing. Sonorants are resonant and are as
follows: /m/, /n/, /ŋ/./l/, /r/, /j/, /w/ and vowel sounds.
19) English sibilants (hissing sounds) are
/s, z, ʃ, ʒ, tʃ, dʒ/.These sounds are important in that they will help students sort some of the
english pronunciation problems out.
20) Palatalised /l/.The term palatalisation refers to a process by which a sound, usually a
consonant, is articulated with the tongue shifted near the hard palate (Crystal 2008: 347).The
sound /l/ can be realised as a palatalised allophone with the tongue slightly raised toward the
palate. This allophone is called clear /l/, and it occurs before vowels (e.g. light, love). The
nonpalatalised allophone, the dark/l/, is realised in other contexts: before consonants and in the
final positions of words (e.g. milk, ball). It has a special allophonic symbol [ɬ]. However,
palatalisation is highly dependent on the dialectal use that is specific to RP speakers. In several
nonstandard varieties of English, the dark /l/ may be articulated like a vowel or a sonorant:
/w/, /ɒ/ or /ʊ/, e.g., milk /mɪʊk/ or feel /fiːw/. This is called /l/ vocalisation and is a notable
feature of Cockney and Estuary English.
Homework
Task one: Transcribe the vowel phonemes in the following words:

WORD VOWEL
cup
how
said
hear
sea
float
ash
foot
blow
first
glance
dare
wash
pool
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sign
cream
walk
pill

Task two: Transcribe the consonant phonemes in the following words:

WORD CONSONANT
oil
song
use
knee
wave
yolk
comb
twelve
rice
thumb

Task three:
Transcribe the sonorant phonemes in the following words.

WORD SONORANT
oil
song
use
knee
wave
yolk
comb
twelve
rice
thumb
Task four: Give four examples with clear/l/ and four examples with dark/l/.
Task five.
Are the following word pairs homophones or not?
1 rain, reign 2 tense, tens 3 write, right 4 cue, Q 5 glace, glaze 6 age, H 7 frees, freeze 8 way,
weigh

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Lesson Two: Consonants and vowels

1.Introduction
The lesson is just a quick reminder of consonant and vowel sounds.Students should be able to
master the phonetic symbols and their pronunciation, as well. The pronunciation of such sounds
will be shown practically throughout the year as this is the end-product of teaching phonetics.It
is no use describing sounds without knowing how to pronounce them correctly in a pronouncing
dictionary or other dictionaries without forgetting word stress which is also important if the
speaker really wants to get his message across in communicative situations.

2. Symbols for Transcribing English

Following WELLS, J.C. (2008), The Longman Pronunciation Dictionary. London, Longman.
All examples in this list are based on Modern RP (MRP) pronunciation.
a.Vowel symbols (monophthongs and diphthongs).
i:- see /si:/
υ put /pυt/
ɪə- near /nɪə/
u:- too /tu:/
eə-hair /heə/
u-situation /sitʃu'eiʃən /
υə- pure /pjυə/
ʌ-cup /kʌp/
ɪ- sit /sɪt/
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ɜː-bird /bɜːd/
i-happy /hæpi/
ə-about /ə'baυt/
e-ten /ten/
eɪ-say /seɪ/
æ-cat /kæt/
əυ- go /əυ/
ɑ:- calm /kɑ:m/
aɪ-five /faɪv/
ɒ-got /gɒt/
aυ- now /naυ/
ɔ: saw /sɔ:/
ɔɪ-boy /bɔɪ/
υ put /pυt/
ɪə- near /nɪə/
u:- too /tu:/
eə-hair /heə/
u-situation /sitʃu'eiʃən /
υə- pure /pjυə/

Consonant symbols

p- pen /pen/
s-source /sɔ:s/
b-bad /bæd/
z-zoos /zu:z/
t- tea /ti:/
ʃ-shoe /ʃu:/
d-did /dɪd/
v-vision /'vɪzən /
k cake /keik/
h-hat /hæt/
got-/gɒt/
m- man /mæn/
tʃ-chain /tʃeɪn/
n-no /nəυ/
dʒ- jam /dʒæm/
ŋ-sing /sɪŋ/
f-fall /fɔ:l/
l-leg /leg/
v-van /væn/
r-red /red/
θ-thin /θɪn/
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ð-this/ðɪs/
j-yes /jes/
w- wet /wet/

The problem does not lie in knowing these phonetic symbols but to master the pronunciation of
isolated words and then sentences through these symbols and the stress as well because this is
the main important thing learners should do once they consult their dictionaries. To this end, the
practice of these symbols should be throughout the year.
3. Consonant Sounds
These are sounds which are articulated when there is an obstruction to the flow of the air at
various points as it passes from the Larynx to the lips.
-Bilabials:-Consonants that are articulated by a complete or partial lips closure.
- Bilabials are /p/, /b/, /m/, /w/.
-Labiodentals:consonants that are articulated when the lower lip is in contact with the upper
teeth. The Labiodentals are /f/ and /v/
- Dentals:- Consonants that are articulated when the tongue touches the top upper teeth. The
Dentals are /θ/ and/ð/.
- Alveolars: consonants that are articulated when the tongue touches the alveolar ridge. The
alveolars are; /t/, /d/, /s/, /z/, /l/.
- Post-Alveolars: consonants that are articulated when the tongue touches the area just behind
the alveolar ridge. Alveolars are; /ʃ/, /ʒ, /tʃ, /dʒ/, /r/.
-Palatals: consonants that are articulated when the tongue touches the hard palate. The Palatal
is /j/.
-Velars: consonants that are articulated when the back of the tongue touches the Velum. The
Velars are; /k/, /g/, /ŋ/.
-Glottal: a consonant that is articulated in the Glottis, (glottis is the gap between the vocal
folds). The Glottal Consonant is /h/
4. Vowel sounds
These are sounds that are articulated without any obstruction to the flow of air as it passes
from the Larynx to the lips.A/ English vowels are classified according to:

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-Tongue height (open , open-mid, close-mid, close)
-Tongue Position (Front, Central, Back).
- Lips shape (Rounded, Spread, Neutral)
By rounded we mean that the corners of the lips are brought together during the pronunciation
of some sounds like /ɒ/ and /ʊ/. Spread means that the corners of the lips are moved away from
each other during the pronunciation of some sounds like /i/. Neutral means that the corners of
the lips stay unmoving during the pronunciation of some sounds like /ʌ/.
a-/ɪ/ :- Close , Front , Slightly Spread. such as; bit /bɪt/, hit /hɪt/.
b- /e/:- Open-mid, Front , Slightly Spread. such as; men /men/, then /ðen/.
c- /æ/:- Open, Front, Slightly Spread. such as; man /mæn/ , gas /gæs/
d- /ʌ/:- Open-mid, Central, Neutral. such as; cut /kʌt/ , love /lʌv/.
e- /ɒ/:- between Open and Open-mid, Back, Slightly Rounded. such as; God /gɒd/, Spot /spɒt/.
f- /ʊ/:- Close-mid, Central, Rounded. such as; Put /pʊt/, full /fʊl/.
g- /ə/:- Open-mid, Central, Neutral. such as; ago /əgəʊ/, lemon /lemən/
/i:/ Close, Front , Slightly Spread. such as; meet /mi:t/ , lead /li:d/.
h- /ɜː/ Open-mid , Central , Neutral. such as; bird /bɜːd/. Purse /pɜːs/.
i- /ɑː/ Open , Back , Neutral. such as; Card /kɑːd/ . half /hɑːf/.
j- /ɔː/ Close-mid , Back , Rounded. such as; board /bɔːd/ . horse /hɔːs/.
k- /uː/ Close , Back , Rounded. such as; food /fuːd/ . soon /suːn/
5.Diphthongs
A diphthong is a sound formed from a glide (rapid movement) from one sound to another. In
English Phonetic system, there are eight diphthongs. The first part of the Diphthong sound is
LONGER, STRONGER and LOUDER than the second part. For example; in the diphthong /aɪ/,
we spend more time and effort to pronounce the vowel /a/ than the vowel /ɪ/.According to their
glide direction. Diphthongs are divided into two classes: centring diphthongs and closing
diphthongs. Centring diphthongs are those which end in /ə/ which is a central vowel, and they
are three diphthongs:
a- /ɪə/ as in Beard /bɪəd/
b- /eə/ as in Cairn /keən/
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c- /ʊə/ as in Tour /tʊə/
Closing diphthongs: are those which end in a close vowel. they are divided into two sub-
classes; first, those ending in /ɪ/ and those ending in /ʊ/. They are all five diphthongs:
d- /eɪ/ as in Paid /peɪd/
e-/aɪ/ as in My /mɑɪ/
f- /ɔɪ/ as in Boy /bɔɪ/
g- /əʊ/ as in Load /ləʊd/
h- /aʊ/ as in Loud /lɑʊd/
6. Triphthongs
A triphthong is a glide from one vowel to another then to a third, all are produced rapidly and
without interruption. There are five triphthongs in English:
/eɪ + ə/ as in Player /pleɪə/
2- /aɪ + ə/ as in Hire /hɑɪə/
3- /ɔɪ + ə/ as in Lawyer /lɔɪə/
4- /əʊ + ə/ as in Lower /ləʊə/
5- /aʊ + ə/ as in Power /pɑʊə/
Q/ There are English words which have "ow" letters followed by "er", but their pronunciation is
different. Some of them are pronounced with /əʊə/, and some other words with /ɑʊə/. What
governs the appropriate pronunciation of these words?
Answer
A/ if the word which has "ow" followed by "er" is of morpheme, ("er" are from the origin of the
word) such as; Power, Flower. Therefore; these words will be pronounced with /aʊə/. For
example:
Power /paʊə/ , Flower /flaʊə/
But if the words which has "ow" followed by "er" is of two morphemes, ("er" is a suffix (bound
morpheme) added to the main word (free morpheme) ). Such as; Lower , Slower. Therefore;
these words will be pronounce with /əʊə/. For example;
Lower /ləʊə/ , Slower /sləʊə/
Both of these words are composed of
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Low + er
Slow + er
Where "er" is an addition to the main words, "Low" and "Slow" respectively.
C) Homework
Questions about lessons 1 and 2.
1. How do phonemes differ from allophones? Show the difference with the words " pot" and "
table"
2.Define suprasegmental phonology?
3.What do we call pairs of words which differ with respect to only one sound?
4. What is IPA?
5. How do we differentiate between phonemic and phonetic transcription?
How then can we tell that the sounds being transcribed are allophones not phonemes?
6. Transcribe six words with diphthongs and four words with triphthongs.
7.Check out the following words in your dictionary, then transcribe them phonelically. Which
rule of stress of schwa can be deduced. Use RP pronunciation.
boat-mayor-national-knowledge-courage-
sour-sure-comedian-professor-certainty-ignorance-teacher-tomorrow-saturday-diploma

Lesson Three: Strong and weak syllables

1. The vowel in a strong syllable tends to be longer, of higher intensity (loudness) and different
in quality.
2. A schwa /ə/ is always a weak syllable as in 'open' /'əʊpən/.
3. A close front unrounded vowel /i/ always makes the syllable weak as in 'city' /'sɪti/.There are
rules for neutralized /i/ and /u/. A lesson will folllow in due time.
4. A close back rounded vowel /u/ when unstressed always makes the syllable weak as in 'thank
you' /'θæŋk ju/.
5.The vowel schwa /ə/ occurs frequently in English, unstressed and then weak.
6.The vowel /ə/ is spelt with 'a' such as 'attend' /ə'tend/.
7.The vowel /ə/ is spelt with 'ar' such as 'particular' /pə'tɪkjələ/.
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8.The vowel /ə/ is spelt with 'ate' such as 'accurate' /'ækjərət/.
9.The vowel /ə/ is spelt with 'o' such as 'potato' /pə'teɪtəʊ/.
10.The vowel /ə/ is spelt with 'or' such as 'forget' /fə'get/.
11.The vowel /ə/ is spelt with 'e' such as 'violet' /'vaɪələt/.
12.The vowel /ə/ is spelt with 'er' such as 'silver' /'sɪlvə/.
13.The vowel /ə/ is spelt with 'u' such as 'support' /sə'pɔ:t/.
14.The vowel /ə/ is spelt with 'ough' such as 'thorough' /'θʌrə/.
15.The vowel /ə/ is also spelt with 'ou' such as 'gracious' /'greɪʃəs/.
16.There are five syllabic consonants in English which are/m, n, ŋ, l, r/. We will be dealing,
later on, with only/l,n,m/ as they are the most common.Their pronunciation will be shown in
practice.
17. We show syllabicity by means of a small vertical mark (ˌ) beneath the symbol. (lessons will
follow about syllabicity).
18. Of the syllabic nasals, the most frequently found is /n/ in terms of occurance.
-Homework
Question: Consult your dictionary and find the different kinds of spelling of schwa and then
transcribe the words you have found.

Lesson Four: Voiced and voiceless consonants

1.Definition
Voicing refers to the actions of the vocal folds during the articulation of a consonant. Different
actions of the vocal folds produce voiced and voiceless sounds.
2.Voiced and voiceless consonants
Voiced consonants are are /b d ɡ ʤ v ð z ʒ m n ŋ l r j w/),. Vowels are also voiced sounds.
Voiceless consonants are /p t k ʧ f θ s ʃ h/). We use a piece of paper, let some air espace from
the lungs to feel the vibration of voiced consonants. Voiced and voiceless consonants are
important since they help students pronounce-ed past, possessive cases, verbs and nouns

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correctly.For example, in" Mike's car", the sound /s/ is voiceless because / k/ in Mike is also
voiceless, so it is pronounced/ maɪks.../
( A lesson will follow in due time).
3. Kinds of consonants
We might not be interested in spending a lot of time in describing the manner of articilation of
the consonants, but students should know at least the kinds of consonants as they will "show up"
in our next lessons.These consonants are as follows:
• Plosives: /p b t d k ɡ/.
• Fricatives: /f v θ ð s z ʃ ʒ h/.
• Affricates: /ʧ ʤ/.
• Nasals: /m n ŋ/.
• Approximants: /r l j w/.
4. Dealing with the sound /ŋ/
Too often, students a big problem with this sound as it is confused with /g/. The nasal /ŋ/ needs
to be discussed separately because this is a sound that often causes problems for EFL students.
Roach (2009: 47) gives a thorough explanation on the distribution of the sound. The /ŋ/ sound is
never found in the initial position of a syllable or a word. In the medial position, /ŋ/ is always
followed by the plosive /k/ if the word has –nk- in spelling, e.g. think /θɪŋk/ or banknote
/ˈbæŋknəʊt/. The difficulty starts when /ŋ/ is expected to be followed by the sound /ɡ/ in the
words with –ng- in spelling. When /ŋ/ occurs at the end of a morpheme (at the end of a minimal
unit of meaning), /ɡ/ is not present, e.g. sing (root) + er (suffix) /ˈsɪŋə/. When /ŋ/ occurs in the
middle of a morpheme, it is followed by the plosive /ɡ/, e.g. finger /ˈfɪŋɡə/, anger /ˈæŋɡə/.There
are exceptions, however. The main exception to the morpheme-based rule is the pronunciation
of /ŋ/ in comparative and superlative forms of adjectives and adverbs: even when /ŋ/ occurs at
the end of a morpheme, it is pronounced /ŋɡ/ when it is followed by the comparative suffix -er
or the superlative suffix –est, e.g. longer /ˈlɒŋɡə/, longest /ˈlɒŋɡəst/.
5.Fortis and lenis
The term fortis means strong ( for voiceless consonants) and that of lenis means weak ( for
voiced consonants).In other words, the voiceless obstruents are articulated more forcefully than
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voiced obstruents. Many learners may get confused by these terms because they feel that voiced
sounds are louder and therefore strong, while voiceless sounds are quieter and therefore weak.
English /b d ɡ ʤ v ð z ʒ/ are voiced obstruents.
a) English voiced obstruents are fully voiced when they occur between voiced sonorants (nasals,
approximants, and vowels):
-/b/rabbit [ˈræbət] -a boat [ə ˈbəʊt]-rub it [ˈrʌb ɪt]
-/d/colder [ˈkəʊldə]-a dog [ə ˈdɒɡ]-need it [ˈni:d ɪt]
-/ɡ/cargo [ˈkɑ:ɡəʊ]-my gate [maɪ ˈɡeɪt]-big oak [ˈbɪɡ ˈ əʊk]
-/ʤ/magic [ˈmæʤɪk]-a joke [ə ˈʤəʊk]-page eight [ˈpeɪʤ ˈeɪt]
-/v/envy [ˈenvi]-a view [ə ˈvju:]-move it [ˈmu:v ɪt]
-/ð/clothing [ˈkləʊðɪŋ]-see this [ˈsi ˈðɪs]-loathe it [ˈləʊð ɪt]
-/z/easy [ˈi:zi]-the zoo [ðə ˈzu:]-his own [hɪz ˈ əʊn]
/ʒ/vision [ˈvɪʒən]-a genre [ə ˈʒɔ:nrə]-beige is [ˈbeɪʒ ˈɪz]
b) English voiced obstruents are partially or fully devoiced when they are preceded by a
voiceless consonant or when a voiceless consonant follows:
-/b/this book [ˈðɪs ˈbʊk]-grab some [ˈɡræb ˈsm]
/d/dog [ˈdɒɡ]
/ɡ/that guy [ˈðæt ˈɡaɪ]
/ʤ/ stage fright [ˈsteɪʤ fraɪt]
/v/eight verbs [ˈeɪt ˈvə:bz] -save time [ˈseɪv ˈtaɪm]
/ð/not that [ˈnɒt ˈðæt]
/z/six zones [ˈsɪks ˈzəʊnz ]
/ʒ/beige top [ˈbeɪʒ tɒp]
A devoiced consonant is normally shown by means of a subscript circle under the consonant
(e.g., [b]), but with descending symbols, a superscript circle is used (e.g., [ɡ]).
Homework
Questions
1.In the following phrases and words we can hear either a voiceless sound)or a voiced
sound( consonant or a vowel) at the end. We then add a "s" in the third-person singular, in
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possessive cases and nouns. Transcribe the phrases and words phonemically and deduce the
rules.
Pete's house-He kicks the ball- He laughs at them- Mary's coat- houses- cottages- Barbara's
teddy bear-cats-tables-she washes the dishes.
2.Give one example for each voiced obstruent when it occurs between vowels.
3.In what cases is the sound /ŋ/ followed by the plosive /ɡ/?.Give examples.
4.
a) Which of the following utterances begins with a voiceless consonant?
1 phial 2 banana 3 heartache 4 pneumatic 5 embargo 6 knock 7 charade 8 Xerox 9 write 10
honest
b) Which of the following utterances have a voiceless consonant between the two vowels?
1 easy 2 clothing 3 pleasure 4 mission 5 breathy 6 leather 7 racer 8 tougher 9 classy 10 fever
c) Which of the following utterances have a voiceless consonant at the end?
1 rays 2 worse 3 wise 4 faces 5 breathe 6 off 7 does 8 cloth 9 dose (of medicine) 10 of

Lesson Five: Inflections: Final /s/, /z/, /ɪz/, /t/, /d/, and /ɪd/
1.Introduction

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 Many students often confuse /s/ and /z/ sounds at the end of words when, in spelling, they
write –s. This is essentially relevant for the plural forms of nouns, the possessive case of nouns,
and the third person singular form of verbs. Actually, there are three types of endings, and they
are determined by the voice quality of the preceding sound.
2./s/, /z/ and /ɪz/
a) /s/ after voiceless consonants in nouns, third-person singular of the present simple and in
possessive cases. Voiceless consonants are: /p/ /t/ /k/ /f/ /s/ /ʃ/ /θ/ /tʃ//h/. Examples are:
books, roofs, aunt‘s, wife‘s, month‘s.
b)/z/ after voiced consonants and vowels
in nouns, third-person singular of the present simple and possessive cases. Voiced consonants
are: /b/ /m//d/ /n/
/ɡ/ /ŋ//v/ /l//z/ /r//ʒ/ /j//ð/ /w//dʒ/ and vowels are: /ɪ/, /iː/, /ʊ/, /uː/,/æ/, /ɒ/, /ʌ/, /ɑː/,/e/, /ɔː/, /ɜː/,
/ə/,/eɪ/, /aɪ/, /ɔɪ/, /ɪə/, /eə/, /ʊə/, /əʊ/, /aʊ/,
/eɪə/, /aɪə/, /ɔɪə/, /əʊə/, /aʊə/. Examples are: sons, songs, walls, heroes, dog‘s, pupil‘s, goes.
c) /ɪz/ after the sibilants /s/ /z/ /ʃ/ /ʒ/ /tʃ/ /dʒ/ in nouns, third-person singular of the present simple
and possessive cases. Examples are: churches, languages, judge‘s, actress‘s, teaches.
3. Final /t/, /d/, and /ɪd/
The past form of regular verbs in spelling –ed may be pronounced as /t/, /d/, or /ɪd/, which is
again determined by the voice quality of the preceding sounds.
a)/t/ after voiceless consonants. The rule applies to regular verbs in the past. Examples are:
looked, missed, passed, baked, crossed.
b) d/ after voiced consonants and vowels
( regular verbs in the past).Examples are:
played, served, appeared, spammed,
c)/ɪd/ after /t/ /d/. Examples are hated, started, wanted, speeded, voted, loaded
bottled. The final sound heard in 'hate' is/t/ though in spelling it is /te/ because/ e/ is silent, so
the pronunciation is/ /ɪd/. Once again, in 'hate', there is only one syllable and not
too.Monophthongs and diphthongs are counted as one syllable, while triphthongs are counted as
two syllables.
15
4.Detailed explanation
The pronunciation of the -s sufix(ending), occurring in plurals (e.g., cats), third- person present
tense endings (e.g., thinks), and possessives (e.g., John’s), is determined by the preceding
sound. It’s pronounced /Iz/ or /əz/ following sibilants, /s/ following all other voiceless
consonants, and /z/ following all other voiced sounds:
-/əz/:buses, Alice’s, seizes, Rose’s, wishes, churches, catches, judges, George’s, camouflages
-/s/:stops, lips, hats, Pete’s, thinks, Mike’s, laughs, Jeff’s, myths, Beth’s
-/z/:Bob’s, needs, bags, leaves, breathes, seems, Kevin’s, things, Jill’s, cars, bees, Sue’s, bras,
ways, Joe’s, lies, cows, toys, Hilda’s
The same rule applies in contractions involving auxiliary has andis:
-has:What’s happened? /ˈwɒts ˈhæpənd/, Mike’s left. /ˈmaɪks ˈleft/, Who’s gone. /ˈhuz ˈɡɔ:n/
-is:That’s good. /ˈðæts ˈɡʊd/, It’s difficult. /ɪts ˈdɪfəkəlt/, Where’s Pete? /ˈwə:z ˈpi:t/
The pronunciation of the past tense ending -ed (e.g., talked) is also governed by the preceding
sound. It is pronounced /Id/ or /əd/ following /t/ or /d/ and /t/ following all other voiceless
consonants, and /d/ following all other voiced sounds, both consonants and vowels:
-/Id/ or /əd/:waited, needed
-/t/:stopped, thanked, watched, laughed, unearthed, kissed, wished
-/d/:robbed, begged, judged, saved, breathed, used, seemed, frowned, banged, sailed, starred,
played, showed, sighed, allowed, employed
Note that certain adjectives (e.g., like aged, learned, crooked, dogged, naked, legged, wicked,
wretched) take the/Id/ or /əd/ ending.
Homework
Task one
Transcribe the final sound of the following words.
John's-Mary's-pronounced-managed-manages-watches-kills-learned( verb)- learned (adjective)-
princess's- princesses'- parents'- articulated- added- Dickens's-Gerald's-wives-shops-boxes-
actors.
Task two

16
Under what influence is the –s ending in the plural of nouns, third-person singular of the present
simple and in possessive cases pronounced in three different ways.

Lesson Six : Neutralized/i/ and/u/

1.Definition
Neutralised sounds are the actual representation of Neutralisation. i.e. the absence of the
contrast between two distinct phonemes in certain contexts. Both the neutralised /i , u/, and non-
neutralised /ɪ-i:/ and /ʊ-u:/ (normal) sounds share the same characteristics. But neutralised
sounds appear only in weak syllables.
2.Occuence of/i/ and/u/
There are some of English accents pronounce the sounds which tend to be neutralised without
neutralisation. For example,Welsh accents tend to pronounce the last sound in "easy" as long
vowel /i:/. While Yorkshire accents pronounce the same sound in the same word as short Vowel
/ɪ/. Comparatively; the BBC accent pronounce them as neutralised sounds. For example:
Easy" "Busy"
1- /i:zi:/ Welsh /bɪzi:/
2- /i:zɪ/ Yorkshire /bɪzɪ/
3- /i:zi/ BBC /bɪzi/

/i/ and /u/ can be generally specified as archiphonemesbecause they represent the intermediate
status between the phonemic contrasts in length in /i:/ and /ɪ/ as well as /u:/ and /ʊ/. This
neutralisation of length suggests that the two sounds /i/ and / u/ have the quality of the
respective long vowels and the length of the respective short vowels. The following phonetic
environments for the intermediate /i/ are:
•when the vowel is in a WEAK syllable at
the end of a word (or at the end of
part of a compound word or of a stem), as in happy/'haepi/,valley /'væli/, babies/'beɪbiz/.
•when the vowel is in a weak syllable before another vowel, as in radiation
,reidi 'eifan, glorious'glo:rios.
17
 In these positions the vowel is traditionally identified with I. But in fact some speakers use i,
some use i:, some use something intermediate or indeterminate, and some fluctuate between the
two possibilities. Modern pronunciation dictionaries use the symbol i,which reflects this.
Similarly, the symbol /u/ represents the neutralization of the opposition between /u:/ and/
u/.This

neutralization is found not only in/ i/ environments, but also in certain others, forexample, in
one pronunciation of stimulate /'stimjuleit/.
Do not confuse neutralization with the term neutral vowel, a name sometimes used for schwa.
3.Neutralized /i/
Neutralised /i/ occurs
a- in "y" or "ey" as finals in the words when preceded by consonant(s) letters. as in;
Happy /hæpi/ - Crazy /kreɪzi/ - Valley /væli/
and in morpheme-final position followed by suffixes beginning with vowel. as in
"Happy + er = Happier" /hæpiə/
"Easy + er = Easiest" /i:ziəst/
"Hurry + ing = Hurrying /hʌriɪŋ/
b- In prefix such as "re" , "pre" , "de", or words contain these letter-sequences, when followed
by a vowel and is unstressed, as in:
" re + act = react" /ri'ækt
" de + activate = decativate" /di'æktɪveɪt/
" pre + order = pre-order" /pri 'ɔ:də/
" re in Create" /kri'eɪt/
" de in Deodorant" /diəʊ'dərənt/
c- in the suffixes spelt "iate" and "ious" when they have two syllables. as in:
"iate" "ious".
"appreciate" /ə'pri:ʃieɪt/
"hilarious" /hɪ'leəriəs/

18
d-in the following words "he - she - me - be" when they are unstressed. As well as "the" when it
precedes a word starting with a vowel. as in
"The apple" /ði 'æpəl/
"The umbrella" /ði əmbrelə/
4. Neutralized /u/
Where can neutralised /u/ occur?
A/ weak syllables with the neutralised /u/ are not commonly occurring . /u/ can be found in

e- the words "you - do - to - into" when they are unstressed and followed by a vowel. as in
"do I" /du aɪ/ - "you and him" /ju ənd hɪm/
f- in all positions in some words, as in;
"Through" /θru/
"Who" /hu/
g- within a word and followed by a vowel immediately. as in
"Evacuation" /ɪvækjueɪʃ,n/
"Influenza" /ɪnfluenzə/
Homework.
1.Come up with five words with neutralized/i/ and five others with neutralized /u/

19
Lesson Seven :The Syllable
1.Definitions
a) The Syllable is a unit consisting of a compulsory vowel or a syllabic consonant and maybe
preceded and/or followed by a one or more consonant sounds.
b) Minimum Syllable is a syllable consisting of a single vowel in isolation( peak) , such as are /
a: / or an isolated sound like "m"( used for agreement).
c) Peak is the vowel sound or syllabic consonant which stands as the compulsory component of
the syllable.
Note: There is NO Syllable unless there is a vowel or a syllabic consonant.
As we stated before, the syllable can be preceded and/or followed by a consonant. Middled by
the vowel which is considered as the peak of the Syllable.
d) Consonant Cluster:- it is the situation when two or more consonants coming together in the
same syllable. Such as; STRONG /strɒŋ/. /str/ is a consonant cluster
2.Types of onsets
a. Zero onset: It means the syllable starts with a VOWEL which is the peak. For example:
Am /æm/
As we note, the syllble started with /æ/, which is the #Peak of the syllable. It was NOT
preceded by a #consonant. Therefore; it is ZERO ONSET.
b. One onset: One consonant precedes the peak ( the vowel ). It is named #INITIAL.
20
Bar /bɑ:/ , Car /kɑ:/
Both /b , k/ in these examples are named INITIALS.
c. Two onsets
When two consonants come before the peak. We will have two probabilities.
1.C1 + C2 + V
*C1 = Pre Initial = ONLY /s/
*C2 = Initial = any consonant
Snake /sneɪk/
/s/ = Pre initial
/n/ = initial
/eɪ/ = Peak

The second Probability

2.C1 + C2 + V
* C1 = initial = any consonant EXCEPT /s/
*C2 = Post initial = ONLY / l , r , w,j /
Blue / blu:/
/b/ = initial
/l/ = Post initial
/u:/ = Peak
d. Three onsets
When three consonants precede the peak (the vowel)
1.C1 + C2 + C3 + V
*C1 = pre initial = ONLY /s/
*C2 = initial = ONLY / p , t , k /
*C3 = post initial = ONLY / l , r , w , j /
p l
s + t + r
k w
21
 j
-Example one
Splash / splæʃ /
/s/ = pre initial
/p/ = initial
/l/ = post initial
/æ/ = peak
-Example two
Squeak / skwi:k /
/s/ = pre initial
/k/ = initial
/w/ = post initial
/i:/ = peak

Homework
Task 1
a) What is minimum syllable? Explain with three examples.
b) Analyse the structures of the following words according to the type of their syllables.
texts-farm-arm-or-helped-lapsed-eighths-sixths-squealed-bonds-next-fifths.
Task 2
a)What do call a word which does not have onset? Give an example.
b) The word"months" have a cluster three consonants at the end.Is it an onset or a coda?
Explain.

22
 Lesson Eight: Aspiration and the glottal stop
1. Aspiration
Plosive voiceless (fortis) sounds /p/, /t/, /k/, after they are released, undergo a post-release
phasein which the sounds are followed by a brief additional puff of air. Cruttenden (2014: 164)
defines the post-release phase as “a voiceless interval consisting of strongly expelled breath
between the release of the plosive and the onset of the following vowel”. This special feature of
articulation is termed aspiration, and the plosives are said to be aspirated. The IPA diacritics for
aspiration are transcribed as a superscript: [ ʰ ]. The degree and duration of aspiration depend on
the context of the sound. Aspiration is the strongest in the initial position of a syllable, e.g. type
[tʰaɪp], in the initial position of a stressed syllable, e.g. potato [pə’tʰeɪtəʊ], and before a long
vowel or a diphthong, e.g. keep [kʰiːp].
Aspiration is closely tied to stress. If there is no stress on the plosives, there is aspiration.
Voiceless plosives /p t k/ at the beginning of a stressed syllable are released with aspiration.
23
The vocal folds remain open, and the air rushing through the vocal tract gives a kind of a short
[ ʰ ]. Examples are:
[pʰ]peas ['pʰi:z]-palm ['pʰɑ:m]-pound ['pʰaʊnd]
[tʰ]-toad ['tʰəʊd]-tail ['tʰeɪl]-torn ['tʰɔ:n]
[kʰ]-kind ['kʰaɪnd]-care ['kʰeə]-curb ['kʰ ə:b]
When /p t k/ (unstressed) are not at the beginning of a stressed syllable, they are weakly
aspirated or unaspirated. This is the case at the beginning of unstressed syllables and at the end
of syllables but also, quite strikingly, when preceded by /s/ at the beginning of a syllable:
[p]-perform [pəˈfɔ:m]-pacific [pəˈsɪfɪk]-pyjamas [pəˈʤæməz]
[t]-today [təˈdeɪ]-taboo [təˈbu:]-together [təˈɡeðə]
[k]-concern [kənˈsə:n]-kebab [kəˈbɑ:b]-canal [kəˈnæl]
[p]leap [li:p]rope [rəʊp]map [mæp]
[t]fight [faɪt]goat [ɡəʊt]rate [reɪt]
[k]like [laɪk]sick [sɪk]cheek [ʧi:k]
[p]spin [spɪn]spot [spɒt]spy [spaɪ]
[t]stone [stəʊn]stop [stɒp]still [stɪl]
[k]score [skɔ:]skill [skɪl]school [sku:l]
When aspirated /p t k/ are followed by approximants /l r w j/, the aspiration takes place during
the articulation of the approximant, partially or fully devoicing the approximant [l̥ r j̊ w ]. For
example:
/p/play [pl̥ eɪ] -print [prɪnt] -pew [pj̊ u:]
/t/treat [tri:t] -twin [twɪn]
/k/clay [kl̥ eɪ] -cream [kri:m] -cue [kj̊ u:] -queasy [ˈkwi:zi]
When /s/ precedes these clusters, there is no aspiration and therefore the approximants do not
become devoiced or fricative:
/sp/splay [spleɪ]-sprint [sprɪnt]-spew [spju:]
/sk/scream [skri:m]-skew [skju:] -squeezy [ˈskwi:zi]
Aspiration is important in that it distinguishes /p t k/ from /b d ɡ/.
2. Glottal plosive or stop [ʔ]
24
 Glottal release of several plosives is widely found in contemporary English pronunciation.
This is termed as a glottal stop or glottalisation. Instead of the plosive articulation, a complete
closure is made at the glottis to cause a period of silence, which is very typical of the sound /t/.
The symbol for glottal stop is /ʔ/, e.g. bottle /bɒʔl/; water /wɔːʔə/. The glottal closure may occur
immediately before plosive sounds at the end of a syllable, which is typical of the plosives /p/ /t/
/k/ and the affricate /tʃ/.
butter /ˈbʌtə/ or /ˈbʌʔtə/
atmospheric /ætməsˈferɪk/ or /æʔtməsˈferɪk/
accurate /ˈækjərət/ or /ˈæʔkjərət/
teaching /ˈtiːtʃɪŋ/ or /ˈtiːʔtʃɪŋ/
Glottal plosive can be an allophone of /k,p,t/ but the most important occurence of the glottal
plosive is as an allophone of the /t/ phoneme. ( See lesson One). In addition to the bilabial /p b/,
alveolar /t d/, and velar /k ɡ/ plosives, the glottal plosive [ʔ] also occurs in English. The glottal
plosive has a number of uses. The most important occurence of the glottal plosive is as an
allophone of the/t/ phoneme. This is known as glottal replacement. Glottal replacement occurs
in only a specific set of phonetic contexts. The most important of these is when /t/ is in a
syllable coda, preceded by a sonorant (i.e., vowel, nasal, or approximant but the approximant /r/
is for GA) and followed by another consonant:

Within words:butler [ˈbʌʔlə], lightning [ˈlaɪʔnɪŋ], pitfall [ˈpɪʔfɒl], tents [tenʔs]

Between words:felt wrong [ˈfelʔ ˈrɒŋ], sent four [ˈsenʔ ˈfɔ:], light rain [ˈlaɪʔ ˈreɪn],
part time [ˈpɑ ʔ ˈtaɪm].
Glottal replacement is also common before a pause, e.g., wait [weɪʔ].
3.Glottal reinforcement
In addition to [ʔ] acting as an allophone of /t/, it can also occur together with /t/ and the other
voiceless stops, /p k ʧ/, in a process known as glottal reinforcement. Glottal reinforcement
occurs in the

25
same phonetic contexts as for glottal replacement of [t] (except for /ʧ/, which does not have to
be followed by a consonant), and like glottal replacement, although it’s common, it is not
obligatory. Examples are:
captive [ˈkæʔptɪv] -keep calm [ˈki:ʔp ˈkɑ:m] curtsey [ˈkə:ʔtsi] -hot sauce [ˈhɒʔt ˈsɔ:s]
faultless [ˈfɒlʔtləs] -don’t know [ˈdəʊnʔt ˈnəʊ] action [ˈæʔkʃn ]-take five [ˈteɪʔk ˈfaɪv] -hatchet
[ˈhæʔʧət] catch me [ˈkæʔʧ mi] catch it [ˈkæʔʧ ɪt]
Homework
Task one
Since aspiration follows stress, copy down the words you think are aspirated.The stress(') is
shown.
Par'ticular-'actor-con'sider- 'Peter-'Think-to'day-Com'plete
Task two
Underline the plosive sounds that may have the strongest level of aspiration in the given
environments:
/fənˈtæstɪk/ /ˈpəʊites/ /kəmˈpeə/ /riˈkɔːl/ /priˈkɔːʃəs/ /ˈtəʊtəlaɪz/ /kəmˈpəʊnənt/
Task three.
a-What is the difference between glottal replacement and glottal reinforcement?
b-Give three examples for each( with a vowel, a nasal, an approximant) .
Task four
The rules of the glottal stop are given in the following passage. Write the rules and give for
each rule an example of your own
"we identified MRP English /p t k/ as being aspirated in syllable initial position – each has an
aspirated allophone. Each also has a glottalized allophone which can be used after sonorants
either before a pause or before the end of speech (e.g. Stop! [stɒʔp], Wait! [weiʔt]), or at the end
of a syllable, given an appropriate phonetic environment (word-finally if the next word starts
with a consonant, look round [lυʔk ɹaυnd], word-internally if the next syllable begins with an
obstruent, e.g. dictate [diʔk?teit] or a nasal, topmost [?tɒʔpməυst]). Effectively, the
voicelessness of /p t k/ is being assisted or reinforced by the formation of this precursive glottal
closure. Typically, once the oral closure is in place, the glottal closure is released and
26
compression takes place in the normal way. The glottal stop does not replace the [p t k] sounds,
it merely supports/ reinforces them."

Lesson Nine: Breaking

1.Definition

27
 When a vowel is followed in the same syllable by l, a glide sound schwa may develop before
the liquid.The vowel then becomes a diphthong, and is said to undergo breaking as in "feel"
/fi:əl/..This happens when l follows/ i:,eɪ, eɪ, ɔɪ/ and is termed pre-l breaking. Articulating a
dark/velarized /l/ after a close vowel tends to take the centre of the tongue through the position
for a mid central vowel, i.e., schwa [ə], as the tongue tip and back rise. Particularly when a
consonant or word boundary follows, this process leads to a schwa /ə/ developing before the
dark/velarized /l/, a phenomenon known as breaking. Breaking occurs not only after the two
close vowels – fleece /i/ and goose /u/ – but also after the diphthongs face /eɪ/, price /aɪ/,
choice /ɔɪ/, mouth /aʊ/:
fleece:deal [di:əɫ], field [fi;əɫd], peeled [pi:əɫd], steals [sti:əɫz]
goose:tool [tu:əɫ], school [sku:əɫ], ruled [ru:əɫd], fools [fu:əɫz]
face:pale [peɪ:əɫ], Wales [weɪəɫz], failed [feɪəɫd], sales [seɪəɫz]
price:mile [maɪəɫ], child [ʧaɪəɫd], smiled [smaɪəɫd], files [faɪəɫz]
choice:oil [ɔɪəɫ], soil [sɔɪəɫ], spoiled [spɔɪəɫd], boils [bɔɪəɫz]
mouth:owl [aʊəɫ], foul [faʊəɫ], howled [haʊəɫd], scowls [skaʊəɫz]
Because breaking is more usual when /l/ is word-final than when a vowel follows, speakers
may alternate between pronouncing the same word with and without breaking depending on
whether a word-final /l/ is followed by a pause or by a vowel (in a sufix or an immediately
following word), for example:
fleece:feel [fi:əɫ] vs. feeling [ˈfi:ɫɪŋ] or feel it [ˈfi:ɫ ɪt]
goose:fool [fu:əɫ] vs. foolish [ˈfu:ɫɪʃ] or fool him [ˈfu:ɫ ɪm]
face:sail [seɪəɫ] vs. sailing [ˈseɪɫɪŋ] or sail along [ˈseɪɫ əˈɫɒŋ]
price:smile [smaɪəɫ] vs. smiling [ˈsmaɪɫɪŋ] or smile at [ˈsmaɪɫ ət]
choice:toil [tɔɪəɫ] vs. toiling [ˈtɔɪɫɪŋ] or toil away [ˈtɔɪɫ əˈweɪ]
mouth:prowl [praʊəɫ] vs. prowling [ˈpraʊɫɪŋ] or prowl around [ˈpraʊɫ əˈraʊnd]
Homework
Task one. Read the lesson again and come up with one word for each rule of breaking and
transcribe it phonemically.
Lesson Ten: Tapping in GA
28
1.Tapping (T-voicing)
In certain phonetic contexts, the alveolar plosives /t d/ and the alveolar nasal /n/ are articulated
very rapidly. The tongue tip and blade move to and away from the alveolar ridge very quickly,
and the contact between the active and passive articulators is very brief. This manner of
articulation is known as a tap, and the IPA symbol for a voiced alveolar tap is [ɾ]. A voiced
alveolar tap [ɾ] is used as the usual realization of the /r/ phoneme in many languages around the
world and can also be heard in a number of English accents. Speakers who have a tap for /r/ in
their language or accent of English may feel that the GA tap for /t d/ isn’t quite the same as their
own. The most striking effect of tapping in GA is that /t/ becomes voiced and indistinguishable
from /d/. They are both realized as a voiced alveolar tap [ɾ], and the dif ference between them is
neutralized in tapping contexts. In contrast, the ef fect on the realization of /n/ is relatively
minor. When tapped, /n/ is realized as a nasalized tap [ɾ], the equivalent of tapped /t/ or /d/ with
the velum lowered. The result is a sound that is not very different from /n/ in other contexts and
that is not easily confused with any other sound. Some works on GA phonetics transcribe t-
tapping with [ɾ], which emphasizes the particular type of articulation used. Other works
transcribe t-tapping with [d], which demonstrates that the tapped variant of /t/ sounds to the ears
of English speakers more like a variant of the /d/ phoneme than of any other phoneme. In the
"Longman Pronunciation Dictionary" and the "Cambridge English Pronouncing Dictionary", the
voiceless alveolar plosive symbol [t] is combined with the IPA “voiced” diacritic [ ̬ ] (t-tapping
is also referred to as t-voicing) to give [t̬ ]. This symbolization has the advantage of making the
transcription not too different from the orthography and of using a similar symbol for the same
word in different phonetic contexts (e.g., write /raɪt/, writing /raɪt̬ ɪŋ/, writes /raɪts/, write it /raɪt̬
ɪt/, write some /raɪt səm/). This special symbol for t-tapping makes our transcription system a
little unphonemic, but for the sake of simplicity, we will continue to use phonemic slanted
brackets and not switch to phonetic square brackets for every instance of t-tapping.
2.Contexts in which t-voicing occurs.
T-tapping occurs
a) when /t/ is at the end of a syllable and between vowels. Within a word, the following syllable
must be unstressed, but the preceding syllable can be stressed or unstressed:
29
Stressed: city /ˈsɪt̬ i/, vitamin /ˈvaɪt̬ əmən/, critic /ˈkrɪt̬ ɪk/, beautiful /ˈbjut̬ əfl̩ /
Unstressed:deputy /ˈdɛpjət̬ i/, quality /ˈkwɑlət̬ i/, society /səˈsaɪət̬ i]
b) The following syllable can also be /əl/, realized as syllabic /l/, or /ər/, realized as schwar [ɚ].
(the equivalent of syllabic [ɹ], but not /ən/, realized as syllabic /n/ (where /t/ is more likely to be
realized as a glottal stop):
Syllabic /l̩ /:bottle /ˈbɑt̬ l̩ /, total /ˈtoʊt̬ l̩ /, little /ˈlɪt̬ l̩ /, fatal /ˈfeɪt̬ l̩ /, rattle /ˈræt̬ l̩ /
Schwar/ər/ [ɚ]: letter /ˈlɛt̬ ər/, meter /ˈmit̬ ər/, butter /ˈbət̬ ər/, water /ˈwɑt̬ ər/
Syllabic /n /:button /ˈbətn/, kitten /ˈkɪtn/, rotten /ˈrɑtn/, threaten /ˈθrɛtn/
button [ˈbəʔn], kitten [ˈkɪʔn], rotten [ˈrɑʔn], threaten [ˈθrɛʔn]
c) The preceding sound does not have to be a vowel. It can also be /r/:
After /r/:dirty /ˈdərt̬ i/, poverty /ˈpɑvərt̬ i/, artist /ˈɑrt̬ ɪst/, mortar /ˈmort̬ ər/, turtle /ˈtərt̬ l̩ /
d) When the preceding sound is /l/, tapping is variable:
After /l/:alter /ˈɑltər/ or /ˈɑlt̬ ər/, guilty/ˈɡɪlti/ or /ˈɡɪlt̬ i/, penalty /ˈpɛnl̩ ti/ or /ˈpɛnl̩ t̬ i/
e) When the preceding sound is /n/, the tendency is for the /t/ to be lost altogether, particularly
in familiar, high-frequency words:
After /n/:twenty /ˈtwɛni/, winter /ˈwɪnər/, plenty /ˈplɛni/, wanted /ˈwɑnəd/, dentist /ˈdɛnəst/
f) t-tapping occurs between words( word boundary between two vowel sounds),
Unstressed: get it /ˈɡɛt̬ ɪt/, visit us /ˈvɪzət̬ əs/, bet a lot /ˈbɛt̬ ə ˈlɑt/, late again /ˈleɪt̬
əˈɡɛn/
Stressed: get out /ˈɡɛt̬ ˈaʊt/, visit others /ˈvɪzət̬ ˈəðərz/, bet everything /ˈbɛt̬ ˈɛvriθɪŋ/, late
evening /ˈleɪt̬ ˈivnɪŋ/
The neutralization of /t/ and /d/ in these contexts creates a number homophones:
writer/rider, latter/ladder, parity/parody, atom/Adam, metal/medal, petal/pedal./
4. Practice
a) Tapping at the end of a stressed syllable in GA
atom, beautiful, bottom, citizen, city, committee, cottage, creative, critic, duty, exotic, item,
lettuce, motto, motive, native, naughty, notice, petty, photo, pity, pretty, quota, satisfy, suitable,
vitamin; better, butter, computer, daughter, latter, letter, litter, matter, Saturday, scatter,

30
shatter, slaughter, sweater, utter, waiter, water; battle, bottle, brittle, brutal, cattle, fatal, little,
metal, rattle, settle, vital.
b) Tapping at the end of an unstressed syllable ability, anxiety, authority, cavity, charity,
community, deputy, dignity, facility, humanity, majority, priority, quality, reality, relative,
security, society, variety, vicinity; senator, theater; capital,hospital
c) Tapping after /r/
artist, article, assertive, charter, courtesy, dirty, forty, liberty, mortal, party, portable, reporter,
shortage, sporty, thirty
d) Voiceless /t/ vs. tapped /t/
beat/beating, bite/biting, bright/brighter, chat/chatty, cheat/cheater, date/dating, defeat/ defeated,
delete/deleted, dirt/dirty, eat/eating, flat/flatter, float/fl
oating, forget/forgettable, great/greater, heat/heating, hot/hotter, invite/invited, late/later,
meet/meeting, note/notable,
port/portable, pot/potty, regret/ regrettable, repeat/repeated, seat/seating, short/shorter, shut/
shutter, support/ supporter, visit/visitor, write/writer
Homework
Task one: Underline the t-voicing in the following words (a) sentences (b) and dialogue(c) .
(Not all the words have a t-voicing).
a) Words
appetite, architect, assistant, automatic, contact, distant, important, instant, instinct, instrument,
intelligent, irritate, protect, start, state, status, street, straight, substitute, tablet, talent, target,
taste, tent, test, text, ticket, tight, title, toast, toilet, total, tourist, traitor, treat,
trust, twist, attitude, competitor, contributor, gratitude, imitator, integrity, intuitive, motivate,
repetitive, spectator, stutter, turtle
b) Sentences
(1) Tom’s parents taught him the tricks of the trade.
(2) The most important titles are printed
in italic type.
(3) Aunt Tracy bought me a knitted turtleneck sweater.
31
(4) The meeting was a
complete and utter waste of time.
(5) Peter was determined to get to the root of the matter.
(6) Is it true that bottled water tastes better than tap water?
(7) Most of the students com-
pleted the assignment on time.
(8) It turns out he was a secret agent for British intelligence.
(9) Victoria told us that she was still waiting for the test results.
(10) Ted was not in a fit state
to take part in the tennis tournament.
(11) I felt just a twinge of guilt as I left her standing on the platform.
(12) I was truly grateful to Patrick for taking the trouble to write to me.
(13) Apparently, Betty dropped out of university when she was twenty.
(14) They fought a bitter battle over the custody of their daughter Natasha.
(15) It’s dificult to alter the habits of a lifetime without continued support.
(16) Visitors can expect to be treated with respect and courtesy by our staff.
(17) Efforts are being made to appoint part-time teachers in different subjects.
(18) Robert wanted to get an apartment that was within commuting distance of the city center.
(19) We rented a beautiful little cottage in the country and invited my twin sister to stay with us.
(20) Yesterday, we took our first tentative steps toward establishing contact with potential
clients.
c) Dialogue
A: There are twenty-two letters on the table awaiting your attention.
B: Twenty-two Valentine’s cards from twenty-two secret admirers, you meant to say. Tell me
how many you got, Tony.
A: I’m not interested in trite platitudes and tacky greeting cards.
B: I’ll take that to mean you got exactly twenty-two fewer than I got.

32
Lesson Eleven: Linking/r/, Intrusive /r/, /j/, /w/

1.Rhoticity in GA
GA is a rhotic accent, which means that the phoneme /r/ occurs not only before vowels but
also before consonants and at the end of words:
-Before vowels:reach /ri:ʧ/, rude /ru:d/, rat /ræt/, bright /braɪt/
-Intervocalic: story /ˈstɔ:ri/, very /ˈveri/, sorry /ˈsɑ:ri/, hurry /ˈhʌri/
-Before consonants:heart /hɑ:rt/, form /fɔ: rm/, church /ʧə:rʧ/, course /kɔ:rs/
Word-final: fur /fər/, more /mor/, near /nir/, scare /sker/.(Words are transcribed in GA).In non-
rhotic accents, such as General British (GB), /r/ has been lost historically before consonants and
word finally and so only occurs before vowels (including intervocalically).
2.Linking/r/
Linking /r/ is the most familiar way of linking the words together. It is the final phoneme/r/
that is not pronounced in the BBC accent, added to those words when they are followed with
words beginning with a vowel. For example;
"here" /hɪə/ , "here are" /hɪər ə/
"four" /fɔː/ , "four eggs" /fɔːr egz/
3. Intrusive /r/
In fluent speech when a word ends in an /ɔː/,/a:/ and a /ə/ like "law, "Grandpa", "idea" and the
next word begins in any vowel sound, a /r/ sound linking them together will be then heard.It
does not happen in all accents and some people say it is not the proper way to speak. But it is
something heard, although the /r/ sound is often not very strong. Examples are:
Formula A" /fɔːmjələr eɪ/
33
"Media event" /miːdiər ɪvent
-Can you draw a circle?
-Law and order" will be easier to be pronounced as "law -r- and order"
-I saw (r) a good film last night.
-There was a flaw (r) in the argument.
-My dog hurt his paw (r) on some broken glass.
-That’s the Idear: Intrusive ‘R’
In British English,"r" is added in such phrases as “an idear of it,” “paster and sauce,” and
“sawr and conquered.” Intrusive r is a feature that impacts many non-rhotic (r-less) accents.
R insertion, as strange as it sounds to us r-pronouncers, is in fact guided by simple, logical rules.
For someone from London, the r pronounced in “bitter end” is no different from the r
pronounced in “pastar and sauce.” Both follow the rule that when a schwa occurs at the end of
a word, and the next word begins with a vowel, r makes an appearance. This is also true of /ɑ:/
words (the “Shahr of Iran” follows the same rule as “car and driver”) and /ɔ:/ words (“Drawr
open” is treated no differently than “Drawer open”).
4.Linking /j/
When one word ends with a vowel sound and the next word begins with a vowel sound, we
link the words with a sort of j or W sound. It depends on the shape of our mouth at the end of
the first word. When the first word ends in a vowel sound [ eɪ / i: /i/ aɪ ], our lips are wide. Then
we insert a j sound at the beginning of the next word.Examples are
pay all /eɪ/ pay(j)all.
the end /i:/ the(j)yend.
lie on /aɪ/ lie(j)on.
theyj)all buy(j) at the (j)arcade.
5.Linking /w/
When the first word ends in an o, u vowel sound [ əʊ /u/ u: ], our lips are round. Then we insert
a /w/ sound at the beginning of the next word.Examples are:
go out/əʊ/ go(w)out.
too often /u:/ too(w)often.
34
you(w)all go(w)out too(w)often
Homework
Task one: Insert a linking/r/ or an intrusive/r/ where possible.
Supernova in the sky.
Media attention.
Formula A
Tuna oil
Lisa Edwards.
That man I saw over there”
Far east,
Professor of psychology,
Open your eye
That man with the cold sore over there.
That hurdler likes to soar over there
Task two
Insert/j/ or /w/ where possible.When the first word ends in an o, u vowel sound [ əʊ / u: ], our
lips are round. Then we insert a W sound at the beginning of the next word
Lay out
May I
Say it
He ate
She is
We are
High up
My arm,
No other
Show off
Grow up
You are
35
Too often
Throw it
The way I go home totally depends on traffic.
This recipe needs two eggs.
There's no other way to do it.
Why did you take your shoe /w/ off?

Lesson Twelwe: Stress

1.Introduction
Stress words consist of more than a set of segments (vowels and consonants) arranged in a
certain order. Words of more than one syllable also have a distinctive rhythmic pattern
depending on which syllables are pronounced with stress and which are not. Stressed syllables
are pronounced with greater energy and effort than unstressed syllables, which results in greater
prominence, i.e., they stand out more. The first syllable in carpet is stressed and the second
unstressed; the second syllable in contain is stressed and the first unstressed. Stress is indicated
by means of a vertical mark placed before the stressed syllable, and unstressed syllables are left
unmarked, e.g., /ˈkɑ: pət/, /kənˈteɪn/. The position of stress in an English word is an important
factor in word recognition, and there are even words that are distinguished by stress alone, e.g.,
the noun increase /ˈɪŋkris/ and the verb increase /ɪŋˈkris/. Primary stress is indicated with the
usual stress mark (').
One word has only one stress. (One word cannot have two stresses. If you hear two stresses,
you hear two words. Two stresses cannot be one word. It is true that there can be a "secondary"
stress in some words. But a secondary stress is much smaller than the main [primary] stress, and
is only used in long words.)

36
 We can only stress vowels, not consonants. Here are some more, rather complicated, rules that
can help you understand where to put the stress. But do not rely on them too much, because
there are many exceptions. It is better to try to "feel" the music of the language and to add the
stress naturally.
2.Stress on first syllable
a.Rule: Most 2-syllable nouns.Examples:
'PRESent, 'EXport, 'CHIna, 'TAble
b.Rule: Most 2-syllable adjectives.Examples: 'PRESent, 'SLENder
'CLEVer, 'HAPpy
3.Stress on last syllable
a.RMost 2-syllable verbs.Examples: preSENT, exPORT, deCIDE, beGIN
There are many two-syllable words in English whose meaning and class change with a change
in stress. The word present, for example is a two-syllable word. If we stress the first syllable, it
is a noun (gift) or an adjective (opposite of absent). But if we stress the second syllable, it
becomes a verb (to offer). More examples: the words export, import, contract and object can all
be nouns or verbs depending on whether the stress is on the first or second syllable
4.Stress on penultimate syllable (penultimate = second from end.
a.Words ending in -ic.Examples: GRAPHic, geoGRAPHic, geoLOGic
b.Words ending in -sion and -tion.Examples: teleVIsion, For a few words, native English
speakers don't always "agree" on where to put the stress. For example, some people say
teleVIsion and others say TELevision. Another example is: CONtroversy and conTROversy
5.Stress on ante-penultimate syllable (ante-penultimate = third from end)
a.Words ending in -cy, -ty, -phy and -gy.Examples: deMOcracy, dependaBIlity
phoTOgraphy, geOLogy
b.Words ending in -al.Examples: CRItical
geoLOGical.
6.Compound words (words with two parts)
a.For compound nouns, the stress is on the first part: BLACKbird, GREENhouse
b.For compound adjectives, the stress is on the second part.bad-TEMpered
37
old-FASHioned.
7.Proper nouns
Proper nouns are specific names of people, places or things. For example: Jeniffer, Spain,
Google.The second word is always the one that takes the stress.
Examples:
North DAKOTA, Mr. SMITH, Apple INCORPORATED
8. Reflexive pronouns
Reflexive pronouns show that the action affects the person who performs the action. For
example: I hit myself. The second syllable usually takes the stress.
Examples: mySELF, themSELVES ourSELVES
9. Numbers
If the number is a multiple of ten, the stress is placed on the first syllable.
Examples: TEN, FIFty, ONE-hundred
c.For compound verbs, the stress is on the second part.underSTAND,overFLOW
10.In words with de– and re– prefixes
The prefix is usually pronounced /d ɪ / and /r ɪ / if it is unstressed and /d i: / and /r i:/ if it has
secondary stress. Compare:
de’grade /d ɪ / but:ˌ decom’pose /d i: /
re’claim / r ɪ / but:ˌ recon’sider /r i: /
A few words with de– and re– prefixes are usually pronounced with an unstressed / ɪ / in the
prefix when they are used as a verb and a stressed / i: / in the prefix when they are used as a
noun. Compare: Interest is likely to decrease, / d ɪ ‘k r i: s /but there has been a decrease / ‘d i: k
r i: s/ in interest. Some words beginning re– have the same spelling but a different stress and
meaning depending on whether re– means ‘again’ or not. Compare: recover /ˌr i: ˈk ʌ v ə / (=
cover again) – /r ɪ ˈk ʌ v ə/ (= get well)
recount /ˌr i: ˈk aʊ n t/(= count again) – /r ɪ ˈk aʊ n t/ (= describe)
reform /ˌr i: ˈf ɔː m / (= form again) – /r ɪ ˈf ɔː m/ (= improve)
remark /ˌr i: ˈm ɑː k / (= mark again) – /r ɪ ˈm ɑː k/ (=comment)
resort /ˌr i: ˈz ɔː t/(= sort again) – /r ɪ ˈz ɔː t/ (= turn to)
38
resign /ˌr i: ˈs aɪ n/ (= sign again) – /r ɪ ˈz aɪ n/ (= give up a job)
Note: When re– means ‘again’, the words are sometimes spelt with a hyphen, e.g. re-cover, re-
count.
11.Recapitualation of rules
a.Words ending in ade, ee, ese, que, ette, oon Words that use the suffix ade, ee, ese, eer, que,
ette, or oon have the primary stress actually placed on the suffix.This applies to words of all
syllable lengths. Examples:
ade: lemoNADE, cruSADE, arCADE
ee: aGREE, jamborEE, guaranTEE
eer: sightSEER, puppeTEER
ese: SiamESE, JapanESE, chEESE
ette: cassETTE, CorvETTE, towelETTE
que: unIQUE, physIQUE
oon: baLOON, afterNOON, carTOON
b.Put stress on the second syllable from the end of the word with words ending in ic, sion, and
tion. Examples:

iCONic , GRAPHic
teleVIsion
nuTRItion
reveLAtion
c.Stress falls on the third from end syllable with words that end in cy, ty, phy, gy and al.
Examples:
deMOcracy
geOGraphy
ALlergy
NAUtical
CLArity
CRItical
39
d. A compound noun is a noun made out of two nouns that form one word. In a compound
noun, the most stress is on the stressed syllable of the first word. Examples:
SEAfood (sea + food)
ICEland (ice + land)
TOOTHpaste (tooth + paste)
FOOTball (foot + ball)
BAsketball (basket + ball)
e.In most two syllable verbs and prepositions, the stress is on the second syllable. Examples:
reLAX
reCEIVE
diRECT
aMONG
aSIDE
beTWEEN
deCIDE
f.For three-syllable words ending with the suffixes er or ly, the stress is placed on the first
syllable. Examples:
ORderly
SIlently
LOvingly
MAnager
GARdener
EAsier
g.If there is a word that ends in a consonant or in a y, then the first syllable usually gets the
stress. Examples:
RARity
OPtimal
GRAdient
GEnorous
40
h.There are many exceptions to the rules. The word stress rules in English are complicated.
Remember that there are exceptions to every rule. Use a dictionary to check the word stress of
new words. Soon, you will know English well enough to add word stress naturally.
i.Two-Syllable nouns and adjectives
In most two syllable nouns and adjectives, the first syllable takes on the stress. Examples:
SAMples
CARton
PURple
RAIny
CHIna
HAPpy
j.Two-Syllable verbs and prepositions
In most two syllable verbs and prepositions, the stress is on the second syllable.Examples:
reLAX
reCEIVE
diRECT
aMONG
aSIDE
beTWEEN
deCIDE
Note:
There are many two-syllable words in English that can be pronounced in two different ways.
The stress change also changes the part of speech of the word.
Examples:
PREsent = a gift (noun); non past or future (adjective)
preSENT = to give something to someone (verb)
OBject = something you can see and touch (noun)
obJECT = to disagree with something (verb)
k.Three-syllable words
41
 For three-syllable words, look at the word ending (the suffix), using the following as your
guide:
l. Words ending in er, ly
For three-syllable words ending with the suffixes er or ly, the stress is placed on the first
syllable.Examples:
ORderly
SIlently
LOvingly
MAnager
GARdener
EAsier
m.Words ending in consonants and in y
If there is a word that ends in a consonant or in a y, then the first syllable usually gets the
stress.Examples:
RARity
OPtimal
GRAdient
GEnorous
n.Words with various endings
Take a good look at the list of suffixes below (suffixes are word endings).
The stress is going to be on the syllable right before the suffix. This applies to words of all
syllable lengths.Examples:
able: ADDable, DURable, LAUGHable
ial: differENTial, SOcial, fiNANcial
cian: muSIcian, phySIcian, cliNIcian
ery: BAkery, SCEnery
ian: coMEdian, ciVILian, techNIcian
ible: reSIstible, imPOSsible, TERRible
ic: arCHAic, plaTOnic, characteRIStic
42
ics: diaBEtics, paediAtrics, TOpics
ion: classifiCAtion, repoSItion, vegeTAtion
ia: MEdia, bacTERia, vicTORia
ient: inGREdient, PAtient, ANcient
ious: mySTERious, reLIgious, VARious
ish: SELfish, ENglish, PUnish
osis: hypNOsis, diagNOsis, osMOsis

Homework
Task one
Put stress on the following words.
degrade deflect defraud discolour discourage disintegrate illegal
reclaim refresh replace uneasy unpack unwise
Task two: same instruction.
debug deflate deform delineate demote deregulate descend destabilise devalue
reapply reflect recharge reconsider refresh relapse replace resit restructure review.
Task three: same instruction
pronounce, terribly,candle, homework, population, geography.

Lesson Thirteen : Part I: Strong forms and weak forms

1.Strong forms and weak forms
A number of grammatical words (i.e., auxiliary verbs, prepositions, personal pronouns,
conjunctions, and articles) have more than one pronunciation. The strong form is the
pronunciation used when the word is stressed (in isolation or giving it contrastive emphasis in a
43
sentence, but we are not concerned about contrastive stress right now). The weak form is the
pronunciation when it is unstressed. Such grammatical words are oftrn unstressed because they
do not bring new information to the listener unlike the lexical words (i.e., nouns, main verbs,
adjectives, and adverbs) and also negative auxiliary verbs, which are stressed, but in practice
things differ a little bit as there is often only one word in lexical words which is prominent and
stands out at the end . For example, in the sentence " Is 'Gerald at 'home?", " Gerald and home"
are stressed but "home" stands out and is said with PROMINENCE unlike "Gerald" which is
also stressed, let say at level 2, "home" at level 3 and the unstressed " Is" and" at" at level 1. We
think it is too demanding for learners to do that, so to make things easier, let just bear in mind
that lexical words are stressed, in general as they bring new information to the listener if said for
the first time. (Grammatical words are sometimes called function words, and lexical words
called content words.) There are some grammatical words which do not regularly take a weak
form (e.g., mine, those, on, they). Some of the most important weak forms (shown below with
both their strong and weak forms) are:
am/ˈæm//əm/
at/ˈæt//ət/
are/ˈɑr//ər/
for/ˈfor//fər/
have/ˈhæv//əv həv/
to/ˈtu//tə/
has/ˈhæz//əz həz/
he/ˈhi://i/
had/ˈhæd//əd həd/
him/ˈhɪm//ɪm/
do/ˈdu//də/

his/ˈhɪz//ɪz/
would/ˈwʊd//əd wəd/
them/ˈðem//ðəm/
44
will/ˈwɪl//əl/
her/ˈhər//ər/
can/ˈkæn//kən/
a/ˈeɪ//ə/
an/ˈæn//ən/
as/ˈæz//əz/
the/ˈði://ðə/
than/ˈðæn//ðən/
and/ˈænd//ən ənd/
that/ˈðæt//ðət/
For speakers who pronounce "was", "of", and "from" with /ɒ/ (i.e., /wɒz/, /ɒv/, /frɒm/) when
they are stressed and with schwa /ə/ (i.e., /wəz/, /əv/, /frəm/) when they are unstressed, these
words can also be considered to have weak forms. For learners, however, it is simpler to use the
more common forms with schwa /ə/ when both stressed and unstressed, in which case, "was",
"of", and "from" are not weak forms
2. Use of strong forms
As stated earlier, weak forms are the norm, but note that strong forms are used in the following
contexts:
a) When a word is stressed for emphasis or contrast in order to correct a speaker.
• I didn’t tell him; I told her./aɪ ˈdɪdn
̩ ˈtɛl ˈhɪm | aɪ ˈtoʊld ˈhə:/
• He really had seen her./hi ˈriəli ˈhæd ˈsin ə/
• I’m looking at John, not for John./aɪm ˈlʊkɪŋ ˈæt ˈʤɒn | ˈnɑt ˈfor ˈʤɒn/
b) When prepositions are separated from the noun phrases they relate to:
• What are you looking at?/ //ˈwɒtt ə ju ˈlʊkɪŋ ˈæt/
• He was sent for at once./hi wəz ˈsɛnt ˈfor ət ˈwəns/
• The one that I spoke to/ðə ˈwən ðətt aɪ ˈspoʊk ˈtu/

c) When auxiliary verbs are used without their main verb:

45
• You can swim, and I can too./ˈju kən ˈswɪm | ən ˈaɪ ˈkæn ˈtu/
• I’ve seen it; you know I have./aɪv ˈsin ɪt | ju ˈnoʊ aɪ ˈhæv/
• Are you here? Yes, I am./ə ju ˈhi| ˈjɛs aɪ ˈæm/
But have is weak when preceded by a modal auxiliary:
• I didn’t do it, but I should have./aɪ ˈdɪdn(t)
̩ ˈdu: ɪt | bət aɪ ˈʃʊd əv/
• He did it? He couldn’t have./hi ˈdɪd ɪt | hi ˈkʊdn(t) əv/
d) At the ends of sentences, preposition + pronoun sequences tend to have a weak preposition if
a stressed syllable precedes and a strong preposition if one or more unstressed syllables precede:
• Look at him!/ˈlʊk ət ɪm/
• I took all of them./aɪ ˈtʊk ˈ ɒl ə ðəm/
• He repeated it for me./hi rəˈpitəd ɪt ˈfɔ: mi/
• They pointed it at him./ðeɪ ˈpɔɪntəd ɪt ˈæt ɪm/
3. In yes/no questions
In yes/no questions the auxiliary verbs tend to be stressed in slower, more deliberate speech and
unstressed in freer, more conversational speech. Another influencing factor is the location of
following stresses. If the next syllable is stressed, the auxiliary verb tends to be unstressed, but
if two or more unstressed syllables follow, the auxiliary verb tends to be stressed:
• Am I the only one?/əm ˈaɪ ði ˈoʊnli ˈwən/ ( next syllable 'aI is stressed)
• Am I amusing you?/ˈæm aɪ əˈmjuzɪŋ ju/ (two unstressed syllables follow).
• Can someone ask?/kən ˈsəmwən ˈæsk/ ( next syllable is stressed).
• Can you repeat that?/ˈkæn ju rəˈpit ˈðæt/ ( two unstressed syllables follow).

46
Lesson Thirteen: Strong and weak forms.
Part II
4. Weak form contractions
The weak forms of some auxiliary verbs and (am/are/is as main verbs) consist of a single
consonant in certain contexts. Since a consonant cannot usually form a syllable on its own,
the weak form combines with a preceding word, forming a contraction. In informal writing,
such contractions are usually indicated with an apostrophe. The present tense forms of the
verb be (am, are, is), auxiliary have (have, has, had), and the modal verbs (will,would) readily
form contractions with personal pronouns:
am:I’m /aɪm/
are: you’re /jor/ or /jər/, we’re /wir/ or /wər/, they’re /ðɛr/
is: he’s /hiz/ or /iz/, she’s /ʃiz/, it’s /ɪts/
have:I’ve /aɪv/, you’ve /juv/, we’ve /wiv/, they’ve /ðeɪv/
has:he’s /hiz/ or /iz/, she’s /ʃiz/, it’s /ɪts/
had:I’d /aɪd/, you’d /jud/, he’d /hid/ or /id/, she’d /ʃid/, we’d /wid/, they’d /ðeɪd/
will: I’ll /aɪl/, you’ll /jul/, he’ll /hil/ or /il/, she’ll /ʃil/, we’ll /wil/ or /wəl/, they’ll /ðeɪl/
would:I’d /aɪd/, you’d /jud/, he’d /hid/ or /id/, she’d /ʃid/, we’d /wid/, they’d /ðeɪd/
Note that:
a) The contracted forms of (is,has) and (had ,would), are identical. The forms he’s, she’s, and
it’s can represent he/she/it + is or he/she/it + auxiliary has, while I’d, you’d, he’d, she’d, we’d,
and they’d can represent these personal pronouns combined with
either would or auxiliary had. The grammatical context usually makes it clear which word is
intended.
b) Contractions with "is" and auxiliary "has" are not limited to personal pronouns but can occur
with a wide range of words:
• Here’s John./ˈhirz ˈʤɒn/
• What’s happened?/ˈwɒts ˈhæpənd/
• That’s right./ˈðæts ˈraɪt/
47
• The guy I lent it to’s left./ðə ˈɡaɪ aɪ ˈlɛnt ɪt ˈtuz ˈlɛft/
• The one I bought’s great./ðə ˈwən aɪ ˈbɒts ˈɡreɪt/
c.The forms of the contractions of is and auxiliary has follow the same pattern as those for
plural, possessive, and third person singular <s>. When the preceding word ends with a voiced
sound (i.e., a vowel or a voiced consonant), the pronunciation is /z/:
• Mine’s broken./ˈmaɪnz ˈbroʊkən/
• The glue’s run out./ðə ˈɡluz ˈrən ˈaʊt/
When the preceding word ends with a voiceless consonant, the pronunciation is /s/:
• This rock’s heavy./ˈðɪs ˈrɒks ˈhɛvi/
• Jack’s gone home./ˈʤæks ˈɡɒn ˈhoʊm/
When the preceding word ends with one of the consonants /s z ʃ ʒ ʧ ʤ/, is and has can’t form
contractions.
• My wish has come true./maɪ ˈwɪʃ əz ˈkəm ˈtru/
• The bridge is closed./ðə ˈbrɪʤ əz ˈkloʊzd/
d. Contraction formation is restricted by the syllable-final clusters that are possible in English
Thus the /d/ of would and had can’t form a phonetic contraction with it because /td/ is not a
possible English cluster, while the /l/ of will can’t contract with it because a /tl/ cluster is also
not a possibility in English. Likewise, is and has don’t form contractions with words ending
with /s z ʃ ʒ ʧ ʤ/ because the alveolar fricatives /s/ and /z/ cannot follow these consonants in a
word-final cluster.
e) As the previous point demonstrates, a phonetic contraction is not the same thing as an
orthographic contraction. Although it would /ɪt̬ əd/, it had /ɪt̬ əd/, and it will /ɪt̬ əl/ are not
phonetic contractions (because the weak form is a syllable, not a lone consonant), they are often
written it’d and it’ll. Other non-phonetic orthographic contractions are common in informal
writing (e.g., should’ve /ʃʊd əv/, what’ll /wɑt̬ əl/, might’ve /maɪt̬ əv/). Such “double
contractions” as I’ll’ve /aɪl əv/ or we’d’ve /wid əv/ are a mix of phonetic contractions with
orthographic contractions.
f) The second element of a contraction is an unstressed function word that has been reduced

48
to a single consonant that attaches to the preceding word to form a single unit. As we have seen,
the first element is often a personal pronoun, but it doesn’t have to be in the case of is and has.
Consequently, the first element may or may not be an unstressed function word. When the first
element is a personal pronoun, the contraction isn’t usually stressed, but like personal pronouns
that aren’t part of a contraction, it can be stressed for emphasis or contrast:

• I said I’ll do it./aɪ ˈsɛd ˈaɪl ˈdu ɪt/

• Now I’ve had enough./ˈnaʊ ˈaɪv ˈhæd əˈnəf/
• He’s the one!/ˈhiz ðə ˈwən/
In such cases, it is the personal pronoun that is emphasized or contrasted, not the auxiliary verb
that has contracted with it. Thus He’s the one! /ˈhiz ðə ˈwən/ is equivalent to
He is the one! /ˈhi ɪz ðə ˈwən/, not He is the one! /hi ˈɪz ðə ˈwən/ or He is the one! /ˈhi ˈɪz ðə
ˈwən/.
When the second element is is or has, the contraction is often stressed, not for emphasis or
contrast, but because the first element is the kind of word, a lexical word, that is usually
stressed:
• The dog’s hiding./ðə ˈdɒɡz ˈhaɪdɪŋ/
• The cat’s died./ðə ˈkæts ˈdaɪd/
• My teacher’s amazing./maɪ ˈtiʧərz əˈmeɪzɪŋ/
• My uncle’s eaten it./maɪ ˈəŋkl̩ z ˈi:tn ɪt/
g) Since contractions formed with personal pronouns are so often unstressed, some of them have
developed weak forms of their own, notably you’re, we’re, and we’ll. When stressed, they have
the strong forms /jor/, /wir/, and /wil/, and when unstressed, they have the weak forms /jər/,
/wər/, and /wəl/:
• You’re silly./jə ˈsɪli/
• No, you’re silly./ˈnoʊ ˈjor ˈsɪli/
• We’re sorry, but we’ll be late./wər ˈsɒri bət wəl bi ˈleɪt/
• We’re sorry too./ˈwir ˈsɒri ˈtu/
• We’ll be late too./ˈwil bi ˈleɪt ˈtu:/
49
h) When are contracts with you and they, there is a change of vowel. You /ju/ plus are /r/
becomes /jor/, while they /ðeɪ/ plus are /r/ becomes /ðɛr/.
5. Weak forms of BE (main verb and auxiliary)
5.1.Am
When am is preceded by the pronoun I, it is reduced to /m/, which contracts with I, resulting in
the contraction I’m /aɪm/.
• I’m fine./aɪm ˈfaɪn/
• I’m waiting./aɪm ˈweɪtɪŋ/
In other positions, unstressed am has the weak form /əm/.
• Am I right?/əm aɪ ˈraɪt/
• So am I./ˈsoʊ əm ˈaɪ/
• Why am I here?/ˈwaɪ əm aɪ ˈhir/
5.2 Are
When unstressed are is preceded by the pronouns you, we, or they, it is reduced to /r/, which
contracts with the pronouns, resulting in the contractions you’re, we’re, and they’re. In the case
of you’re and they’re, the formation of the contraction is accompanied by a change of vowel, /u/
to [o] for you’re and /eɪ/ to /ɛ/ for they’re. When unstressed, as they usually are, the contractions
you’re and we’re are further reduced to /jər/ and /wər/.
• You’re wrong, and we’re right./ˈjor ˈrɑŋ | ən ˈwir ˈraɪt/
• You’re late./jər ˈleɪt/
• We’re lost./wər ˈlɒst/
• They’re safe./ðɛr ˈseɪf/
In other positions, are has the weak form /ə/.
• When are you coming?/ˈwen ə ju ˈkəmɪŋ/
• Are they mine?/ə ðeɪ ˈmaɪn/
• The doors are locked./ðə ˈdorz ə ˈlɒkt/
5.3 Is
Unlike am and are, is isn’t limited to forming contractions with personal pronouns but can
contract with a greater variety of words. The “rules” for the pronunciation of the contracted
50
form of is are the same as those for plural, third person singular, and possessive <s>. Is is
pronounced /z/ when it contracts with a word ending in a voiced sound
(i.e., a vowel or one of the voiced consonants /b d ɡ v ð m n ŋ l r/) or is pronounced /s/ when it
contracts with a word ending in a voiceless sound (i.e., one of the voiceless consonants /p t k f
θ/).
• He’s sad./hiz ˈsæd/
• She’s dull./ʃiz ˈdəl/
• His dog’s brown./hɪz ˈdɒɡz ˈbraʊn/
• My car’s new./maɪ ˈkɑ:z ˈnju:/
• It’s good./ɪts ˈɡʊd/
• This knife’s blunt./ðɪs ˈnaɪfs ˈblənt/
• The cap’s off ./ðə ˈkæps ˈɒf/
In other positions and when the preceding word ends in a sibilant, i.e., /s z ʃ ʒ ʧ ʤ/, unstressed is
is pronounced /ɪz/ or /əz/.
• Is it right?/ɪz ɪt ˈraɪt/ or /əz ɪt ˈraɪt/
• This is it./ˈðɪs ɪz ˈɪt/ or /ˈðɪs əz ˈɪt/
• Hers is best./ˈhə:z ɪz ˈbɛst/ or /ˈhə:z əz ˈbɛst/
• The dish is hot./ðə ˈdɪʃ ɪz ˈhɒt/ or /ðə ˈdɪʃ əz ˈhɒt/
• My watch is slow./maɪ ˈwɒʧ ɪz ˈsloʊ/ or /maɪ ˈwɒʧ əz ˈsloʊ/
• The bridge is closed./ðə ˈbrɪʤ ɪz ˈkloʊzd/ or /ðə ˈbrɪʤ əz ˈkloʊzd/

51
Lesson Thirteen: Strong and weak forms.
Part III
6. Weak forms of auxiliary HAVE and DO
6.1 Have
As an auxiliary verb, have forms contractions with the personal pronouns I, you, we, and they.
Have loses its initial /h/ and its vowel, leaving only /v/, which combines with the personal
pronouns.
• I’ve won./aɪv ˈwən/
• You’ve done it./juv ˈdən ɪt/
• We’ve left./wiv ˈlɛft/
• They’ve gone./ðeɪv ˈɡɑn/
In other contexts, auxiliary have has a weak form with schwa /ə/, either /həv/ or /əv/.
The initial /h/ is retained when auxiliary have occurs after a pause but dropped in all other
unstressed contexts.
• My friends have gone./maɪ ˈfrɛndz əv ˈɡɑn/
• The rest have left./ðə ˈrɛst əv ˈlɛft/
• What have you done?/ˈwɒt əv ju ˈdən/
52
• Have I passed?/həv aɪ ˈpæst/
• Have you seen it?/həv ju ˈsi:n ɪt/
• Have we won?/həv wi ˈwən/
6.2 Has
The contracted forms of the auxiliary verb has are identical to those of is. As for is, the
pronunciation of auxiliary has follows the “rules” for the pronunciation of plural, third person
singular and possessive <s>. Has is pronounced /z/ when it contracts with a word ending in a
voiced sound (i.e., a vowel or one of the voiced consonants /b d ɡ v ð m n ŋ l r/) or is
pronounced /s/ when it contracts with a word ending in a voiceless sound (i.e., one of the
voiceless consonants /p t k f θ/).
• He’s gone away./hiz ˈɡɑn əˈweɪ/
• She’s broken it./ʃiz ˈbroʊkən ɪt/
• My arm’s gone numb./maɪ ˈɑ:mz ɡɑn ˈnəm/
• The car’s been stolen./ðə ˈkɑ:z bɪn ˈstoʊlən/
• It’s been found./ɪts bɪn ˈfaʊnd/
• My wife’s left me./maɪ ˈwaɪfs ˈlɛft mi/
• The cat’s made a mess./ðə ˈkæts ˈmeɪd ə ˈmɛs/
Unstressed auxiliary has doesn’t form contractions when preceded by sibilants (i.e., /s z ʃ ʒ ʧ
ʤ/) or when preceded by a pause. After sibilants, the weak form of has is /əz/, while after a
pause, the /h/ is retained and the weak form is /həz/.
• My boss has been fired./maɪ ˈbɑs əz bɪn ˈfaɪərd/
• The rose has wilted./ðə ˈroʊz əz ˈwɪltəd/
• My wish has come true./maɪ ˈwɪʃ əz ˈkəm ˈtru:/
• The branch has snapped./ðə ˈbrænʧ əz ˈsnæpt/
• The badge has fallen off ./ðə ˈbæʤ əz ˈfɑlən 'ɒf/
• Has he read it?/həz i ˈrɛd ɪt/
• Has it happened?/həz ɪt ˈhæpənd/
• Has the film started?/həz ðə ˈfɪlm ˈstɑ:təd/
6.3 Had
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The auxiliary verb had forms contractions with the personal pronouns I, you, he, she, we, and
they. When had contracts, it loses its initial /h/ and its vowel, leaving only /d/, which combines
with the personal pronouns.
• I’d finished./aɪd ˈfɪnɪʃt/
• You’d left./jud ˈlɛft/
• He’d gone./hid ˈɡɑn/
• She’d arrived./ʃid əˈraɪvd/
• We’d eaten./wid ˈitn/
• They’d spent it./ðeɪd ˈspɛnt ɪt/
In other contexts, auxiliary had has a weak form with schwa /ə/, either /həd/ or /əd/. The
initial /h/ is retained when auxiliary had occurs after a pause but is dropped in all other
unstressed contexts.
• The doors had been closed./ðə ˈdorz əd bɪn ˈkloʊzd/
• I wish my team had won./aɪ ˈwɪʃ maɪ ˈtim əd ˈwən/
• What had happened?/ˈwət əd ˈhæpənd/
• Had he gone?/həd i ˈɡɑn/
• Had she left?/həd ʃi ˈlɛft/
• Had they promised?/həd ðeɪ ˈprɒməst/
6.4.Do
The auxiliary verb do has the weak form /də/ when the following word begins with a consonant.
Before vowels, unstressed auxiliary do is pronounced /du/, and therefore, we can consider it not
to have a weak form in this context.
• Where do we wait?/ˈwɛr də wi ˈweɪt/
• Do they know?/də ðeɪ ˈnoʊ/
• Where do I go?/ˈwɛr du aɪ ˈɡoʊ/
• Do animals dream?/du ˈænəml̩ z ˈdri:m/
7. Weak forms of modal verbs
7.1 Would

54
The modal verb would forms contractions with the personal pronouns I, you, he, she, we, and
they. When would contracts, it loses its initial /w/ and its vowel, leaving only /d/, which attaches
to the personal pronouns. The contracted forms of would (he’d /hid/, you’d /jud/, and so on) are
written and pronounced in the same way as the contracted forms of had.
• I’d buy one./aɪd ˈbaɪ ˈwən/
• You’d like it./jud ˈlaɪk ɪt/
• He’d do it./hid ˈdu ɪt/
• She’d see it./ʃid ˈsi ɪt/
• We’d get better./wid ˈɡɛt ˈbɛt̬ ər/
• They’d help./ðeɪd ˈhɛlp/
In other contexts, would has a weak form with schwa /ə/, either /wəd/ or /əd/. The initial /w/ is
retained when (would) occurs after a pause but dropped in other unstressed contexts.
• It’d work./ɪt əd ˈwə:k/
• The boss would hate it./ðə ˈbɑs əd ˈheɪt ɪt/
• The top would fall off ./ðə ˈtɒp əd ˈfɑl ˈɒf/
• Would he try?/wəd i ˈtraɪ/
• Would it matter?/wəd ɪt ˈmætə/
• Would they come?/wəd ðeɪ ˈkəm/

7.2 Will
The modal verb will forms contractions with the personal pronouns I, you, he, she, we, and
they. When will contracts, it loses its initial /w/ and its vowel, leaving only /l/, which attaches to
the personal pronouns. When unstressed, as it usually is, we’ll has the weak form /wəl/, which is
distinct from the form it has when stressed, i.e., /wil/. Unstressed he’ll usually has the weak
form /il/, except after a pause, when it’s pronounced /hil/.
• He’ll wait. I’m sure he’ll wait./hil ˈweɪt | aɪm ˈʃər il ˈweɪt/
• You’ll see. I’ll show you./jul ˈsi: | aɪl ˈʃoʊ ju/
• She’ll do her best./ʃil ˈdu: ə ˈbɛst/
• We’ll leave early./wəl ˈli:v ˈə:li/
55
• We’ll leave, and then they’ll leave./ˈwil ˈli:v | ən ˈðɛn ˈðeɪl ˈli:v/
• They’ll finish soon./ðeɪl ˈfɪnɪʃ ˈsu:n/
In other contexts, will has a weak form with schwa /ə/, either /wəl/ or /əl/. The initial /w/ is
retained when will occurs after a pause but is dropped in other unstressed contexts. This /əl/
form is often realized as syllabic /l̩ / when the preceding word ends with a consonant.
• It’ll work./ɪt əl ˈwə:k/
• That will do./ˈðæt əl ˈdu:/
• Mike will go./ˈmaɪk əl ˈɡoʊ/
• Will you help?/wɪl ju ˈhɛlp/
• Will he say?/wɪl i ˈseɪ/
7.3 Can
The weak form of the modal verb can is /kən/.
• Tom can drive./ˈtɒm kən ˈdraɪv/
• You can try./ju kən ˈtraɪ/
• Can you come?/kən ju ˈkəm/
8. Weak forms of prepositions
8.1 At
The weak form of at is /ət/.
• Look at that./ˈlʊk ət ˈðæt/
• At long last./ət ˈlɒŋ ˈlæst/

8.2 For
The weak form of for is /fər/.
• He took it for granted./hi ˈtʊk ɪt fə ˈɡræntəd/
• For hire./fə ˈhaɪə/
8.3 To
Both as a preposition and as the to-infinitive, to has the weak form /tə/ before a word beginning
with a consonant. Before vowels, the weak form of to is /tu/, and therefore, we can consider it
not to have a weak form in this context.
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• I go to work to make money./aɪ ˈɡoʊ tə ˈwə:k tə ˈmeɪk ˈməni/
• I told him to go to hell./aɪ ˈtoʊld ɪm tə ˈɡoʊ tə ˈhɛl/
• I go to a gym to exercise./aɪ ˈɡoʊ tu ə ˈʤɪm tu ˈɛksəsaɪz/
• I went to a diner to eat./aɪ ˈwɛnt tu ə ˈdaɪnə tu ˈit/
9. Weak forms of personal pronouns and possessive determiners
9.1 He
The weak form of he is /i/. The initial /h/ of unstressed he is retained, however, when it is
preceded by a pause, and therefore we can consider he not to have a weak form in this context.
• I know he thinks so./aɪ ˈnoʊ i ˈθɪŋks ˈsoʊ/
• He thinks so./hi ˈθɪŋks ˈsoʊ/
• They said he left./ðeɪ ˈsɛd i ˈlɛft/
• He left./hi ˈlɛft/
9.2 Him
The weak form of him is /ɪm/.
• Tell him./ˈtɛl ɪm/
• They made him leave./ðeɪ ˈmeɪd ɪm ˈli:v/
9.3 His
The weak form of his is /ɪz/. The initial /h/ of unstressed his is retained, however, when it is
preceded by a pause, and therefore, we can consider his not to have a weak form in this context.
His only has a weak form as a possessive determiner (e.g., I’ve read his book) but not as a
possessive pronoun (e.g., I’ve read his).
• I took his watch./aɪ ˈtʊk ɪz ˈwɒʧ/
• His watch was stolen./hɪz ˈwɒʧ wəz ˈstoʊlən/
• They know his name./ðeɪ ˈnoʊ ɪz ˈneɪm/
• His name was known./hɪz ˈneɪm wəz ˈnoʊn/
9.4 Her
Both as a personal pronoun (e.g., I found her) and as a possessive determiner (e.g., I found her
bag), her has the weak form /ər/. The initial /h/ of unstressed her is retained, however, when it is
preceded by a pause, and therefore, we can consider her not to have a weak form in this context.
57
• I’ve never met her./aɪv ˈnɛvə ˈmɛt ə/
• I’ve met her mother./aɪv ˈmɛt ə ˈməðə/
• I’ve read her book./aɪv ˈrɛd ə ˈbʊk/
• Her book’s good./hə ˈbʊks ˈɡʊd/
• Her dog died./hə ˈdɒɡ ˈdaɪd/
9.5 Them
The weak form of them is /ðəm/. When unstressed them is preceded by a word ending in a
consonant, the initial /ð/ is often dropped in more casual speech styles, leaving /əm/.
• I saw them./aɪ ˈsɑ ðəm/
• He bought them./hi ˈbɑt ðəm/
• Go get ’em!/ˈɡoʊ ˈɡɛt əm/
10. Weak forms of articles
10.1 A and An
The weak forms of a and an are /ə/ and /ən/. A, of course, is used before consonants and an
before vowels.
• A banana./ə bəˈnænə/
• An apple./ən ˈæpl̩ /
• A unit./ə ˈjunət/
• An hour./ən ˈaʊə/
10.2 The
Before a consonant, the has the weak form /ðə/, but before a vowel, it’s /ði/, and therefore, we
can consider the not to have a weak form in this context.
• The police./ðə pəˈli:s/
• The moon./ðə ˈmu:n/

• The answer to the question./ði ˈænsə tə ðə ˈkwɛsʧən/

11. Weak forms of conjunctions
11.1 And

58
 The most common weak form of and is /ən/, while /ənd/ is also a possibility but much less
usual. It’s sometimes said that /ən/ occurs before consonants and /ənd/ before vowels, but this
isn’t true – the form without /d/ is much more common no matter what follows.
• A burger and fries./ə ˈbə:ɡər ən ˈfraɪz/
• Stop and wait./ˈstɒp ən ˈweɪt/
• In and out./ˈɪn ən ˈaʊt/
11.2 As
The weak form of as is /əz/.
• As old as the hills./əz ˈoʊld əz ðə ˈhɪlz/
• As far as I can see./əz ˈfɑ:r əz ˈaɪ kən ˈsi:/
11.3 Than
The weak form of than is /ðən/.
• He left earlier than I did./hi ˈlɛft ˈə:liə ðən ˈaɪ ˈdɪd/
• More than enough./ˈmor ðən əˈnəf/
11.4 That
That has the weak form /ðət/ when it’s a conjunction (e.g., I know that it’s true) or relative
pronoun (e.g., the man that I saw) but has no weak form when it’s a demonstrative determiner
(e.g., I know that /ðæt/ man) or a demonstrative pronoun (e.g., I know that
/ðæt/).
• They said that it’s good./ðeɪ ˈsɛd ðət ɪts ˈɡʊd/
• I’ve heard that he’s back./aɪv ˈhə:d ðət iz ˈbæk/
• The dog that bit me/ðə ˈdɒɡ ðət ˈbɪt mi/
• The man that I saw/ðə ˈmæn ðət aɪ ˈsɑ/
12. Variable weak forms
In the preceding section, we have included only those words that reliably alternate between
strong and weak forms in stressed and unstressed syllables. A number of other words are more
variable. Some have weak forms that occur relatively rarely, such as when I, my, and so are
weakened to /ə/, /mə/, and /sə/. Others have weak forms that are quite common, such as /jə/

59
and /jər/ for you and your but not so common that they are the norm in unstressed contexts.
Words with variable weak forms include:
I/ə/their/ðər/she’ll/ʃəl/
you/jə/I’m/əm/they’ll/ðəl/
my/mə/you’re/jər/or/ər/
your/jər/they’re/ðər/so/sə/
13.Non-phonemic weakening
Some writers on English phonetics use strong/weak systems of transcription that assign
different symbols to strong (i.e., stressed) and weak (i.e., unstressed) variants of the same
phoneme. In stressed syllables, they transcribe schwa /ə/, schwar /ər/, fleece /i/, and goose /u/
with [ʌ], [ɝ], [iː], and [uː], while in unstressed syllables, they transcribe them [ə], [ɚ], [i] and
[u]. Consequently, they are obliged to transcribe certain grammatical words in two different
ways depending on whether they are stressed or not, even though there is no phonemic
difference between the pronunciations. This is misleading because it confuses true phonemic
weak forms, which are important for learners, with the slight non-phonemic changes that occur
when vowels are unstressed, which is of relatively minor importance.
Words whose transcription would vary if different symbols were used for stressed and
unstressed schwa include was, does, must, from, of, us, some, and but, for example:
was:I was right. /aɪ wəz ˈraɪt/I was. /aɪ ˈwʌz/
does:Does it work? /dəz ɪt ˈwə:k/It does. /ɪt ˈdʌz/
must:I must ask. /aɪ məst ˈæsk/I must. /aɪ ˈmʌst/
from:It’s from Bob. /ɪts frəm ˈbɒb/Where from? /ˈwɛr ˈfrʌm/
of:One of each. /ˈwʌn əv ˈiʧ/The one I thought of. /ðə ˈwʌn aɪ ˈθɑt ˈʌv/
us:Tell us. /ˈtɛl əs/It’s us. /ɪts ˈʌs/
some:Buy some milk. /ˈbaɪ səm ˈmɪlk/Buy me some. /ˈbaɪ mi ˈsʌm/
but:Slow but steady. /ˈsloʊ bət ˈstɛdi/No buts. /ˈnoʊ ˈbʌts/
Words whose transcription would vary if different symbols were used for stressed and
unstressed schwar /ər/ include were and her, for example:
were:You were late. /ju wɚ ˈleɪt/We were. /wi ˈwɝ/
60
her:Her name’s Kim. /hɚ ˈneɪmz ˈkɪm/Her name’s Kim (not his). /ˈhɝ ˈneɪmz ˈkɪm/
Words whose transcription would vary if different symbols were used for stressed and
unstressed fleece include me, we, she, and the, for example:
me:Tell me. /ˈtɛl mi/It’s me. /ɪts ˈmiː/
we:We left. /wi ˈlɛft/And we left. /ən ˈwiː ˈlɛft/
she:She tried. /ʃi ˈtraɪd/So did she. /ˈsoʊ dɪd ˈʃiː/
he:He knows. /hi ˈnoʊz/Nor does he. /ˈnor dəz ˈhiː/
the:The end. /ði ˈɛnd/I said “the” end. /aɪ ˈsɛd ˈðiː ˈɛnd/
Words whose transcription would vary if different symbols were used for stressed and
unstressed goose include you, do, and to, for example:
you:You can’t. /ju ˈkænt/It’s you. /ɪts ˈjuː/
do:Why do I try? /ˈwaɪ du aɪ ˈtraɪ/I do. /aɪ ˈduː/
to:Go to England. /ˈɡoʊ tu ˈɪŋɡlənd/Where to? /ˈwɛr ˈtuː/
14. Weak forms and connected speech
The preceding weak forms have been given in their most neutral forms, but it’s common for
such high-frequency words to appear in phonetic contexts that alter their phonetic structure.
Since and, an, and will have the weak forms /ən/ and /əl/, these can form syllabic consonants
more or less readily depending on the final consonant of the preceding word.
• bread and butter/ˈbrɛd n ˈbət̬ ər/
• knife and fork/ˈnaɪf n ˈfork/
• bought and sold/ˈbɑt n ˈsoʊld/
• I had an answer./aɪ ˈhæd n ˈænsər/
• cause an accident/ˈkɑz n ˈæksədənt/
• eat an orange/ˈit n ˈorɪnʤ/
• That’ll do./ˈðæt̬ l̩ ˈdu/
• Help’ll come./ˈhɛlp l̩ ˈkəm/
• Time’ll tell/ˈtaɪm l̩ ˈtɛl/
15. Contractions with NOT

61
 A second class of contractions is quite different from those we have discussed so far. The
negative contractions are a combination of not and an auxiliary verb, which result in the
following forms:
isn’t/ˈɪznt/didn’t/ˈdɪdnt/mustn’t/ˈməsnt/aren’t/ɑrnt/haven’t/ˈhævnt/shouldn’t/ˈʃʊdnt/wasn’t/
ˈwəznt/hasn’t/ˈhæznt/couldn’t/ˈkʊdnt/weren’t/wərnt/hadn’t/ˈhædn
t/wouldn’t/ˈwʊdnt/don’t/doʊnt/won’t/woʊnt/ doesn’t/ˈdəzn t/can’t/kænt/
These contractions are best considered as individual words in their own right that have
developed through historical processes of word formation and grammaticalization and not as
present-day weak forms of not that occur through processes of weakening during connected
speech. They differ from the first group of contractions in a number of ways:
In terms of stress, "not" does not behave like a weak form word. As we have seen, such words
are unstressed in all but exceptional circumstances. Consequently, they have pronunciations
typical of unstressed syllables (i.e., with centralized vowels and dropped consonants). Their
reduction in certain contexts to a single consonant that contracts with a preceding word is an
extension of the same process. Not, in contrast, is a grammatical word that is usually stressed,
like for example the demonstratives (this, that, these, those) and possessive pronouns (mine,
yours, and so on):
• I’m not ready./aɪm ˈnɒt ˈrɛdi/
• He’s big but not strong./hiz ˈbɪɡ bət ˈnɒt ˈstrɒŋ/
• Try not to forget./ˈtraɪ ˈnɒt tə fəˈɡet/
• It’s not knowing that’s worst./ɪts ˈnɒt ˈnoʊɪŋ ðəts ˈwə:st/
When an unstressed auxiliary verb contracts with a preceding word, the resulting contraction
has the stressing that word would have had if the auxiliary had not contracted. If the word is a
personal pronoun, then the contraction, like the pronoun, is usually unstressed. If the word is a
lexical word, as it could be in cases of contraction with is or has, then the contraction, like the
lexical word, is usually stressed. In the case of contractions with not, however, the situation is
reversed. The contraction takes the stressing of the contracting word not and is stressed even
though the preceding word is of a type that is usually unstressed:
• Don’t go./ˈdoʊnt ˈɡoʊ/
62
• He can’t stay./hi ˈkænt ˈsteɪ/
• It doesn’t work./ɪt ˈdəznt ˈwə:k/
• I won’t ask./aɪ ˈwoʊnt ˈæsk/
Most of the negative contractions do not conform to our definition of a phonetic contraction. In
isn’t, didn’t, haven’t, and others, the not element isn’t reduced to a single consonant but has the
form of a syllable, /ənt/, which is usually realized with a syllabic consonant, /nt/. Only aren’t,
weren’t, and can’t can be analyzed as consisting of a word
reduced to a consonantal element and attached to a preceding word, /nt/ in the case of aren’t and
weren’t, and /t/ in the case of can’t.
Two of the negative contractions, don’t and won’t, have completely unpredictable forms. The
/u/ and /ɪl/ of do and will become /oʊ/ in don’t and won’t.
The final /t/ of negative contractions only regularly occurs before a pause. In other contexts
(i.e., before a word beginning with a vowel or a consonant), /t/ is frequently dropped. This is
particularly common in the case of disyllabic contractions, isn’t, haven’t, couldn’t, and so on,
though it is less usual in the case of the five monosyllabic contractions, aren’t, weren’t, don’t,
won’t, and can’t.
16.Practice
1. Forms of BE (main verb and auxiliary)
1.1 Am and Are
a) /aɪm/
I’m fine. I’m here. I’m tired. I’m leaving. I’m busy. I’m having dinner. I’m waiting. I’m taking
my time. I’m seeing John later. I’m doing my best. I think I’m lost. I’m trying. I’m worn out.
You know I’m right.
b) /əm/
Am I late? Am I right? Am I wrong? Am I winning? Am I under arrest? Am I boring you?
Am I making myself clear? What am I waiting for? Where am I going? Who am I talking to?
How am I doing? When am I expected?
c) /jə(r)/

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You’re wonderful. You’re learning. You’re a real friend. You’re almost there. You’re doing
well. You’re close. You’re getting better. You’re being silly. You’re seeing things. You’re
annoying me. You’re making a mistake. You’re late. You’re very brave. Now you’re talking. I
think you’re great. I know you’re busy. He said you’re trying hard. She knows you’re interested.
d) /wə(r)/
We’re coming. We’re running late. We’re getting along well. We’re making good progress.
We’re finding it dificult. We’re having problems. We’re leaving soon. We’re thinking about it.
We’re doing it again. We’re meeting later. We’re happy together. He knows we’re here. She
thinks we’re a couple. They said we’re allowed.
e) /ðr/
They’re awful. They’re here. They’re on their way. They’re taking it easy. They’re nearly there.
They’re plotting. They’re out. They’re starting. They’re both teachers. They’re dificult. They’re
gone. She said they’re coming. He knows they’re cheating. They think they’re special. It sounds
like they’re serious.
f) /ə(r)/
Are you ready? Are you there? Are you sure? Are you all right? Are you comfortable? Are you
joking? Are they lost? What are you waiting for? What are you doing? What are you looking at?
What are you talking about? Where are you going? Where are you from? Where are they made?
Where are we staying? When are we going? When are you leaving? When are we meeting?
When are you getting up? Why are you angry? Why are they broken? Why are we waiting?
Why are they laughing? Why are you smiling? What are they eating? What are you carrying?
What are they hiding? What are we doing?
1.2 Is
a) /z/
The job’s easy. His dad’s rich. This bag’s heavy. The cave’s very dark. The game’s over. The
gun’s loaded. This ring’s very expensive. The bill’s wrong. The door’s locked. My knee’s
aching. The glue’s drying. Who’s there? My pay’s too low. Why’s that? That boy’s lazy. My
toe’s hurting. Now’s the time.
b) /s/
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The tap’s leaking. The shop’s closed. The ship’s sinking. The cat’s sleeping. That’s incredible.
His boat’s very big. What’s the problem? My back’s itching. This cake’s too sweet. This lock’s
useless. This fork’s bent. My life’s amazing. My cough’s getting worse. This knife’s very sharp.
That tooth’s rotten.
c) /ɪz/ or /əz/
This is it. The case is closed. The choice is yours. This place is awful. His voice is breaking.
Hers is better. His is worse. The news is exciting. The cause is unknown. The hose is leaking.
My nose is bleeding. The quiz is too dificult. The brush is dirty. English is fun! This fish is
rotten. The varnish is still wet. Beige is my favourite color. The beach is empty.Bleach is
dangerous. The branch is breaking. Your brooch is lovely. My watch is very old. The bridge is
collapsing. The cage is open. The damage is done. This language is easy. The last page is
missing.
2.Forms of HAVE (auxiliary)
2.1. Have
a) /aɪv/
I’ve seen it. I’ve finished. I’ve done it. I’ve been waiting all day. I’ve been robbed. I’ve made
dinner. I’ve been there. I’ve found it. I’ve had enough. I’ve done my best. I’ve had a shower.
You know I’ve tried.
b) /juv/
You’ve broken it. You’ve made a mess. You’ve succeeded. You’ve made it. You’ve taken too
long. You’ve missed one. You’ve spilled some. You’ve dropped something. You’ve said that
before. You’ve lost. I think you’ve had enough.
c) /wiv/
We’ve never met. We’ve arrived. We’ve changed. We’ve prepared everything. We’ve done our
best. We’ve had it fixed. We’ve worn it out. We’ve turned it off . We’ve given up. We’ve
bought a new one. You think we’ve cheated?

d) /ðeɪv/

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They’ve seen it. They’ve left. They’ve done it before. They’ve made a mistake. They’ve already
eaten. They’ve gotten lost. They’ve been stolen. They’ve been welcomed. They’ve split up. I
bet they’ve gone.
e) /əv/
People have complained. The sheep have wandered off . The children have gone to bed. The
men have been arrested. The women have vanished. My feet have gone numb. His teeth have
fallen out. The geese have flown away. The mice have eaten all the cheese. The police have
been asking about you. My parents have gone on holiday. Ten cars have been stolen. Where
have you been? It might have happened. What have you done? You shouldn’t have left.
f) /həv/
Have I missed something? Have you noticed anything? Have we won? Have they replied? Have
the kids come home? Have you finished? Have the police been called? Have we passed the
exam? Have you seen it?
2.2 Has
a) /z/
The job’s been done. The bread’s gone moldy. The dog’s died. My glove’s disappeared. A
crime’s been committed. The machine’s stopped working. The building’s fallen down. The
well’s run dry. His knee’s gotten worse. My coffee’s gone cold. Who’s bought one? The car’s
broken down again. My pay’s disappeared. The sky’s gotten darker. The joy’s gone out of it.
The snow’s all melted. The cow’s been milked.
b) /s/
My cap’s blown away. The group’s fallen apart. The cat’s been run over. A jet’s just crashed.
My snake’s shed its skin. The clock’s stopped. My wife’s left me. The roof’s collapsed. The
moth’s flown away. My rotten tooth’s been pulled out. Ruth’s left.
c) /əz/
The address has changed. The bus has broken down. His has been replaced. My nose has been
itching all day. My wish has come true. The bush has grown too big. The camouflage has fooled
them. The barrage has started. My watch has stopped. Your brooch has fallen off .The cottage
has burnt down. The urge has passed.
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d) /həz/
Has it worked? Has she left? Has he done it? Has the train arrived yet? Has your headache
gone? Has my mother called? Has the baby gone to sleep? Has the rain stopped? Has it helped?
2.3. Had
a) /aɪd/ I’d already finished. I’d done all I could. I wish I’d told him. I’d already left. I’d seen it
before. I’d better go. If only I’d known. He said I’d spoiled it. She thought I’d taken it. I knew
I’d made a mistake. I’d wrecked it.
b) /jud/
You’d been before. You’d never seen it. I wish you’d come earlier. If only you’d said. You’d
made a mess. She said you’d left. I thought you’d finished. I knew you’d been tricked. You’d
already eaten it.
c) /hid/
He’d already gone. He’d left. He’d seen it. He’d been there before. He’d hardly started. He’d
done it again. He’d spoiled it. He’d already bought it. He’d crashed the car. He’d lost it. He’d
fallen over.
d) /ʃid/
She’d said everything. She’d been there all day. She’d already finished. I wish she’d done
better. If only she’d listened. She’d given up. She’d arrived early. I knew she’d failed. I thought
she’d done better.
e) /wid/
We’d better leave. We’d finished early. We’d taken a long time. We’d already opened it. I wish
we’d tried that first. If only we’d met ten years ago. I thought we’d passed. I knew we’d gone
too far. We’d missed it.
f) /ðeɪd/
They’d broken it. They’d done it before. They’d tried their best. They’d broken new ground.
They’d set a new record. If only they’d said so. I wish they’d left earlier. They said they’d been
invited. I thought they’d gone.
g) /əd/

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The gap had widened. The job had gotten worse. It had broken down. The fad had passed. My
back had gone. The dog had run off . The coach had gone home. The bridge had been repaired.
His cough had cleared up. The love had gone. The myth had grown. The boss had left. The prize
had been won. My wish had been granted. Its prestige had lessened. The dam
had been built. The phone had been ringing. The song had finished. Bill had arrived. The bar
had closed. The sea had been polluted. My money had run out. The zoo had closed down. The
day had gone well. The lie had been discovered. The toy had broken. The plough had rusted.
The show had finished.
h) /həd/
Had she already left? Had it been going on long? Had it been a success? Had they tidied up?
Had they done it before? Had it been prepared? Had you been there before? Had it worked? Had
it been stolen?
3. Forms of DO (auxiliary)
a) /də/
Do they know? Do we park here? Do people like that? Do pandas eat meat? Do rabbits
hibernate? Where do penguins live? How do birds fly? When do babies start talking? Which do
they like? What do the police want?
b) /du/
Do apples grow on trees? Do elephants really never forget? Do onions make you cry? Do old
people sleep more? Where do Ann’s parents live? When do I start? What do owls eat?
4. Modal verbs
4.1 Would
a) /aɪd/
I’d like to go. I’d enjoy it. I’d do it. I’d have a go. I’d open it. I’d take one. I’d like one. I’d win
easily. I’d eat it all. I’d laugh my head off. I’d leave it alone. I’d love to come. I’d make a
difference. You know I’d love it.
b) /jud/

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You’d find it dificult. You’d notice the dif ference. You’d get it wrong. You’d eat it all. You’d
spoil it. You’d easily win. You’d never finish in time. You’d never understand. You’d love it. I
think you’d like it.
c) /hid/
He’d steal it. He’d never do it. He’d waste our time. He’d make a mess. He’d work it out. He’d
take a long time. He’d help. He’d try. He’d make you proud. He’d drive you crazy. He’d buy it
all. I think he’d get lost. She said he’d wait.
d) /ʃid/
She’d get angry. She’d see the funny side. She’d throw it away. She’d lose it. She’d take it all.
She’d take it home. She’d make a fortune. She’d say what she thinks. She’d like to keep it.
She’d like one. I think she’d hate it.
e) /wid/
We’d break the record. We’d have a great time. We’d like to join you. We’d get lost. We’d be
wasting our money. We’d win. We’d get away with it. We’d be rich. We’d be able to do it.
We’d enjoy it. I know we’d do well.
f) /əd/
The top would fall off. The lab would close down. The debt would increase. The bed would be
too big. The itch would get worse. The cage would rust. The knife would be found. The drive
would be tiring. The myth would grow. A kiss would be nice. A snooze would be good. I wish
this rash would go away. Beige would look nice. I said Pam would do it. The bone would break.
The ring would get lost. The coal would run out. A year would be enough. The tea would get
cold. A party would be great. A few would be enough. That way would be quicker. A pie would
be too much. That boy would be suitable. If only the snow would melt. I wish that cow would
move.
4.2. Will
a) /aɪl/, /jul/, /(h)il/, /ʃil/, /wəl/, /ðeɪl/
I’ll let you know. I think I’ll leave. You’ll understand. I know you’ll do well. He’ll never admit
it. I think he’ll leave early. She’ll never know. Now she’ll feel better. We’ll work it out. I know
we’ll manage. They’ll never find it. I think they’ll stop looking.
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b) /l̩
/ (after consonants)
The top’ll break. A cab’ll stop. That’ll do. It’ll never work. The mood’ll change. The park’ll
close. The egg’ll break. Which’ll fit? The bridge’ll collapse. Crime’ll increase. When’ll that
happen? Half’ll be enough. The cave’ll be dark. Your teeth’ll rot. The bus’ll be late. The
surprise’ll kill him. My cash’ll run out. Sabotage’ll work. This one’ll do. My room’ll be big
enough. The string’ll snap.
c) /əl/ (after /l/ or /r/)
The bill will be high. The bell will ring soon. The fool will get hurt. The smell will get worse.
The wall will be demolished. The wheel will fall off. The car will break down. The floor will
collapse. The chair will break. The fear will go away. His brother will help. Four will be
enough.
d) /əl/ (after vowels) with linking/j/
The sea will be cold. Three will be enough. The fee will be high. The zoo will be closed. The
tray will be too heavy. The day will fly by. The sky will clear up. That boy will do well. The
snow will soon melt. I’m sure the show will be great. Now will be fine.
e) /wɪl/
Will you give it a try? Will it work? Will she make it? Will they do it? Will it be enough? Will
that do?
4.3. Can
a) /kən/
I can swim. You can try. It can wait. I can tell. Dave can do it. Can we go? Jack can take the
train. The neighbors can hear you. Can you say that again? Where can I park? What can I say?
Who can it be? Which can I take? You can say that again! As far as I can see. I can barely hear
myself think. I can live with it. I can take it or leave it. You’ve bitten off more than you can
chew.
5.Prepositions
5.1 At and For
a) /ət/
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clutch at straws, asleep at the wheel, young at heart, choose at random, talk at length, take
something at face value, burn the candle at both ends, fall at the fi
rst hurdle, howl at the moon, ill at ease, at a moment’s notice, weak at the knees, at the drop of a
hat, in the right place at the right time
b) /fə(r)/
one for luck, for the sake of argument, a recipe for disaster, word for word, for better or for
worse, good for nothing, lost for words, spoiled for choice, food for thought, a cry for help, take
for granted, a sight for sore eyes, an A for effort, a man for all seasons, tit for tat, a free for all,
once and for all
5.2 To
a) /tə/
a hard nut to crack, a tough act to follow, back to square one, up to date, a score to settle, agree
to disagree, back to basics, close to home, a bitter pill to swallow, bored to tears, a shoulder to
cry on, raring to go, too hot to handle, A to Z, day to day, man to man, well to do, a bride to be,
face to face, head to head, a mother to be, wall to wall, door to door, ready to wear, heart to
heart
b) /tu/
a bite to eat, a means to an end, afraid to ask, end to end, down to earth, made to order, a call to
action
6. Personal pronouns and possessive determiners
6.1 He, Him, His, Her, Them
a) /i/
So he knows, does he? Has he seen it? Will he know? Can he help? Where did he go? What
does he want? Should he try? Could he answer? I know he does. She said he did. I thought he
knew.
b) /hi/
He told us everything. He knows a lot. He ran off. He did it well. He told me so. He thought
about it.
c) /ɪm/
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Help him. Don’t rob him. We’ve got him. They hated him. I woke him up. They had to drag
him. I can’t reach him. They didn’t charge him anything. It drove him mad. He said it was
beneath him. She tried to soothe him. I don’t miss him. It didn’t faze him. Please don’t push
him. I can’t name him. I’ll phone him later. Sing him a song. Let’s call him. I can see him. They
adore him.
d) /ɪz/
I know his mother. I caught his cold. She took his details. I believed his story. It’s near his
house. Can you see his car? Has he learned his lesson? Does his brother live there? They took
his keys. Give me his stuff.
e) /hɪz/
His coat’s wet. His car’s gone. His mother called. His house is on fire. His brother took it. His
wife left.
f) /ə(r)/
I can’t find her. Just ask her. They gave her a prize. I’ll phone her later. He met her. Tell her
again. She said she’ll miss her. I hardly know her. I bought her one. I can see her. What’s her
name? Take her bag. I found her number. Will her brother come? Is her mother okay? I know
her aunt. I’ve read her book. She took her time. Someone took her coat.
g) /hə(r)/
Her mother left. Her bag’s over there. Her brother said so. Her finger’s swollen. Her car’s been
stolen.
h) /ðəm/
Help them. Nobody mentioned them. I know them. Jack found them. Show them again. I took
them home. He broke them. Put them over there. Can I borrow them? Will you look after them?
He stood behind them.
7. Articles
7.1 A, An, The
a) /ə/
a pocket, a bat, a table, a dog, a coat, a guess, a cheat, a joke, a farm, a vote, a thing, a sock, a
zoo, a shop, a hobby, a minute, a note, a letter, a robot, a university, a unit, a uniform, a yacht, a
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window; a proud father, a big decision, a tricky question, a dirty mind, a close shave, a good
time, a cheap ticket, a gentle breeze, a frank answer, a vulgar attitude, a thin line, a soft landing,
a short walk, a hot drink, a misty morning, a naughty child, a loud bang, a rough
plan, a useful tip, a united country, a unique situation, a universal truth, a young man, a one-
eyed dog, a wonderful achievement
b) /ən/
an idiot, an elephant, an animal, an uncle, an off er, an eagle, an alien, an item, an oyster, an
ocean, an hour; an interesting story, an envious friend, an angry stranger, an odd couple, an easy
task, an ordinary day, an aching back, an idle moment, an oily rag, an open door, an outdoor
swimming pool
c) /ðə/
the police, the beach, the time, the kitchen, the ground, the champion, the gym, the French, the
Vatican, the thirties, the sky, the zoo, the shower, the heart, the moon, the knowledge, the last,
the radio, the United States, the world.
d) /ði/
the Internet, the entrance, the attic, the others, the ofice, the East, the eighties, the ice caps, the
oil crisis, the owner, the outback
8.Conjunctions
8.1 And, As, Than, That
a) /ən/
up and down, ebb and flow, cat and dog, food and drink, through thick and thin, big and bold,
knife and fork, alive and well, north and south, smooth and silky, this and that, his and hers,
flesh and blood, an arm and a leg, again and again, willing and able, all and sundry, wear
andtear, free and easy, few and far between, day and night, high and dry, slow and steady, now
and again
b) /əz/
as far as the eye can see, as old as the hills, as soon as possible, as clean as a whistle, as good as
new, as smooth as silk, as cold as ice, as fit as a fiddle, as light as a feather, as gentle as a lamb,

73
as busy as a bee, as dry as a bone, as flat as a pancake, as quiet as a mouse, as strong as an ox,
as white as snow
c) /ðən/
larger than life, more trouble than it’s worth, better than nothing, a fate worse than death, better
safe than sorry, larger than life, rather you than me, easier said than done, more often than not,
better late than never
d) /ðət/
I know that he did it. He said that she knew. They agreed that it was wrong. She claimed that
she understood. They pretended that they were working. They hoped that it was true. the man
that they saw, the meal that they had, a question that they answered, the man that lives next
door, the woman that found it, the boy that left early, the girl that works there, the people that
made it

74
Lesson Fourteen: Syllabic Consonants
Part I
1.Introduction
English syllabic consonants are/ˌl, ˌn, ˌm, ˌr/. As I said earlier in our previous lessons,
syllabic / r/ occurs mainly in GA. Rules will be given, anyway but students will not be tested on
syllabic/r/. The pronunciation will shown to the students in this first session. The students may
get confused as they lack the mastery over the english stress and the transcription since
syllabicity revolves around schwa without which there is no syllabic consonant.The students
will given a link to download a free pdf dictionary online version by J.C.Wells( Longman
English pronunciation dictionary, 900 pages) via my "Google Drive" This pronouncing
dictionary helps students check out words and ease them into mastering both the RP and GA
english transcription.
2. Rules
a.Rules of syllabic / ˌl /: it is found in the spelling in the forms of ( le, al, el and rarely il)
*It occurs after plosives /p, t, k, b, d, g/.Examples are:
/kætḷ / bottle /botḷ/ able /eɪbḷ/, middle, tackle, haggle, rebel,
Rule: stressed syllable+ plosive+ / ə/+/l/= syllabic /l/.
*after affricates /ʧ/ and / ʤ/.Examples are: satchel/ˈsatʃəl/ without syllabicilty and /ˈsatʃˌl/ with
syllabicity.
*after nasals/ m,n/.Examples are: normal, final
* after the fricatives / v, f, ʃ, θ/.Examples are: muffle, cavil, lethal.
*Preceded by/ h, ð, ʒ, ŋ, r, j, w,l/, /l/ is not syllabic.
Examples are : equal, spaniel, perel, viral, school'll.
Task1: transcribe phonemically all the words above still not transcribed in 2 and use your LPD
dictionary to check them out.You might find the word peril with syllabicity in LPD but drop it
anyway and follow the rules.(r is more sonorous than l so for me syllabicity does not occur).
Nb: syllabicity may occur after the suffix "ful" and /l/ is syllabic only if the adjective means
something abstract not concrete like the words pitiful, helpful.

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* With the suffix "ful", the first pronunciation is syllabic /l/, the second one is without
syllabicity when the word means something abstract.When " ful" means something concrete,

there is no syllabicity as in "spoonful".Spoon is concrete so pronounce it /ˈspuːnfʊl/.

*With words which end in " il" syllabicity may or may not occur depending on whether " il" is
pronounced" /Il/ or / əl/.
Anyway, there few words about 85 so check out whenever you come across them.If the word is
pronounced with / əl/ syllabicity is possible.If with / Il/ syllabicity is not possible.
Task 2: Transcribe phonemically the following words showing whether syllabicity is possible
or not.Use EPD ( english pronunciation dictionary)
Daffodil, fossil, civil, pencil, fullfil, febril, vigil, flowerful, thoughtful, graceful, basketful,
bucketful, bookful
Example: bookful/ ˈbʊkfʊl/ syllabicity is not possible because " book" is concrete.
Nb: some learners may get confused with the word " peril" as here J.C.Wells says it is possible
to have syllabicity since we have a schwa in ' il', but " r" is more sonorous than " l" and learners
should not use syllabicity, anyway.
b.Rules of syllabic /n/
It occurs after:
*alveolar plosives/ t,d/.Examples are: botton/ ˈbʌt(ə)n/ , sudden/ ˈsʌd(ə)n/
Two pronunciations are possible here: with or without syllabicity.
*after fricatives/ f,v,s,z,ʃ,ʒ, ð,θ/
Examples are: soften /ˈsɒfn̩/, even /ˈiːvn̩/, present/ ˈprezn̩t/ , person, python, mission, vision,
oven.
Nb. a raised schwa means that the preferred pronunciation( first) is with syllabicity and the
second pronunciation is without syllabicity as in often/ˈɒf.ən/
When schwa is italized, non-syllabicity is preferred to syllabicity.These are shown is LPD.
* syllabic / n/ is less usual( but possible) after non-alveolar plosives/ p,b, k g/ and affricates/
t,d /.Examples are: weapon, ribbon, region, question, dragon.

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* Syllabic/n/ is not possible when / d/ or/t/ are preceded by nasals/ m,n, eng/ Examples are :
London, Washington, Camden.
*Syllabic / n/ is not possible when/t/ is preceded by / k/ and / p/ .Examples are: reluctant,
acceptance
* Syllabic / n/ is not possible when/t/ is preceded by /s/ as in constant, substance.

*Syllabic / n/ is not possible when/t/ or/d/ are preceded by an unstressed syllable as in 'accident,
'confidence, 'skeleton.
(ci, fi, le) in are unstressed in accident, confidence, skeleton.
Task 3: transcribe the following words showing whether syllabicity is possible or not.
tendon, abandon, token, Boston, action, incident.
( I do not encorage syllabicity in abondon, tendon for foreign students though they are syllabic
according to Wells).

77
Lesson Fourteen: Syllabic Consonants
Part II
c) Rules of syllabic/ m/
It occurs when preceded by
*fricatives/ s,z,ʃ, θ,ð/ as in ransom, awsome, prism, spasm, rhythm, Favershom, fathom.anthom.
*/p/ + syllabic/m/ and /b/+syllabic/m/ occur rarely in isolation and in assimilation, as in "cabin
boy"/ ˈkæbɪn ˌbɔɪ/ also possible with a schwa / ˈkæ bən ˌbɔɪ/ which gives/ˈkæ bn̩ˌbɔɪ/
and/n/+/b/= /m̩b/ which gives/ ˈkæbm̩ ˌbɔɪ/
Open/əʊpn̩/ gives / /əʊpm̩/under assimilation
/ p/+/n/= / pm/
Do not forget that syllabicity does not occur without an unstressed schwa, so in cabin we
have /I/ and / ə/ and since there is a/ ə/ as an alternative pronunciation, syllabicity is possible.
Nb. Syllabicity may occur at the end and in middle position as accordance(middlle position),
student( middle)
Reminder: in ('student and a'ccordance), syllabicity is possible as the weak syllable containing /
ə/ is directly preceded by a stressed syllable not like ('accident) where stress falls on the first
syllable. No syllabicity of/m/ preceded by / d, t, g, k, f, v, h, r, n, l, m, ʒ ʤ, ʧ/. Examples are:
enemy / ˈenəmi/.
Task 4: Transcribe all the words above set as examples.Use your LPD.
d. Rules of syllabic / r/

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It occurs only in the middle in BRE( RP) and nearly everywhere in AmE.The students should
not bother thelselves a lot right now as they need a lot of practice but it is interesting to know
both accents. Syllabic / r/ (in middle position) occurs nearly after all consonants as in
history /ˈhɪstərɪ/ → [ˈhɪstɹ̩ ɪ]
blustery /ˈblʌstərɪ/ → [ˈblʌstɹ̩ ɪ]
preference /ˈprefərəns/ → [ˈprefɹ̩ əns]
ɹ̩ = syllabic / r/
At the end, syllabic/ r/ occurs in AmE as father, sister.
e. Combinations of syllabic consonants
It is not difficult to find words with two adjacent syllabic consonants. Roach provides the
following examples:
national /næʃn̩l̩ /
literal /lɪtr̩l̩ /
visionary /vɪʒn̩r̩ɪ/
veteran /vetr̩n̩/
Task five: Transcribe the following words and show syllabicity.
memory, every, nursery, interesting, seperate( adjective, but "seperate" as a verb, syllabicity is
not possible as there is a secondary stress on rate), aspirin, opera, temperature.
f. The students should pay attention to suffixation as syllabicity is also possible. Therefore, the
number of syllables remains the same. Examples are : bottle+ ing= bottling/ ˈbɒtəlɪŋ/ or/ ˈbɒtl̩ ɪŋ/
There is syllabicity in " bottle" so even in suffixation, we keep this syllabicity
Coddle+ ing= coddling( syllabicity)
Hustle+ ing= Hustling( syllabicity)
But cod+ ling= codling( no syllabicity as there is no syllacity in cod)
Task 6: check out the transcription of the following words with suffixation in your LPD( Stick
to BrE).
bubbling( from bubble), poisonous( from poison), ticklish( from tickle), gardener( from garden.
r is not pronounced in gardener).
Task 7: Check out the following words in your LPD.( sequence of syllabic consonants).
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national, occasional, professional, rational, traditional, international.
3. Further practice.(The students are not required to do these tasks but should have an idea for
items anchoring)

A)Syllabic /l/
1)Syllabic / l/ in / pḷ/ and/ bḷ/
people, pupil, purple, ripple, simple, sample, scalpel, staple, triple,cripple, bubble, cable,
cramble, double, gamble, double,herbal, humble, ramble, mumble, noble, pebble, marble, rable,
stable, cannibal, rumble, horrible, trouble, label, stumble, rubble, tremble.
2) / tḷ / and / dḷ/
battle, beetle, bottle, brutal, cattle, crystal, fatal, hostel, mettle, little, pistol (ol rarely occurs),
petal, metal, postal, rattle, settle, shuttle,startle, subtle, title, total, vital, turtle,bridal, candle,
cradle, cuddle, doodle, fiddle, huddle, medal, ladle, middle, modal, muddle, needle,
paddle,pedal, puddle, riddle, saddle, scandal.

3) /kḷ/,/gḷ/,/ ʤḷ ,/ tʃḷ/
ankle, uncle, buckle, circle, crackle, cycle, knuckle,snorkel, sparkle, sprinkle, tickle,
trickle,twinkle,wrinkle,local,vocal,article,chemical, medical, miracle, angle,bangle,
burgle,eagle, gargle, wiggle, giggle, haggle, jingle, juggle, jungle,legal, single, smuggle,
squiggle,strangle, struggle, tangle, satchel, Rachel, angel, cudgel
4)/ mḷ/,/nḷ/
camel, dismal, formal, mammal, thermal,normal,animal, channel, colonel, final,funnel, journal,
kennel, panel, signal, tunnel,criminal, etetnal.
5) /fḷ/ , /vḷ/, /θḷ /, /,ðḷ/
baffle, muffle, stifle, trifle, waffle, raffle,rifle,shuffle, awful, civil, devil, drivel,
evel,gravel,grovel,hovel,level, naval,novel,oval,rival,shovel,travel,
approval, arrival,festival,interval, removal, lethal,brothel,bethrotal.
6)/sḷ/,/zḷ/,/ʃḷ/
axle, bristle, cancel, castle, fossil, gristle(t is silent) ,hassle, muscle( c is silent), parcel, pencil,
rustle, stencil, thistle, whistle, wrestle, universal ,chisel, dazzle, drizzle, diesel, easel, fizzle,
nasal, nozzle,weasel, puzzle, proposal, refusal, crucial, partial,
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social,special, commercial, essential, initial,official, potential.
B) syllabic /n/
1)/tn/ / dn/
bitten,brighten,carton,certain,curtain,fatten, glutton frighten, kitten, lighten, mitten, mutton,
rotton, straighten, shorten, tartan, threaten, tighten, student, burden, garden, harden, pardon,
warden,wooden, rodent, couldn't; shouldn't, didn't, guidance, hadn't
NB not all contractions are possible."won't" and " can't" for example, can't be syllabic.Stress
falls on won't and can't.They have only one syllable.
2)/ fn/,/vn/ / θn/ / ðn/
deafen, hyphen, often, orphan,soften, stiffen, infant, toughen, driven, given, heaven, even,
convent, eleven, strengthen, lenghten, relevant,heathen.

Lesson Fifteen: Elision in consonants

1.Introduction
The most common elision involves/t/ and /d/.The alveolar plosives can stand between two
consonants and belong to the same syllable as the preceding consonant.For example, (t) can be
elided in " Last lesson"/ lɑːst ˈlesn̩/ becomes /lɑːs ˈlesn̩/; " Facts"/ fækts/ becomes / fæks/; "
Brand new" /ˌbræn ˈnju:/ becomes / ˌbræn ˈnju:/.But not in:"His twin" / hɪz 'twɪn/ and "This
drink"/ ðɪs 'drɪŋk/ because though we feel there are three consonants( clusters) in his twin / ztw/
and this drink / sdr/, the rule does not apply: the (t) and( d) belong to the same syllables( twin
and drink) but not as the preceding consonants. Simply put, (t) and (d) come after not before.
2.Rules
A./t/ and /d/ are elided.
-/ft/+any consonant. lifts/ lɪfs/; sof(t)ware; li(f)t me
-/st/+......................firs(t)ly; coas(t)guard; bes(t) friend

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-/kt/+.....................collec(t)s; fac(t)- finding;reac(t) badly
-/pt/ +....................accep(t)s; scrip(t) writer; kep(t) quiet
-/nd/+....................han(d)z; gran(d)father; stan(d) still
-/ld/+...................fiel(d)s; chil(d) care; hol(d) tight/
Word-final alveolar plosives are often realisations of(ed) but there is elision of( t) and ( d).
-/bd/+ any consonant.They 'robb(ed)the' bank/ ˈðeɪ rɒb ðə bæŋk/(revise ed pronunciation of
regular verbs in the past)
-/gd/+.................I 'shrugge(d) my 'shoulders.
-/dʒd/+...............He manag(ed) to 'do it/ ˈhiˈmænɪdʒ../
-/vd/+................I sav(ed) my 'breath.
-/ðd/+.................She' mouthed the 'answer
/ʃi 'maʊðd ði ˈɑːnsə/ becomes/ ʃi 'maʊð ði ˈɑːnsə/
-/zd/+.................It a'mus(ed) me.
-/md/+................I 'calm(ed) 'down
-/nd/+.................He 'fann(ed) the 'flames.
-/ŋd/+.................It bel'ong(ed) to him.

-/ld/+..................I a'ppeal(ed)to them.

-pt/+...................He 'stopp(ed) 'talking.
-/kt/+.................He was track(ed)down
-/ft/+..................I suff(ed) my face
/f/ is voiceless, so the final sound is/t/ and not/d/
-/st/+................I was 'forced to 'do it.
-/tʃt/+................I 'switch(ed) 'channels
-/ʃt/+.................She 'washed the 'dishes..
*Exceptions. (no elision of /lt/,/nt/,/rt/,rd/) + consonant.( any consonant).
/t/ is not elided in the clusters / lt/,/nt/,/rt/ and / rd/. Examples are:I 'felt 'sad; front 'door; 'start
the'car; hard times.

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For/rd/ in "hard times"; /r/ is pronounced in AmE, so no elision in /rd/+consonant, and in BrE,
/r/ is not pronounced in "hard" since the following sound is/d/, a consonant sound.That is to say,
/d/ in hard" will be preceded by a vowel/ ɑː/ and then elision is impossible.In both AmE and
BrE, in / rd/ there is elision, but the explanation differs.
Nb: in "He stopped eating" and" most horrible", is elision possible?
Answer: No, it is not because the sound following / t/ is a vowel/i:/ in 'eating' and the consonant
following/t/ in " horrible" is/h/..So when the sound following/t/ or/d/ is a vowel or/h/, elision is
not possible.
Be careful! In "He killed him" and "He stopped her", is elision possible?
Answer. "Him" and "her" are weak forms, so elision occurs in /h/ not in final /t/ of " stopped"
or final/d/ of" killed"( /h/ is dropped in weak forms). 'stopped' is pronounced with a final /t/ as/
p/ is voiceless.
What about" bad thing"? Answer: no elision because the sound preceding/d/ in "bad" is vowel.
*An exception is contractions with " not" which frequently lose their final "t" before vowels
andconsonants as well( but not when followed by pause).This is true of the disyllabic
contractions( wasn't,hasn't, doesn't, mightn't, oughtn't, hadn't, wouldn't, shouldn't, won't, don't
can't, weren't,…). Examples are:
a.before consonants( elision is more common)
-I 'couldn't 'say/ aɪ ˈkʊdn̩ˈseɪ/ ( n is syllabic because it follows a consonant sound 'd').

-I 'hadn't 'known. ( n is syllabic)

-It' hasn't 'changed. ( n is syllabic)
b.before vowels( elision is less common but possible).(Won't, can't,weren't, aren't and don't are
not syllabic and other contractions are syllabic)
-I 'shouldn't 'ask( n is syllabic)
-I 'hadn't 'answer( n is syllabic)
-I 'won't ac'cept it /ˈaɪ 'wəʊnt əkˈsept ɪt |/ ( n is not syllabic because it follows a vowel sound
'əʊ')
-I can't in'vite him.( n is not syllabic)
83
-I' don't under'stand ( n is not syllabic)
-They aren't in a good mood/ ˈðeɪ 'ɑːnt ɪn ə 'gʊd 'muːd/.
-They weren't happy/ ðeɪ 'wɜːn ˈhæpi/
Weren't /wɜːn(t); weən(t)/ two pronunciations. In pauses, 'not' keeps its final/t/ as in:
A: Do you 'often 'go up 'late?
B, No, I don't.( /t/ is followed by a pause= no elision).
Nb: Another lesson will follow in few days as to how to pronounce all contracted forms in BrE
and AmE as well.
B. The elision of /k/ in the final /sk/ clusters is less frequent and foreign learners should avoid it
as it leads to confusion but can do that with the verb " ask" as it is common. Examples are: I'll
ask them./aɪl 'ɑːs ðəm/; they asked us/ ˈðeɪ 'ɑːst əs/.
C. The "v" of "of" is often elided when a consonant follows, particularly before/ ð/ in( the, that,
these, those, this, them) as in:-The back of the track/ ðə 'bæk ə ðə 'træk/-One of these days/ wʌn
ə 'ðiːz ˈdeɪz/
Homework
Task 1
1) Explain why elision is not possible in the following phrases.
-bad thing;-send it;-built them; -had gone;-No, they can't;-it seemed extraordinary; spent
money;-bank loan;-cold hand;-last April.
For example, in " bank loan", / k/ cannot be elided : only /t/ and /d/ can).
2) Look at the following phrases.Which ones do not undergo elision? Copy them down.
Beyond imagination;- Just one;-ground floor;- Sold house;-Lost island;-Called them;-Lent
them;-best seller;-Grandchildren;-Kind aspect.

84
Lesson Sixteen: Assimilation
1.Definition
Assimilation is a process by which two sounds (or more, rarely) become more similar to each
other. For the sake of simplicity, let us say that when one final sound in a word falls under the
influence of another initial sound of another word or the reverse, we talk then about
assimilation. That is to say, two words are combined (word boundary), the first word of which
85
ends with a single final consonant ( we call it SFC)) and the second of which starts with a single
initial consonant (we call it SIC).So in "that person" /ðæp pɜːsn̩/, we have a type of
assimilation:/t/ ( SFC) falls under the influence of the next sound( SIC), then /t/ changes to /p/
and both sounds are alike. Do not drop/p/ in neither 'that' nor ' person'. Keep them both and
pronounce them.The following diagram shows and recapitualtes what has been said earlier.

Influence of one sound on the other

_ _ _ _ _ _ SFC | SIC_ _ _ _ _ _
|
word
boundary
2.Regressive or anticipatory assimilation
In this kind of assimilation, the phoneme that comes first (SFC) is affected by the phoneme
that comes after it (SIC). For example; "that person" /ðæp pɜːsn̩/.
You can see that /t/( SFC) of "that" changes to / p/ under the influence of/p/ ( SIC) of "person"
3. Progressive assimilation
A type of assimilation where the phoneme that comes later (Ci) is affected by the phoneme that
comes first (Cf). An example of this type is what we call #Coalescence or
#Coalescent_assimilation. When final / t , d/ are followed by / j /, they will combine to form /tʃ ,
dʒ/
Not yet /nɒtʃet/
Could You /kʊdʒu/
4. What can changes a consonant

*differences in place of articulation.

*differences in manner of articulation.
*differences in place of articulation

86
It can be easily observed in some cases where a ( SFC ) with alveolar place of articulation is
followed by a ( SIC) that is not alveolar.
5. Assimilation of place of articulation
a- For example; the final /t/ is alveolar. In rapid and casual speech the /t/ will become /p/ before
a bilabial consonant, as in:
That person /ðæp pɜːsn̩/
That man /ðæp mæn/
Meat pie /miːp paɪ/
b- before a dental, / t / will change to a dentalPlosive / t̪ /.
That thing /ðæt̪ θɪŋ/
Get those /get̪ ðəʊz/
Cut through /kʌt̪ θruː/
C- before a velar consonant, /t/ will become velar /k/.
That case /ðæk keɪs/
Bright colour /braɪk kʌlə/
Quite good /kwaɪk gʊd/
In similar contexts
a- /d/ will become /b/ before a bilabial.
"reed boat" /riːb bəʊt/
b- /d/ will become dental plosive /d̪/ before a dental consonant.
"did this" /dɪd̪ ðɪs/
c- /d/ will become velar /g/ before a velar consonant.
"Feed goat" /fiːg gəʊt/
differences in voicing.
- /n/ will become /m/ before a bilabial.
"green paper" /griːm peɪpə/
b- /n/ will become dental plosive /n̪/ before a dental consonant.

"fine thought" /faɪn̪ θɔːt/

87
c- /n/ will become velar /ŋ/ before a velar consonant.
"ten girls" /teŋ gɜːlz/
/s/ + /ʃ/ = /ʃ/ "this shoe" /ðɪʃ ʃuː/
/z/ + /j/ = /ʒ/ those years" /ðəʊʒ jɪəz/
Assimilation of place is only noticeable in regressive assimilation of alveolar consonants
6. Assimilation of manner
Assimilation of manner is less noticeable, and is only found in the most rapid and casual
speech for regressive assimilation. The change in manner is most likely to be towards "easier"
consonant - one which makes less obstruction to the airflow. It is possible to find (Cf" plosive
becomes a fricative or nasal.
"that side" /ðæs saɪd/
"good night" /gʊn naɪt/
In one particular case, we find PROGRESSIVE ASSIMILATION OF MANNER, when a word
SIC /ð/ follows a PLOSIVE or NASAL as SFC. SIC will become identical in manner to the
SFC but with dental place of articulation.
"in the" /ɪn ðə/ -----> /ɪn̪ n̪ə/
"get them" /get ðəm/ -----> /get̪ t̪ əm/
"read these" /riːd ðiːz/ -----> / riːd̪ d̪iːz/
7.Assimilation of voicing
Assimilation of voicing is found in limited way, only regressive assimilation. If SFC is a Lenis
(voiced) consonant and SIC is Fortis (voiceless), then the lenis consonant will have no voicing
(will become devoiced = will become voiceless).
"I have to", the SFC /V/ which is (Lenis = Voiced), will become voiceless /f/ because of the
following voiceless /t/. "I have to" /aɪ hæf tu/.
The voiced SFC /z/ will become voicless /s/ because of the following SIC /k/ as in:
Cheesecake /tʃiːskeɪk/

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Lesson Seventeen: Intonation
Part I

1. Introduction
Suprasegmental Phonology: The vocal effects that extend over more than one segment, such as;
stress, pitch and juncture. It is also called prosodic phonology or prosody.
2. Definitions
a. Intonation: a term used in the study of suprasegmental phonology referring to the distinctive
use of patterns of pitch.
b. Pitch: is a feature of suprasegmental phonology. It is the constant changing in the voice of the
speaker in the normal speech. Pitch is described in terms of high and low.
Q1/ Why is the speaker's pitch important?
A/ Because it carries some linguistic information.
Q2/ What are the conditions that make the pitch linguistically significant?
a- To be under control of the speaker.
b- Must be perceptible by the hearer
c-The awareness of the presence of the contrasts in the phonemes
3. Form and Function in intonation
a-.Utterance:- a continuous piece of speech beginning and ending with a clearer pause. It refers
to ab unstudied piece.
b. Tone:- it is the overall behaviour of the pitch. It can be either level tone or moving tone.
c. Level Tone:- it is the steady behaviour of the pitch without rise or fall
d. Moving Tone:- it is the behaviour of the pitch that rises and falls
d.Falling Tone:- a tone which descends from a higher to a lower pitch ( \ ).
e.Rising Tone:- a tone which ascends from a lower to a higher pitch ( / ).
Q/ Show the three simple possibilities for the intonation used in pronouncing the one-word
utterance, such as "yes" and "no".
A/ The three possibilities are:
a. Level
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b-Fall
c-Rise

Q/ What are the symbols (marks) used to represent the simple three tones?
Answer
a-Level _yes _no
b-Falling \yes \no
c- Rising /yes /no
f.Complex tone:- a tone which its pitch is composed of two movements, either "fall-rise" or
"rise-fall. Fall-rise tone: a tone where the pitch descends and then rises again.Rise-fall tone: a
tone where the pitch ascends and then falls again.
4.Some Functions of English Tones
a. Fall \yes \no
Falling \yes \no are used as "final" answer to a question, they give the impression that there is
nothing more to be said
b.Rise /yes /no
This tone gives an impression that something more is to follow (information, invitation). It
usually occurs in a dialogue between two people, for example:
A - Hi Sir, Excuse me.
B- /yes (answering with a rising tone is similar to "what do you want?" )
A - Do you know John Smith?
If B replied with \yes, he would give a feeling of "finality" and he does not wish to continue
with the conversation.
A- Have you seen Ann?
B- /No (this answer would imply an invitation to A to continue his speech)
B- \No. (this answer means that B does not know and do not want to be told where Ann is)
c.Fall-rise \/yes \/no
The fall-rise tone is used alot in English in some special functions. One of them is "limited
agreement" or "response with reservations".
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For example:
A- I have heard that it's a good school?
B- \/yes
The reply of B indicates that he does not completely agree with what A said.
d.Rise-fall /\ yes /\no
This tone is used to convey rather #strong-feelings of approval, disapproval or surprise.For
example:
A- Isn't the view lovely?
B- /\ no
e. Level _yes _no
This tone is used in restricted English contexts. When it is usually used on single-syllable
utterance, it gives a feeling of something #routine , #uninteresting or boring.For example:When
someone is applying for an insurance policy or filling an immigration form, he is usually asked
a few routine questions such as "Have you ever been in prison?, Do you suffer from serious
illness?" The usual answer to these routine questions will be _no ( level tone).
5. Tones on other words
In this point, we will see how some tones can be applied to other words, either single-syllable
words or multi-syllable words. In the case of #Polysyllabic words, the tone falls on the most
strongly stressed syllable. The tone mark is equivalent to a stress mark.
Q/What can substituting a distinctive tone in a word or morpheme lead to?
1- cause a change in the lexical meaning
2- cause some change in its grammatical categorisatisation
Intonation languages: the languages in which the pitch variation is used to convey the meaning.
It is a property of longer utterances than syllables. English is considered an intonation
languageIn tone languages, the main suprasegmental contrastive unit is the tone, and it is unit to
the syllable. If English were spoken in isolated monosyllables, the job of tonal analysis would
be similar to tone languages, Discuss.
The main suprasegmental unit in tone languages is the tone, since the tone is linked to the
syllable, therefore; one would be occupied in examining utterances by looking at each syllable
91
as an independent item, but English is not a tone language, i.e. it examining it requires looking
into units generally greater in size than the syllables, these units are called tone-units and the
tones can only be identified on a small number of particularly prominent syllables.
Tone-unit: is the minimal unit that can carry the intonation. It may consist of one or more that
one syllable.In the following examples, punctuation will not be used. Via intonation and stress,
the sentences can be understood where they are equivalents of written punctuation

is it /you
The third syllable (you) is more prominent than the other two (is it) and carries a rising tone
Q/ Why do we not say that each of the syllables "is" and "it" carries a level tone?
A/ It is unusual for a syllable said on a level pitch to be so prominent that it would be discribed
as carrying a level tone.
"is if /you" is an utterance of three syllables, consisting of one tone-unit; the only syllable that
carries a tone is the third one.
Tonic syllable: the syllable which carries a tone. It has a high degree of prominence and carries
stress.
Tonic stress: a type of stress that can be carried by the tonic syllable. Some phonologists use the
terms "nucleus" for "tonic syllable", and "nuclear stress" for "tonic stress".
\/John is it /you
A fall-rise tone is used quite commonly in calling someone's name. Sometimes it is
pronounced with a pause between "John" and "it is you", but it is quite likely that a speaker
would say '\/John is it /you' with NO pause. So that the four syllables would make up a single
utterance. Despite the absence of any pause, the utterance would normally be regarded as
divided into two tone-units: ' \/John ' and 'is it /you'.
We can notice that the tone-unit has a place
Q2/ What is the obligatory component of the tone-unit.
A/ The tonic syllable is the obligatory component of the tone-unit. There is no tone-unit unless
there is a tonic syllable. As the role of the peak, the vowel, in the syllable.
The components of the tone-unit
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1- The Head
A head is all the of that part of the tone-unit that extends from the first stressed syllable up to
(but not including) the tonic syllable.
Example:
1- 'give me \those
('give me) is the head
(\those) is the tonic syllable
2- 'Bill 'called to 'give me \these
('Bill 'called to 'give me) is the head.
(\these) is the tonic syllable
If there is NO stressed syllable before the tonic syllable, there cannot be a head.
Example:
in an \hour
There is no stress in the two syllables ( in an ) preceding the tonic syllable, therefore, there is
NO head. They are called "Pre head".
2- The Pre-head
The pre-head is the component that is composed of all the unstressed syllables in the tone-unit
preceding the first stressed syllable.
Q/ where are the pre-heads found?
1- When there is no head ( no stressed syllable preceding the tonic syllable) as in this example;
in an \hour
in an (pre-head)
\hour (tonic syllable)
2- when there is a head, as in this example;
in a 'little 'less than an \hour
- in a (pre-head)
- 'little 'less than an ( head )
- \hour (tonic syllable)
3- The tail
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 The tail: is any syllables between the tonic syllable and the end of the tone-unit.
Example:
1- \look at it
- \look ( tonic syllable )
- at it ( tail )
2- /what did you say
- /what (tonic syllable)
- did you say ( tail ).
When it is necessary to mark stress in a tail, a special symbol is used, which is a raised dot( • )
Example:

1- /what did you •say

2- \both of them were •here
(pre-head) + (head) +
tonic syllable + (tail)
(PH) (H) TS (T)

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Lesson Seventeen: Intonation
Part II
1.Pitch possibilities in the simple tone-unit
a. Tone is carried by the tonic syllable.
b. Intonation is carried by the tone-unit.
c. In a one-syllable utterance, the single syllable must have one of the five tones.
d. In a tone-unit of more than one syllable, the tonic syllable must have one of the five tones.
If the tonic syllable is the final syllable, the tone will not be much different from that of a
corresponding one-syllable tone-unit.
Example :
The tone in the word (here) in the following examples is not much different.
/here (one-syllable tone-unit)
'shall we 'sit /here (multi-syllable tone-unit)
If the tonic syllable is followed by a tail, the pitch movement of the tone is NOT completed on
the tonic syllable, but exceeds it to the syllable, or syllables, of the tail.

95
If a tail follows a tonic syllable that has a rising tone, almost always the syllable or syllables of
the tail will continue to move upwards from the pitch of the tonic syllable. Example :
/what
The pitch movement in syllables that follow the tonic syllable (/what) will continue to move
upwards over the rest of the tail
/what did you say/
If a tail follows a tonic syllable that has a falling tone, almost always the syllable or syllables of
the tail will continue to move downwards from the pitch of the tonic syllable. Example :
\why did you •go
If a speaker's highest pitch is reached before the end of the tail, the pitch continues at the high
level.
If a speaker's lowest pitch is reached before the end of the tail, the pitch continues at the bottom
level.
In the case of a level tone, syllables following the tonic syllable in the tail will continue at the
same level

2. Fall rise tone

Q/ Fall-rise and rise-fall tones are quite difficult to recognise when they are extended over
tails.
A/ Because their characteristic pitch movements are often broken up or distorted by the
structure of the syllables they occur on. For example; the pitch movement on "\/some"
When a syllable is added to a fall-rise tones, the "fall" part of the fall-rise is usually carried by
the first tonic syllable and the "rise" part by the second tonic syllable and the result may be a
continuous pitch movement as in the one-syllable case, unless there are VOICELESS MEDIAL
CONSONANTS to cause a break in the voicing. For example;
\/some •men
Q/ When is the continuity of the voicing broken?

96
A/ The continuity of the voicing is broken when there is a VOICELESS MEDIAL
CONSONANT between the fall-rise tone and the next syllable. For example;
\/some •chairs
In this case it is possible to say that there is a falling tone on 'some' and a rise tone on 'chairs'.
However, most English speakers feel that the pitch movement in the case of "\/some •chairs" is
the same as that on the "\/some •men" and "\/some".
Tonal Rhyme: a degree of similarity in the pitch movement between the single fall-rise & rise-
fall tonic syllable and the same one that is followed by a one-syllable tail. as in, "\/some" and
"\/some •chairs".
If there is a tail of TWO or MORE syllables, the normal pitch movement is for the pitch to fall
on the tonic syllable and to remain LOW until the last stressed syllable in the tail. The pitch then
rises from that point up to the end of the tone-unit.
If there is NO stressed syllable in the tail, the rise happens on the the final syllable of the tail.
5. RISE-FALL TONE
The same situation is with the rise-fall tone: if the tonic syllable is followed by a single syllable
in the tail, the "
rise" part of the tone occurs on the first tonic syllable and the "fall" part is on the second. As in;
/\no , /\no one , /\ no sir
If there is a tail of TWO or MORE syllables in the tail, the syllable IMMEDIATELY
following the tonic syllable is always HIGHER in pitch and any following syllables are LOW in
pitch. For example;
3. High and Low heads
Head:- "all the part of a tone-unit that extends from the first stressed syllable up to, but not
including, the tonic syllable.
Q/What are the pitch possibilities in the head?
A/ they are HIGH HEAD and LOW HEAD.
3.1. The High head
The HIGH head, the stressed syllable which begins the head is high in pitch; usually it is
HIGHER than the beginning pitch of the tone on the tonic syllable.
97
a- the 'bus was \late
b- is 'that the /end
3.2. The Low head
The LOW head, the stressed syllable which begins the head is low in pitch; usually it is
LOWER than the beginning pitch of the tone on the tonic syllable.
a- the ˌbus was \late
b- is ˌthat the /end
Q/ how to mark the stressed syllable in the low head?
A/ By using a different symbol, ( ˌ ) as in " l̩ ow ".
Q/ how do the unstressed syllable that follow the stressed syllable (the head) act?
A/ The unstressed syllables continue the pitch of the stressed syllable that precedes them
whether its head is high or low.
i) With High Head
we 'asked if it had \come
ii) With Low Head
we ˌasked if it had \come
Q/ What if there is more than one stressed syllable in the head?
Answer
1- If the head is HIGH.
a.he pitch level in the syllables of the head step downwards from the first stressed syllable
towards the next ones, the change being in the direction of the beginning pitch of the tone on the
tonic syllable.
b. A high head is followed by a RISING tone, the stressed syllables move downwards to the
beginning pitch of the tone.
2.If the head is LOW
a.When there is a low head and the tone in the tonic syllable starts low then rises, there is NO
upward movement. It remains level.
b.when there is a low head followed by a falling tone, the successive stressed syllables in the
head move upwards towards the beginning pitch of the tone on the tonic syllable.
98
Declination:- The movement of the pitch starting at fairly high pitch then drops down
gradually.Concerning stress; the high mark ( ' ) indicates.

Lesson Seventeen: Intonation

Part III
1. Problems in analysing the form of intonation
Q/ What were the difficulties that studies of the analysis o English intonation faced?
Q/ What are the problems in analysing the form of intonation
a. Idenifying the tonic syllable
b. Identifying the tone-unit boundaries
c. Anomalous tone-units
99
2. Idenifying the tonic syllable
Q/ Point out the difficulties in identifying the tonic syllable.
Answer
Usually the tonic syllable is the syllable that carries the movement in the pitch. Yet and in
certain cases, where the tonic syllable is followed by a tail, the tone is carried by the tonic
syllable PLUS tail together in such a way that in some cases practically no pitch movement is
detectable on the tonic syllable itself.
One of the tones, the LEVEL tone, is defined as the tone that does NOT have any pitch
movement. .
It is therefore necessary to say in this particular case that the tonic syllable is identified as the
most prominent syllable
Some tone-units, known as the compound tone-units, contain TWO tonic syllables, almost
always with the first syllable having a fall on it and the second a rise.
The word "him" of the example has greater prominence, it cannot occur in a weak form /ɪm/,
but must be pronounced /hɪm/. Version ( i ) might be said in CONVERSATION ON HEARING
SOMEONE'S NAME, as in:
A: 'John 'Cleese is a 'very 'funny \actor
B: 'Oh \yes | Ive \seen/ him
The word "seen" is given the greater prominence. Therefore, "him" must occur in its weak form
/ɪm/, and it is likely to be said when the speaker has some RESERVATION or SOMETHING
FURTHER TO SAY, as in;
A: 'Have you 'seen my /father •yet

B: Ive \/seen him | but I 'havent had 'time to \talk to him.

3. Identifying tone-syllable boundaries On PHONETIC and PHONOLOGICAL grounds, one
can identify the places where one tone-unit ends and where another begins.
Q/ what are the two principles of identifying the tone-syllable boundaries?
Answer

100
a. The possibility of detecting a sudden change from the pitch level at the end of one tone-unit
to the pitch level that starts the following tone-unit,___ and recognition of the start of the
following tone-unit is made easier by the fact that speaker return to a particular pitch level at the
beginning of a tone-unit
b.The second principle is a rhythmical one: it is claimed within the tone-unit, speech has a
regular rhythm, but that rhythm is BROKEN or INTERRUPTED at the tone-unit boundary
4. Anomalous tone-units
Q/ What are the Autosegmental treatment of intonation
Answer
Autosegmental approach: a way of analysing intonation, mainly in American phonological
work. It states that all intonational phenomena can be reduced to just two basic phonological
elements: H (high tone) and L (Low tone)
a. A movement of a pitch from high to low (a fall) is treated as the sequence HL.
Individual stressed (accented) syllables must all be marked as:
1- H (high) or, H
2- L (Low) or, L
3- with a combination marking pitch movement, and with an asterisk * following the syllable
H or L tones are associated with boundaries.
The major tone-unit boundary (equivalent to ‖ ) is given the symbol %
Example
its 'time to \leave (usual transcription)

H* H*L%
its time to leave (autosegmental transcription).
In the autosegmental transcription, instead of marking a falling tone on the word 'leave', the
high-pitched part of the word is shown by H and the low part by L associated with the major
tone-unit boundary %.
b.The minor tone-unit boundary (equivalent to | ) is given the symbol --
There must always be a minor boundary before a major boundary.
101
Example:
we ˌlooked at the /sky | and 'saw the \clouds ‖
(usual transcription)
L* L*H-- H* H* L--L%
we looked at the sky and saw the clouds
(Autosegmental transcription
Q/ how would the autosegmental approach deal with complex tones spread over several
syllables?
A/
\/most of them (usual transcription)

H* L--H%
most of them

Q/What is the importance of intonation in the speech?

A/ The importance of intonation makes it easier for a listener to understand what a speaker is
trying to convey.
Q/ What are the functions of intonation?
Answer
a.Attitudinal Function: intonation enables us to express emotions and attitudes as we speak, it
adds a special kind of "meaning" to spoken language.
b.Accentual Function: Intonation helps to place tonic stress on a particular syllable and that
marks out the word to which it belongs as the most important in the tone-unit. It works to focus
attention on a particular lexical item or syllable.

c. Grammatical Function: Intonation helps the listener to recognise the grammar and syntactic
structure of the speech by using the information contained in the intonation; for example, the
difference between questions and statements.

102
d. Discourse Function: Intonation can signal to the listener what is to be taken as "new"
information and what is already "given". Through intonation, speaker is indicating some sort of
contrast or link with material in another tone-unit and, in conversation, can convey to the
listener what kind of response is expected.
Chapter_Eightee
6.The Attitudinal Function of Intonation
Tone is the major factor in using intonation to convey feelings and attitudes.Examples on some
basic meanings of tones:
1‫أ‬- Fall
Finality
Definiteness
That is the end of the \news
Im absolutely \certain
Stop \talking
2- Rise
Most of the functions attributed to "rise" are nearer to grammatical that attitudinal.
A- General questions:
Can you /help me
Is it/over
B- Listing :
/Red /brown /yellow or \blue
(a fall is usual on the last item)
C- "more to follow" :
I phoned them right a/way (and they agreed to come)
D- Encouraging :
It wont /hurt
3- Fall - rise
A- Uncertainty, doubt :
You \/may be right
103
Its \/possible
B- Requesting :
Can I \/ buy it
Will you \/lend it to me
4- Rise - Fall
Surprise, being impressed:
You were /\ first
/\All of them
Q/ Foreign learners of English need to learn English intonation, Discuss that.
A/ English language foreign learners need to learn the English intonation not only to pronounce
the utterances with appropriate pitch and not to be misunderstood by the listeners properly, but
also to recognise the utterances spoken by the English native speakers and understand their
meaning accurately.
Q/ How to analyse the attitudinal function of intonation?
a. One possibility for the analyst to invent a large number of sentences and to try saying them
with different intonation patterns, noting what attitude was supposed to correspond to the
intonation in each case.The results are very subjective and based on an artificial performance
that has little resemblance to conversational speech.
b.The analyst could say different sentences to a group of listeners and ask them all to write
down what attitudes they thought were being expressed. Vast range of adjectives are available
for labelling attitudes and the group members can produce a large number of these adjectives,
leaving the analyst with the problem of deciding some adjectives are synonyms or represent
different attitudes.To overcome this difficulty, the analyst could ask the members of the group
to choose among a small number of adjectives that he gives; the results would be easier to
quantify, but they would no longer represent the listeners' free choices of label.
c.An alternative procedure would be to ask a lot of speakers to say a list of sentences in different
ways according to adjectives (labels) provided by the analyst, and see what intonational features
found in common - for example, the analyst might count how many speakers
7n The accentual function of intonation
104
The term accentual is derived from "accent" which is used by some writers to refer to "stress".
Q/ When writers say that intonation has accentual function, they imply that the Placement of
Stress is something that is determined by intonation. Discuss.
A/ This view can possibly be argued against. There are two types of Placement of Stress. Word
Stress and Tonic Stress within the tone-unit.
Word Stress is quite independent of intonation, and it is said that "intonation is carried entirely
by the stressed syllables of a tone-unit". This means that the placing of stress is independent of
and prior to the choice of intonation.
However, the Placement of the Tonic Stress within the tone-unit can be regarded to as part of
intonation. So it is reasonable to say that while Word Stress is independent of intonation, the
placement of Tonic Stress is a function of intonation.
Q/ Some older pronunciation handbooks refer to the Accentual Function of intonation as
"sentence stress".
A/ This is not appropriate name because the sentence is a unit of Grammar, while the location of
tonic stress is a matter which concerns the tone unit, a unit of Phonology.The word are of two
types: Lexical words and function words.
1- Lexical words such as; nouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs.
2- Function words such as; determiners, prepositions, conjunctions.
٢Q/ The location of the Tonic Syllable is of considerable linguistic importance. Discuss.
The most common position for the tonic syllable is on the LAST LEXICAL WORD of the tone
unit. But for contrastive purposes, any word in the tone unit may become the bearer of the tonic
syllable, and it is frequently said that the placement of the tonic syllable indicates the #FOCUS
of the information.Examples on normal placement (i) and contrastive placement (ii)
i) I ˌwant to ˌknow ˌwhere hes \travelling to
ii) I ˌwant to ˌknow ˌwhere hes ˌtravelling \t
For the purpose of emphasis, tonic stress may be places in other positions. ) It was 'very \boring
(non-emphatic)
ii) It was \very •boring (emphatic)
i) I have 'plans to \leave
105
(i.e. I am planning to leave)
8. The Grammatical function of intonation
Q/ How to study and illustrate the grammatical function of intonation?
A/The grammatical function can be illustrated by inventing ambiguous sentences, and whose
ambiguity can only be removed by using differences of intonation. For example;
a.'Those who 'sold \/quickly | ˌmade a \profit
b. 'Those who \/sold | ˌquickly ˌmade a \profit
The meaning of the two sentences is:
i) A profit was made by those who sold quickly.
ii) A profit was quickly made by those who sold.
Q/ illustrate the link between the tone-unit and units of grammar.
A/
a. The tone-unit boundaries tend to occur at boundaries between grammatical units of higher
order than words (i.e. sentence boundary). For example:
I 'wont have any /tea | I 'dont \like it
b.In complex sentences, tone-unit boundaries are often found at phrase and clause boundaries as
well, as in:
In France | where ˌfarms ˌtend to be \/smaller | the 'subsidies are 'more im\portant.
In France, where farms tend to be smaller, the subsidies are more important.
c. It is very unusual to find a tone-unit boundary at the boundary between words. For example;
there seems odd to see tone-unit boundary between an article (a/an/the) and a following noun, or
between auxiliary verbs and adjacent main verbs.
1- I want to buy the | car. ×
2- He was | playing tennis. ×
We understand from the above explanation that tone-unit boundary placement can, then indicate
grammatical structure to the listener
i) The Con'servatives who \/like the pro•posal | are \pleased
ii) The Con\/servatives | who \/like the pro•posal | are \pleased

106
Here only the intonation clarifies the difference between (i) "restrictive" and (ii) "non-
restrictive" relative clauses:
1- only some Conservatives like the proposal.
2- All Conservations like the proposal.
The choice of tone on the tonic syllable is of a grammatical significance. For instance, it is very
familiar to use the rising tone with questions and falling tone with statements. Some Dielects of
English (i.e. some varieties od American English) simply change the tone from falling to rising
to make questions without considering the grammatical rules. BUT this is unacceptable in the
BBC English (British English), where the questions are grammatically marked .For example;
chapter_Nineteen
9. The Discourse function of intonation
Discourse: This term refers to any context larger than one sentence, especially spoken.
Q/What does the study of discourse attempt to?
The study of discourse attempts to look at and analyse contexts larger than one sentence.
Q2/ What can we identify through studying intonation in relation to discourse?
A/
a- We can identify the use of intonation to focus the listener's attention on aspects of the most
important messages.
b- We can identify the regulation of conversational behaviour.
Q/ The placement of tonic stress the most obvious use of "attention focusing", Discuss.The
placing of tonic stress is on the appropriate syllable of one particular word in the tone-unit, a
word that is in some sense considered the "most important" word, i.e. a word containing the
most significant information. The more predictable a word's occurrence is in a given context,
the lower is its information content, the vise versa. Tonic stress tends to be places on words with
high information content. Such as:
She 'went to \Scotland
Here, Scotland is the word that is considered as the information bearer as the listener can
understand the destination where the speaker goes. Without it, the sentence does not provide full
information to the listener.
107
She 'went to \Scotland
The majority of English speakers would place the tonic stress on................
a- the subject noun b- the last lexical word
A- the subject noun
Q/ Mention two uses of intonation connected with focusing intention?
a.The tone chosen can indicate whether the tone-unit in which it occurs is used to present new
information or to refer to information which is felt to be already possessed by speaker and
hearer. It is proposed that the falling tone indicates new information while rising (including
falling-rising) tones indicate "shared" or "given" information. For example;
'Since the \/last time we •met | 'when we 'had that 'huge \/dinner | Ive ˌbeen on a \diet
1- 'Since the \/last time we •met
2- 'when we 'had that 'huge \/dinner
3- Ive ˌbeen on a \diet
b..A particular tone-unit is of low importance give greater importance to adjacent tone-units.
This is called intonational subordination. For example;
i) As I exˌpect youve \heard | theyre 'only ad'mitting e\mergency •cases
ii) The 'Japa\/nese | for ˌsome ˌreason or /other | 'drive on the \left | like \us

108
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