Tuttle and Bailey Administration

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Engineering Bulletin: Basics

Introduction
This technical article addresses many of the topics regarding space air diffusion as it
relates to the use of Tuttle & Bailey air outlets (supply registers and diffusers) and air inlets
(return grilles and louvers). Basic principles of human comfort, space air diffusion,
selection and location of air outlets and inlets, and sound are all discussed in sufficient
detail for the purpose of educating customers.

Basics of Space Air Diffusion

Human Comfort Methods of Space Air Diffusion
The primary goal in designing commercial The most common type of space air
heating, ventilating, and air conditioning diffusion is called a mixing system. A
(HVAC) systems is achieving human mixing system is one in which
(occupant) comfort. The factors that conditioned air is discharged at velocities
determine human comfort are numerous and much greater than those allowed in the
complex, but by controlling certain key occupied zone. The occupied zone is
parameters, the occupied space can be the region within a space, normally
made quite comfortable. These parameters occupied by people, generally
include thermal comfort (space temperature, considered to be between the floor and
relative humidity, thermal radiation, and local six feet above the floor and more than
air velocity), indoor air quality (air change two feet from walls or fixed air
rate and fresh air delivered to the breathing conditioning equipment. The supply air
zone), and acoustic quality (Noise Criteria or temperature in a mixing system can be
Room Criteria). The activity and clothing significantly above the occupied zone
level of the occupants are also parameters temperature for heating (typically +15°
but will be ignored because the design F), below the occupied zone temperature
engineer has no control over these factors. for cooling (typically -15° F), or equal to

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The focus of this article will be on the the occupied zone temperature for
parameters that are influenced by air outlets ventilation. The supply air jet is delivered
(supply registers and diffusers) and air inlets by the air outlet and mixes with room air
(return grilles and louvers), specifically by entrainment (induction), which helps
space temperature, local air velocity, and to reduce the jet velocity and equalize
acoustic quality. the supply air temperature as it enters
the occupied zone. The mixing system is
Be aware that there are instances where the predominant method of space air
human comfort may not be the primary focus diffusion in the United States and is
of the HVAC system, such as industrial widely used with variable air volume
facilities, animal rooms, or clean rooms. (VAV) systems. Tuttle & Bailey ceiling
diffusers, high and low sidewall supply
Space Air Diffusion grilles, and floor registers provide
Where human comfort is the primary excellent mixing air patterns, which
concern, the purpose of space air diffusion is ensures that the cold or warm supply air
to introduce conditioned air into a building is sufficiently tempered before entering
space without making the occupants feel the occupied zone. See Figure 1.
uncomfortable. This can be accomplished by
designing the space with the correct number,
type, and location of air outlets and air inlets.
According to ASHRAE Standard 55-92
Thermal Environmental Conditions for
Human Occupants, the comfort limits for an
occupied space (relative to space air
diffusion) are:

1. Dry bulb temperature between 73 and

77° F.
2. Maximum local air velocity in the
occupied zone of 50 fpm for cooling Displacement ventilation systems are
and 30 fpm for heating. (50 fpm is a those in which conditioned air is
little more than 1/2 mph). delivered directly into the occupied zone.
3. A maximum vertical temperature
This is possible because the supply air
gradient of 6° F from the floor to six
temperature is slightly lower than the
feet above the floor. room air temperature (~65° F)

and air outlet face velocities are relatively air distribution plenum underneath the
low (less than 100 fpm), resulting in floor. Underfloor systems are often found
acceptable occupied zone conditions. Air in computer rooms or spaces where
outlets are usually located low on the office layotus are frequently changed.
sidewall, resulting in a flow of conditioned air The topics discussed below are primarily
across the floor. The air then naturally rises directed toward mixing systems but
as it absorbs heat from plumes. Heat and much of the information can be applied
contaminants from the occupied zone are to the other systems as well.
removed from the space through air inlets

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located in the ceiling or high sidewall. Also, a Evaluating Comfort
stratification zone with little or no air motion As mentioned previously, certain
is developed just above the occupied zone. parameters can be controlled to ensure a
Displacement ventilation systems are relatively comfortable environment. The
popular in Scandinavia, where cooling loads question is how does one evaluate the
are rather low. See Figure 2. sytem to make sure that the actual
parameters are within the allowable
range? Standard methods exist to
evaluate these parameters in real or
simulated spaces to determine if the
conditions are being met. The first
evaluation concept is called the effective
draft temperature - , which uses the
local air temperature and velocity in a
single equation to determine a relative
feeling of coolness. The equation is:

Certain applications require an environment

with a unidirectional air pattern (a.k.a.
laminar flow), such as a clean room or
hospital operating room. The unidirectional
pattern can either be supplied from the The effective draft temperature is
ceiling and returned through the floor or evaluated at many locations throughout
supplied through the floor and returned the space and comfort studies have
through the ceiling (vertical), or supplied shown that the effects of temperature
from one wall and returned through an and velocity on comfort will be
opposing wall (horizontal). The air outlets acceptable if is kept between -3 and
are typically distributed evenly throughout +2 ° F. The Air Diffusion Performance
the supply surface (ceiling, floor, or wall) and Index (ADPI) of a space is the
produce a laminar flow pattern to remove percentage of locations in a space in
contaminants by minimizing mixing. See which the limits of the effective draft
Figure 3. temperature are met. In other words, an
ADPI of 80 means that 80%; of the
locations in the space have an effective
draft temperature of -3 to +2 ° F.
Obviously, an ADPI of 100%; would be
the ultimate condition, but the efforts
required to achive this condition would
often cost much more than the added
benefit. Studies have shown that an
ADPI of 80%; or more results in
satisfactory comfort. However, there are
some limitations to the use of ADPI,
which include:
Another method of space air diffusion is 1. ADPI is valid only for a cool air
called localized ventilation or task- supply. Heating conditions should
ambient conditioning. As with be evaluated using ASHRAE
displacement ventilation systems, localized Standard 55.
ventilation systems supply conditioned air
directly into the occupied zone at

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temperatures slightly below room 2. ADPI is based on effective draft
temperature (above 63° F). the difference is temperature and air velocity only.
that the occupant often has local control of Relative humidity and the
the airflow rate and direction of the air jet remaining comfort parameters
through the use of special air outlets (similar should be evaluated in accordance
to those found in automobiles and with ASHRAE Standard 55.
commercial airplanes). Air outlets are 3. ADPI is not to be used as a rating
typically located in the floor, furniture, or method for a single air outlet. It is
workstations. Air inlets (returns) are usually to be used only for the evaluation
located in the ceiling because the air has a of comfort in a space that utilizes a
natural tendency to rise similar to the SYSTEM of air outlets.
displacement ventilation system. Localized
ventilation systems are also used in raised Air Distribution and Diffusion
floor applications where air is supplied Properties of Air Outlets and Air Inlets
throughout an Air outlets possess certain basic
characteristics that allow for the
introduction of air into a space whether it
is a mixing system or any of the other
systems. As air is conveyed through an
air outlet or air inlet, the following
characteristics are important factors in
achieving the desired space air diffusion:

1. The speed of the air (face velocity) Face Velocity (Vk) - The average
leaving the air outlet or entering the air velocity of air entering an air inlet or
inlet. leaving an air outlet. Face velocity is
2. The direction of the air emanating from usually measured at pre-defined
an air outlet (1-way pattern, 2-way locations on the face or can be
pattern, 3-way pattern, 4-way pattern, calculated from the total pressure of the
radial pattern, etc.) device according to the following
3. The effective area of an air outlet or air equation. The common unit of measure
inlet. is feet per minute (fpm).
4. The distance the air travels away from
an air outlet (throw, spread, and drop).
5. The pressure resistance of an air outlet
or air inlet (static and total pressure). Effective Area (Ak) - The actual
6. The quantity of the air (airflow rate). minimum area of an air outlet or air inlet
through which air is able to pass. The
The above characteristics of an air outlet or following two equations can be used to
air inlet are measured in accordance with calculate the effective area. The
ASHRAE Standard 70-1991 Method of common unit of measure for Ak is square
Testing for Rating the Performance of Air feet (ft²).
Outlets and Inlets and are often found in
manufacturer's literature. These Effective area of an air outlet or air inlet
characteristics are defined as follows: is NOT the same as the free area. Free
area is the geometric opening of an air

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Airflow Rate (Q) - The unit volume
displacement of air per unit time. The
common unit of measure is cubic feet per
minute (cfm).

Throw (T) - The maximum horizontal

distance from the center of the air outlet to a outlet or air inlet whereas the effective
point in the airstream where the air velocity area is essentially a percentage of the
has decayed to some arbitrary terminal free area based on the magnitude of the
velocity (typically 150, 100, and 50 fpm). vena contracta.
See Figure 1. The common unit of measure Where flow hoods are unavailable or
is feet (ft). impractical, effective area and face
velocity can be used by the balancer to
Spread (S) - The overall width of a determine how much airflow is being
horizontally projected airstream envelope delivered through an air outlet or air inlet
measured perpendicular to the direction of by measuring face velocity and using it in
airflow. Spread is usually determined for the following equation:
wide air patterns only, which is typical of
sidewall air outlets. The common unit of
measure is feet (ft).
Application of Air Outlet and Air Inlet
Drop (D) - The vertical distance from an air Properties (System Design Using
outlet to the lower edge of a horizontally Published Engineering Data)
projected airstream envelope. See Figure 1. The above air outlet and air inlet
The common unit of measure is feet (ft). characteristics can be used by design
engineers to ensure aceptable space air
Static Pressure (Ps) - the perpendicular diffusion (ADPI of 80 or more). This is
force per unit area exerted on the walls of done using a fairly common design
the upstream duct of an air outlet or the procedure as outlined in chapter 31 of
downstream duct of an air inlet at a given the ASHRAE Fundamentals
airflow rate. The static pressure is measured Handbook. The designer is urged to
1.5 equivalent duct diameters upstream of review this procedure.
an air outlet or downstream of an air inlet via
the static tap in a pitot tube or through small Selection and Location of Air Outlets
ports in the duct wall (piezometric ring). The According to ASHRAE, no criteria have
common unit of measure is inches of water been developed for choosing among the
(in w.c.). many different types of air outlets
available. An acceptable ADPI can be
Velocity Pressure (Pv) - The force per unit achieved from almost any system of air
area which would cause air to accelerate in outlets if they are sized and located
a duct or other air conveying device. Velocity properly in the building space. The
pressure is typically measured at 1.5 location and selection of air outlets are
equivalent duct diameters upstream of an air predicated on the heating or cooling
outlet or downstream of an air inlet. The loads, the building design and size, local
common unit of measure is inches of water sources of heat gain or loss, the specific
(in w.c.). outlet design and performance, and the
sound requirements of the space. The
Total Pressure (Pt) - The sum of the static convection effects of a concentrated load
and velocity pressures. The total pressure of (such as a perimeter wall) should be
an air outlet or air inlet will influence the size directly counteracted with the flow from
of the fan required to deliver a specified an air outlet or the placement of air inlet
adjacent to the source.

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amount of air, as well as the sound produced Selection and Location of Air Inlets
by the air outlet or air inlet. The common unit The location and selection of air inlets
of measure is inches of water (in w.c.). depends on the allowable pressure loss
of the device, the location of any
concentrated heating or cooling loads,
and the permissible sound. Air inlets do
not influence the room air motion beyond
one characteristic length of the opening
away from the inlet, so rarely do air inlets
cause unwanted drafts.

Room Criteria (RC) is used to analyze

Sound the actual sound quality of a space
Due to their close proximity to the occupied relative to loudness as well as spectral
zone, air outlets and air inlets often play a content. It is not to be used to rate
critical role in the acoustical "comfort" of a equipment such as air outlets and air
building space. This is because air outlets inlets.
and air inlets not only tend to generate Other factors must be accounted for in
sound, but sound from the fan system or a determining the acoustic properties of a
terminal unit will also pass directly through space. Additional sources of sound, such
them and into the space. as the effect of multiple air outlets and air
The amount of sound generated by an air inlets, computers, telephones, and
outlet or air inlet depends on the entrance sounds transmitted from outdoors may
conditions to the device, the amount of actually dominate the acoustical
restriction of the device (pressure loss), and spectrum of the space.
the amount of air delivered to or from the
device. Sound attenuation of an air outlet or Recommended Sound Reduction
air inlet is not possible because they are Methods
usually located near the occupied zone and The following steps can be taken to
have a clear path to the occupants. reduce the sound generation of air
outlets and air inlets:
Air outlet and air inlet sound predominantly
peaks in the 500 through 4000 Hz octave 1. Reduce the airflow delivered to
bands. Because this frequency range is also each device by utilizing a greater
associated with human speech, the devices number of devices for the same
can provide a masking sound for reducing total airflow to or from the space.
the amount of cross talk typically found in an However, the size of the devices
open office environment. Using these may need to be reduced to
devices for masking sound should only be maintain the proper room air
done; however, using a constant volume motion.
system. If used in variable volume sytems,
changes in airflow rate will drastically reduce
the effectiveness of the masking sound,
especially at lower air flow rates.

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The sound power of air outlets and air inlets 2. Increase the size of the air outlet or
is measured in accordance with ASHRAE air inlet, which decreases the face
Standard 70-1991. The standard requires velocity and pressure loss.
sound power levels to be determined in the However, increasing the size of an
125 to 4000 Hz octave bands at a given air outlet without increasing the
operating condition. The sound power levels airflow will result in shorter throws
can then be reduced to sound pressure and may cause conditioned air to
levels by subtracting the space attenuation drop into the occupied zone.
in accordance with ARI Standard 885-98 3. Balancing dampers should not be
Procedure for Estimating Occupied used in the neck of the air outlet.
Sound Levels in the Application of Air This can add anywhere from 5 to
Terminals and Air Outlets (this standard 16 NC to the sound rating,
can be downloaded free of charge from the depending on the amount of
ARI homepage at www.ari.org). The damper closure. Balancing
resultant sound pressure levels are plotted dampers should be located as far
on a noise criteria (NC) chart to determine upstream from the air outlet as
the actual NC level of the device. possible.
Manufacturers often use a standard 4. The approaching ductwork to the
deduction of 10 dB per octave band for air outlet should be kept as straight
determining published NC ratings. The as possible. Any offset or abrupt
drawback of this method is that the actual bend will add up to 15 NC to the
space rarely has an attenuation value of 10 sound rating. If flexible duct is
dB per octave band. Therefore, the standard used, sharp bends should be
attenuation value is to be used only for prevented at the neck of the air
comparison purposes and the ARI standard outlet.
should be consulted for accurately 5. As a general rule of thumb, the
determing actual space attenuation. Please face velocity of an air outlet should
note that ASHRAE Standard 70 does not not exceed 800 fpm and the face
require the conversion of sound power levels velocity of an air inlet should not
to NC. This is done strictly to give the end exceed 400 fpm.
user a single number sound rating for a
particular device at a given operating
condition.
References
ASHRAE. 1997. Handbook
Fundamentals, Chapter 31. Atlanta:
American Society of Heating,
Refridgerating, and Air-Conditioning
Engineers, Inc.
Ebbing, C.E. and W.E. Blazier. 1998.
Application of Manufacturers' Sound
Data. Atlanta: American Society of
Heating, Refridgerating, and Air-
Conditioning Engineers, Inc.

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