Chapter 3

The Equations of Change

for Isothermal Systems
 In Chapter 2, velocity distributions were determined for
several simple flow systems by the shell momentum
balance method. The resulting velocity distributions were
then used to get other quantities, such as the average
velocity and drag force.
 For more complex problems we need a general mass
balance and a general momentum balance that can be
applied to any problem, including problems with
nonrectilinear motion. That is the main point of this
chapter.
 The two equations that we derive are called the equation
of continuity (for the mass balance) and the equation of
motion (for the momentum balance). These equations
can be used as the starting point for studying all problems
involving the isothermal flow of a pure fluid.
 Those equations are called as equations of change
because they describe the change of velocity due to the
change of time and position in the fluid system.
 §3.1. THE EQUATION OF CONTINUITY
(MASS BALANCE)
 This equation is developed by writing a mass balance over a
volume element x.y.z , fixed in space, through which a
fluid is flowing (see Fig. 3.1-1):

 The rate of mass entering the volume element through the

shaded face at x is (vx)|x y.z, and the rate of mass leaving
through the shaded face at x + x is (vx)|x+x y.z.
 Similar expressions can be written for the other two pairs
of faces. The rate of increase of mass within the volume
element is x.y.z(∂/∂t). The mass balance then
becomes

x  y z
t
  y  z   vx  x    vx    v
xx    x  z 
 
y  y    v y  y   y 
  x  y   vz  z    vz  
z z  (3.1-2)
 By dividing the entire equation by x.y.z and taking
the limit as x, y, and z go to zero, and then using the
definitions of the partial derivatives, we get
.     
 vx 

 vy 
 
 vz  (3.1-3)
t  x y z 
 This is the equation of continuity, which describes the
time rate of change of the fluid density at a fixed point in
space. This equation can be written more concisely by
using vector notation as follows:.

 .v = "divergence of v"

 The vector v is the mass flux, and its divergence has a
simple meaning: it is the net rate of mass efflux per unit
volume. A very important special form of the equation of
continuity is that for a fluid of constant density, for which
Eq. 3.1-4 assumes the particularly simple form
(incompressible fluid)
.

 Of course, no fluid is truly incompressible, but frequently

in engineering and biological applications, the assumption
of constant density results in considerable simplification
and very little error.
 Example 3.1-1. Normal Stresses at Solid
Surfaces for Incompressible Newtonian
Fluids
 Show that for any kind of flow pattern, the normal stresses are
zero at fluid-solid boundaries, for Newtonian fluids with
constant density. This is an important result that we shall use
often.
 SOLUTION
 We visualize the flow of a fluid near some solid surface, which
may or may not be flat. The flow may be quite general, with all
three velocity components being functions of all three
coordinates and time.
 At some point P on the surface we erect a Cartesian coordinate
system with the origin at P.
 We now ask what the normal stress zz is at P.
 According to Table B.l or Eq. 1.2-6, zz = -2(dvz/dz). Because
.v   0 for incompressible fluids, then at point P on the surface
of the solid
For 2 dimensional
system

Mass balance in
Cartesian coordinates
 For 2
dimensional
system

Mass balance in
cylindrical coordinates
 z
y
According to mass balance
for incompressible flow
0
x
 .

 First we replaced the derivative dvz/dz by using Eq. 3.1-3 with

 constant. However, on the solid surface at z = 0, the velocity
vx is zero at any position of x by the no-slip condition (see
§2.1), and therefore the derivative dvx/dx on the surface = 0.
The same is true of dvy/dy on the surface. Therefore zz is zero.
 It is also true that xx and yy are zero at the surface because of
the vanishing of the derivatives at z = 0. (Note: The vanishing
of the normal stresses on solid surfaces does not apply to
polymeric fluids, which are viscoelastic).
§3.2. THE EQUATION OF MOTION
(MOMENTUM BALANCE)
 To get the equation of motion we write a momentum
balance over the volume element x.y.z in Fig. 3.2-1
of the form.

 Note that Eq. 3.2-1 is an extension of Eq. 2.1-1 to

unsteady-state problems.
 The fluid is allowed to move through all six faces of the
volume element.
 Remember that Eq. 3.2-1 is a vector equation with
components in each of the 3 coordinate directions x, y or z
containing shear stresses, normal stresses and convective
momentum fluxes.
 We develop the x-component of each term in Eq. 3.2-1.
 The y- and z-components may be treated analogously.
 First, we consider the rates of flow of the x-component
of momentum into and out of the volume element shown
in Fig. 3.2-1. (second subscript x: directions of velocity
for molecular transport and direction of mass flux for
convective transport)
 Momentum enters and leaves x.y.z by two
mechanisms: molecular transport (see §1.2) and
convective transport (see §1.7).
Second subscripts of all
components are the same, Direction of
i.e. x (direction of momentum
velocity and mass flux) transfer

First subscripts x, y, and z (cause): directions of momentum

transfers due to the change of velocity for molecular transport or
due to velocity for convective transport. Cause can be from all
directions.
Second subscripts x (effect): directions of shear stress or normal
stress or direction of mass flux for convection in x direction.
Effect is only in one direction in a momentum balance
 The rate at which the x-component of momentum enters
across the shaded face at x by all mechanisms-both
convective and molecular-is xx|x yz and the rate at which
it leaves the shaded face at x +  x is xx|x+x yz.
 The rates at which x-momentum enters and leaves through
the faces at y and y + y are yx|y zx and yx|y+y zx
respectively.
 Similarly, the rates at which x-momentum enters and leaves
through the faces at z and z + z are zx|z xy and zx|z+z
xy
 When these contributions are added we get for the net rate
of addition of x-momentum across all three pairs of faces.
.

 Next there is the external force (typically the gravitational

force) acting on the fluid in the volume element. The x-
component of this force is

 Equations 3.2-2 and 3.2-3 give the x-components of the

three terms on the right side of Eq. 3.2-1.

Area is normal to direction

of momentum transfer
 The sum of these terms must then be equated to the rate
of increase of x-momentum within the volume element:
x.y.z ∂(vx)/∂t. When this is done, we have the x-
component of the momentum balance. When this
equation is divided by x.y.z and the limit is taken as
x, y and z → zero, the following equation results:

x-direction of stresses for molecular momentum flux or

mass flux for convective momentum flux
 Here we have made use of the definitions of the partial
derivatives. Similar equations can be developed for the y-
and z-components of the momentum balance:
.

 By using vector-tensor notation, these three equations can

be written as follows:
.

 This is a vector equation (vector dot tensor = vector)

 That is, by letting i be successively x, y, and z, Eqs. 3.2-4,5,
and 6 can be reproduced. The quantities vi are the Cartesian
components of the vector v, which is the momentum per
unit volume at a point in the fluid.
 Similarly, the quantities gi are the components of the
vector g, which is the external force per unit volume. The
term -[.]i is the ith component of the vector -[.].
 When the magnitude of ith component of Eq. 3.2-7 is
multiplied by the unit vector in the ith direction and the
three components are added together vectorially, we get

which is the differential statement of the law of conservation

of momentum. It is the translation of Eq. 3.2-1 into
mathematical symbols.
 Contains 2 references of change::
time and position

 In Eq. 1.7-1 it was shown that the combined momentum

flux tensor  is the sum of the convective momentum flux
tensor vv and the molecular momentum flux tensor ,
and that the latter can be written as p + . When we
insert  = p + vv +  into Eq. 3.2-8, we get the
following equation of motion

Vector equation combining 3

directions of 2nd subscripts
 In this equation p is a vector (=vector times scalar)
called the "gradient of (the scalar) p" sometimes written
as "grad p ". The symbol [.] is a vector (=vector dot
tensor) called the "divergence of (the tensor)  " and
[.vv] is a vector (=vector dot tensor) called the
"divergence of vv.“
 In the next two sections we give some formal results that
are based on the equation of motion. The equations of
change for mechanical energy and angular momentum are
not used for problem solving in this chapter, but will be
referred to in Chapter 7 (this chapter is excluded from
the lecture material!).
: in Chapter 7, excluded as lecture material
 Equation A in Table 3.5-1 tells how the density is
decreasing or increasing as one moves along with the fluid,
because of the compression [(.v) < 0] or expansion of the
fluid [(.v) > 0].
 Equation B can be interpreted as (mass) x (acceleration) =
the sum of the pressure forces, viscous forces, and the
external force. In other words, Eq. 3.2-9 is equivalent to
Newton's second law of motion
 (density x acceleration = summation of all
forces /volume)
Three most common simplifications of the equation of motion:
 For constant  and , insertion of the Newtonian expression
for  from Eq. 1.2-7 into the equation of motion leads to the
very famous Navier-Stokes equation, first developed from
molecular arguments by Navier, a French engineer, and from
continuum arguments by Stokes, an English mathematician:
.

 When the acceleration terms in Navier-Stokes equation are

neglected-that is, when  (Dv/Dt) = 0 (small change of
velocity in time and position)-we get

which is called the Stokes flow equation. It is sometimes

called the creeping flow equation, because the term  (.v
v)  0 when the flow is extremely slow and can be
approached as steady flow (v/t = 0).
 When viscous forces in Navier-Stokes equation are
neglected - that is, . =  2v = 0 - the equation of
motion becomes (normal and shear stresses occur due
to viscosity)

which is known as the Euler equation for "inviscid"

fluid in unsteady flow. Of course, there are no truly
"inviscid" fluids, but there are many flows in which
the viscous forces are relatively unimportant (far from
solid surfaces or very high velocity). Examples are
the flow around airplane wings (except near the solid
boundary), flow of rivers around the upstream surfaces
of bridge supports, some problems in compressible gas
dynamics, and flow of ocean current.
Example 3.5-1. The Bernoulli Equation
(for Steady Flow of Inviscid and
Incompressible Fluids)
 The Bernoulli equation for steady flow of inviscid,
incompressible fluids (conditions in both Stokes’ flow
eq = steady state and Euler eq = inviscid) is one of the
most famous equations in classical fluid dynamics. Show
how it is obtained from the Euler equation of motion.
 SOLUTION
 Inviscid Fluids omit the time-derivative term in Eq. 3.5-
9, and then use the vector identity [.vvl = [v.vl = ½
(v.v) - [v x [ x v]] (Eq. A.4-23) to rewrite the Navier
Stokes equation as
 Next we divide Eq. 3.5-10 by  and then form the dot product
with the unit vector s = v/|v| in the flow direction. When the
fluid is inviscid, then there is no vorticity ( x v = 0) and
consequently v x ( x v) = 0, and (s.) can be replaced by
d/ds, where s is the distance along a streamline. Thus we get

 When this is integrated along a streamline from point 1 to

point 2, we get

 which is called the Bernoulli equation. It relates the velocity,

pressure, and elevation of two points along a streamline in a
fluid in steady-state flow of inviscid fluid. This is algebraic
equation, whereas Navier-Stokes eq’s are differential eq’s
§3.6. USE OF THE EQUATIONS OF CHANGE
TO SOLVE FLOW PROBLEMS
 To describe the flow of a Newtonian fluid at constant
temperature, we need in general
 The equation of continuity Eq. 3.1-4
 The equation of motion Eq. 3.2-9
 The components of  Eq. 1.2-6
 The equation of state  = (p)
 The equations for the viscosities  =  (p, T)
 These equations, along with the necessary boundary
(related to positions) and initial (related to time)
conditions, determine completely the pressure, density, and
velocity distributions in the fluid.
 They are seldom used in their complete form to solve fluid
dynamics problems. Usually restricted forms are used for
convenience, as in this chapter.
 If it is appropriate to assume constant density and
viscosity, then we use
 The equation of continuity Eq. 3.1-4 and Table B.4
 The Navier-Stokes equation Eq. 3.5-6 and Tables B.5,
6 along with initial and boundary conditions.
 From these one determines the pressure and velocity
distributions.
Covered by this
lecture
Equations using stresses
Equations using stresses
Equations using secondary differential form
Equations using secondary differential form
Example 3.6-1. Steady Flow in a Long
Circular Tube
 Rework the tube-flow problem of Example 2.3-1 using the
equations of continuity and motion. This illustrates the use
of the tabulated equations for constant viscosity and
density in cylindrical coordinates, given in Appendix B.5.
 SOLUTION
 We postulate that v = zvz(r, z). This postulate implies that
there is no radial flow (vr = 0) and no tangential flow (v =
0), and that vz ≠ f ().
 We assume that there is no change of velocity profile in z
direction.
 Consequently, we can discard many terms from the
tabulated equations of change, leaving
Datum
plane
 Pressure gradient terms may be existent
Gravity force term exist in z direction
but gravity
forces are
none
 A postulate that flow is steady and Eq. 3.6-1 indicates that
vz depends only on r; hence the partial derivatives in the
second term on the right side of Eq. 3.6-4 can be replaced
by ordinary derivatives.
 By using the modified pressure P = p - gh (where h is
the height below some arbitrary datum plane and g is a
constant), we avoid the necessity of calculating the
components of g in r and  coordinates, and we obtain a
solution valid for any orientation of the axis of the tube.

As consequences of setting up that z-ordinate

direction the same as that of gravity force
 Equations 3.6-2 and 3.6-3 show that P is a function of z
alone, and the partial derivative in the first term of Eq.
3.6-4 may be replaced by an ordinary derivative.
 For constant change of P against z, by introducing a
constant C0, Eq. 3.6-4 reduces to
 The P equation can be integrated at once. The vz-equation
can be integrated later. This gives
.

 The 4 constants of integration can be found from the

boundary conditions:
 .
For 3.6-6

For 3.6-7

 ln 0 = indefinite, so C2 must not be existence or

mathematically C2= 0 to obtain finite vz. The resulting
solutions are:
.

 As pointed out in Example 2.3-1, Eq. 3.6-13 is valid only in

the laminar-flow regime, and at locations not too near the
tube entrance and exit. For Re > about 2100, a turbulent-flow
regime exists downstream of the entrance region, and Eq.
3.6-13 is no longer valid.
Example 3.6-2. Falling Film
 Set up the problem in Example 2.2-2 by using the
equations of Appendix B.5. This illustrates the use of the
equation of motion in terms of .
 SOLUTION
 As in Example 2.2-2 we postulate a steady-state flow
with constant density.
 We postulate, as before, that the x- and y-components of
the velocity are zero (vx and vy = 0) and therefore
vz/z=0. With these postulates, the vz = vz(x).
 According to Table B.l, the only nonzero components of 
are xz = zx = -(dvz/dx). The components of the equation
of motion in terms of  are, from Table B.5,
Pressure gradient terms may be existent
Gravity force terms exist in x and z
directions
.

 Integration of Eq. 3.6-14 gives

.
 in which f(y, z) is an arbitrary function. Equation 3.6-15
shows that f cannot be a function of y.
 We next recognize that the pressure in the gas phase is very
nearly constant at the prevailing atmospheric pressure patm.
Therefore, at the gas-liquid interface x = 0, the pressure is
also constant at the value patm. Consequently, f can be set
equal to patm, and we obtain finally from 3.6-14 (for press
distribution).
.
 (p is function of x only, not z). Equation 3.6-16 then
becomes
.
 which is the same as Eq. 2.2-10 (for vel distribution). The
remainder of the solution is the same as in §2.2.
Example 3.6-3. Operation of a Couette
Viscometer
 The viscosity may also be determined by measuring the
torque required to turn a solid object in contact with a
fluid. The forerunner of all rotational viscometers is the
Couette instrument, which is sketched in Fig. 3.6-1.
 Determine velocity distribution and shear stress for the
laminar, tangential flow of an incompressible fluid
between 2 co-axial vertical cylinders. Outer cylinder
rotates with angular velocity o (see Figure 3.6-1). End-
effects is negligible.
Solution
 In steady-state laminar flow, fluid moves in circular
direction with velocity components vr = 0 and vz = 0.
There is no pressure gradient in  direction (p = p(r,z)). It
is expected that p depends on z due to gravity force and
on r due to centrifugal force.
 For these postulates all the terms in the equation of
continuity are zero, and the components of the equation of
motion simplify to
 p
0   gz
z

 The first equation tells how the centrifugal force affects the
pressure.
 The second equation gives the velocity distribution.
 The third equation gives the effect of gravity on the
pressure (the hydrostatic effect)
 For the problem at hand we need only the -component of
the equation of motion for velocity distribution
 It is postulated
that symmetrical
flow in  direction
generates no
pressure gradient,
then there is no
pressure term

Pressure gradient term is included because

centrifugal force generates radial pressure gradient.

Pressure gradient term may exist

 Integration of Eq. 3.6-21 results in
.

 The boundary conditions are that the fluid does not slip at
the two cylindrical surfaces:
.
 These boundary conditions can be used to get the
constants of integration, which are then inserted in Eq.
3.6-26. This gives
.

 From the velocity distribution we can find the momentum

flux by using Table B.1:
 The torque acting on the inner cylinder is then given by
the product of the inward momentum flux (-r), the
surface of the cylinder, and the lever arm, as follows:
.

 Therefore, measurement of the angular velocity of the cup

makes it possible to determine the viscosity. The same
kind of analysis is available for other rotational
viscometers.
 For any viscometer it is essential to know when
turbulence will occur. The critical Reynolds number
(oR2/), above which the system becomes turbulent, is
shown in Fig. 3.6-2 as a function of the radius ratio .
 One might ask what happens if we hold the outer cylinder
fixed and cause the inner cylinder to rotate with an
angular velocity i (the subscript "i" stands for inner).
Then the velocity distribution is

 This is obtained by making the same postulates (see

before Eq. 3.6-20) and solving the same differential
equation (Eq. 3.6-21), but with a different set of boundary
conditions.