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SECTION 9.6 Mathematical Induction 687

9.6 Mathematical Induction

The Tower of Hanoi Problem
What you’ll learn about You might be familiar with a game that is played with a stack of round washers of
• The Tower of Hanoi Problem different diameters and a stand with three vertical pegs (Figure 9.11). The game is not
• Principle of Mathematical difficult to win once you get the hang of it, but it takes a while to move all the wash-
Induction ers even when you know what you are doing. A mathematician, presented with this
• Induction and Deduction game, wants to figure out the minimum number of moves required to win the game—
not because of impatience, but because it is an interesting mathematical problem.
... and why
The principle of mathematical In case mathematics is not sufficient motivation to look into the problem, there is a leg-
induction is a valuable technique end attached to the game that provides a sense of urgency. The legend has it that a game
for proving combinatorial of this sort with 64 golden washers was created at the beginning of time. A special
formulas. order of far eastern monks has been moving the washers at one move per second ever
since, always using the minimum number of moves required to win the game. When
the final washer is moved, that will be the end of time. The Tower of Hanoi Problem is
simply to figure out how much time we have left.
We will solve the problem by proving a general theorem that gives the minimum num-
ber of moves for any number of washers. The technique of proof we use is called the
principle of mathematical induction, the topic of this section.

FIGURE 9.11 The Tower of Hanoi Game. THEOREM The Tower of Hanoi Solution
The object is to move the entire stack of wash-
The minimum number of moves required to move a stack of n washers in a
ers to the rightmost peg, one washer at a time,
never placing a larger washer on top of a Tower of Hanoi game is 2n - 1.
smaller washer.

Proof
Tower of Hanoi History (The anchor) First, we note that the assertion is true when n = 1. We can certainly
The legend notwithstanding, the Tower of Hanoi move the one washer to the right peg in (minimally) one move, and 21 - 1 = 1.
dates back to 1883, when Édouard Lucas mar-
keted the game as “La Tour de Hanoï,” brought (The inductive hypothesis) Now let us assume that the assertion holds for n = k; that
back from the Orient by “Professor N. Claus de is, the minimum number of moves required to move k washers is 2k - 1. (So far the
Siam”—an anagram of “Professor Lucas only k we are sure of is 1, but keep reading.)
d’Amiens.” The legend appeared shortly there-
after. The game has been a favorite among com- (The inductive step) We next consider the case when n = k + 1 washers. To get at
puter programmers, so a Web search on “Tower the bottom washer, we must first move the entire stack of k washers sitting on top of it.
of Hanoi” will bring up multiple sites that allow By the assumption we just made, this will take a minimum of 2k - 1 moves. We can
you to play it on your home computer. then move the bottom washer to the free peg (1 move). Finally, we must move the stack
of k washers back onto the bottom washer—again, by our assumption, a minimum of
2k - 1 moves. Altogether, moving k + 1 washers requires
12k - 12 + 1 + 12k - 12 = 2 # 2k - 1 = 2k + 1 - 1
moves. Since that agrees with the formula in the statement of the proof, we have shown the
assertion to be true for n = k + 1 washers—under the assumption that it is true for n = k.
Remarkably, we are finished. Recall that we did prove the theorem to be true for n = 1.
Therefore, by the inductive step, it must also be true for n = 2. By the inductive step
again, it must be true for n = 3. And so on, for all positive integers n.
If we apply the Tower of Hanoi Solution to the legendary Tower of Hanoi Problem, the
monks will need 264 - 1 seconds to move the 64 golden washers. The largest current
conjecture for the age of the universe is something on the order of 20 billion years. If
you convert 264 - 1 seconds to years, you will find that the end of time (at least accord-
ing to this particular legend) is not exactly imminent. In fact, you might be surprised at
how much time is left!
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688 CHAPTER 9 Discrete Mathematics

EXPLORATION 1 Winning the Game

One thing that the Tower of Hanoi Solution does not settle is how to get the stack to
finish on the rightmost peg rather than the middle peg. Predictably, it depends on
where you move the first washer, but it also depends on the height of the stack.
Using a Web site game, or coins of different sizes, or even the real game if you have
one, play the game with 1 washer, then 2, then 3, then 4, and so on, keeping track of
what your first move must be in order to have the stack wind up on the rightmost
peg in 2n - 1 moves. What is the general rule for a stack of n washers?

Principle of Mathematical Induction

The proof of the Tower of Hanoi Solution used a general technique known as the Prin-
ciple of Mathematical Induction. It is a powerful tool for proving all kinds of theorems
about positive integers. We anchor the proof by establishing the truth of the theorem
for 1, then we show the inductive hypothesis that “true for k” implies “true for k + 1.”

Principle of Mathematical Induction

Let Pn be a statement about the integer n. Then Pn is true for all positive integers n
provided the following conditions are satisfied:
FIGURE 9.12 The Principle of 1. (the anchor) P1 is true;
Mathematical Induction visualized by 2. (the inductive step) if Pk is true, then Pk + 1 is true.
dominoes. The toppling of domino #1
guarantees the toppling of domino n for
all positive integers n.
A good way to visualize how the principle works is to imagine an infinite sequence of
dominoes stacked upright, each one close enough to its neighbor so that any kth
domino, if it falls, will knock over the 1k + 12st domino (Figure 9.12). Given that fact
(the inductive step), the toppling of domino 1 guarantees the toppling of the entire infi-
nite sequence of dominoes.
Let us use the principle to prove a fact that we already know.

EXAMPLE 1 Using Mathematical Induction

Prove that 1 + 3 + 5 + Á + 12n - 12 = n 2 is true for all positive integers n.
SOLUTION Call the statement Pn. We could verify Pn by using the formula for the
sum of an arithmetic sequence, but here is how we prove it by mathematical induction.
(The anchor) For n = 1, the equation reduces to P1: 1 = 12, which is true.
(The inductive hypothesis) Assume that the equation is true for n = k. That is,
assume
Pk: 1 + 3 + Á + 12k - 12 = k 2 is true.

(The inductive step) The next term on the left-hand side would be 21k + 12 - 1.
We add this to both sides of Pk and get
1 + 3 + Á + 12k - 12 + 121k + 12 - 12 = k 2 + 12 1k + 12 - 12
= k 2 + 2k + 1
= 1k + 122

This is exactly the statement Pk + 1, so the equation is true for n = k + 1. Therefore,

Pn is true for all positive integers, by mathematical induction.
Now try Exercise 1.
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SECTION 9.6 Mathematical Induction 689

Notice that we did not plug in k + 1 on both sides of the equation Pn in order to verify
the inductive step; if we had done that, there would have been nothing to verify. If you
find yourself verifying the inductive step without using the inductive hypothesis, you
can assume that you have gone astray.

EXAMPLE 2 Using Mathematical Induction

Prove that 12 + 22 + 32 + Á + n 2 = [n1n + 1212n + 12]/6 is true for all positive
integers n.
SOLUTION Let Pn be the statement 12 + 22 + 32 + Á + n 2 =
3n1n + 1212n + 124/6.
(The anchor) P1 is true because 12 = 311221324/6.
(The inductive hypothesis) Assume that Pk is true, so that
k1k + 1212k + 12
12 + 22 + Á + k 2 = .
6
(The inductive step) The next term on the left-hand side would be 1k + 122. We
add this to both sides of Pk and get

12 + 22 + Á + k 2 + 1k + 122 = + 1k + 122
k1k + 1212k + 12
6
k1k + 1212k + 12 + 61k + 122
=
6
1k + 1212k 2 + k + 6k + 62
=
6
1k + 121k + 2212k + 32
=
6
1k + 1211k + 12 + 12121k + 12 + 12
=
6
This is exactly the statement Pk + 1, so the equation is true for n = k + 1. Therefore,
Pn is true for all positive integers, by mathematical induction.
Now try Exercise 13.

Applications of mathematical induction can be quite different from the first two exam-
ples. Here is one involving divisibility.

EXAMPLE 3 Proving Divisibility

Prove that 4n - 1 is evenly divisible by 3 for all positive integers n.
SOLUTION Let Pn be the statement that 4n - 1 is evenly divisible by 3 for all
positive integers n.
(The anchor) P1 is true because 41 - 1 = 3 is divisible by 3.
(The inductive hypothesis) Assume that Pk is true, so that 4k - 1 is divisible by 3.
(The inductive step) We need to prove that 4k + 1 - 1 is divisible by 3.
Using a little algebra, we see that 4k + 1 - 1 = 4 # 4k - 1 = 414k - 12 + 3.
By the inductive hypothesis, 4k - 1 is divisible by 3. Of course, so is 3. Therefore,
414k - 12 + 3 is a sum of multiples of 3, and hence divisible by 3. This is exactly
the statement Pk + 1, so Pk + 1 is true. Therefore, Pn is true for all positive integers, by
mathematical induction. Now try Exercise 19.
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690 CHAPTER 9 Discrete Mathematics

Induction and Deduction

The words induction and deduction are usually used to contrast two patterns of logical
thought. We reason by induction when we use evidence derived from particular exam-
ples to draw conclusions about general principles. We reason by deduction when we
reason from general principles to draw conclusions about specific cases.
When mathematicians prove theorems, they use deduction. In fact, even a “proof by
mathematical induction” is a deductive proof, since it consists of applying the general
principle to a particular formula. We have been careful to use the term mathematical
induction in this section to distinguish it from inductive reasoning, which is often good
for inspiring conjectures—but not for proving general principles.
Exploration 2 illustrates why mathematicians do not rely on inductive reasoning.

EXPLORATION 2 Is n2 ⴙ n ⴙ 41 Prime for All n?

1. Plug in the numbers from 1 to 10. Are the results all prime?
2. Repeat for the numbers from 11 to 20.
3. Repeat for the numbers from 21 to 30. (Ready to make your
The Four-Color Map Theorem conjecture?)
In 1852, Francis Guthrie conjectured that any 4. What is the smallest value of n for which n 2 + n + 41 is not prime?
map on a flat surface could be colored in at
most four colors so that no two bordering
regions would share the same color. Mathe-
maticians tried unsuccessfully for almost 150
There is one situation in which (nonmathematical) induction can constitute a proof. In
years to prove (or disprove) the conjecture,
until Kenneth Appel and Wolfgang Haken
enumerative induction, one reasons from specific cases to the general principle by
finally proved it in 1976. considering all possible cases. This is simple enough when proving a theorem like “All
one-digit prime numbers are factors of 210,” but it can involve some very elegant math-
ematics when the number of cases is seemingly infinite. Such was the case in the proof
of the Four-Color Map Theorem, in which all possible cases were settled with the help
of a clever computer program.

QUICK REVIEW 9.6 (Prerequisite skill Sections A.2 and 1.2)

Exercise numbers with a gray background indicate problems that In Exercises 7–10, evaluate the function at the given domain values
the authors have designed to be solved without a calculator. or variable expressions.
In Exercises 1–3, expand the product. 7. ƒ1x2 = x + 4; ƒ112, ƒ1t2, ƒ1t + 12
1. n1n + 52 2. 1n + 221n - 32 8. ƒ1n2 =
n
; ƒ112, ƒ1k2, ƒ1k + 12
3. k1k + 121k + 22 n + 1
2n
In Exercises 4–6, factor the polynomial. 9. P1n2 = ; P112, P1k2, P1k + 12
3n + 1
4. n 2 + 2n - 3 10. P1n2 = 2n 2 - n - 3; P112, P1k2, P1k + 12
3 2
5. k + 3k + 3k + 1
6. n 3 - 3n 2 + 3n - 1

SECTION 9.6 EXERCISES

In Exercises 1– 4, use mathematical induction to prove that the state- 3. 6 + 10 + 14 + Á + 14n + 22 = n12n + 42
ment holds for all positive integers. 4. 14 + 18 + 22 + Á + 14n + 102 = 2n1n + 62
1. 2 + 4 + 6 + Á + 2n = n 2 + n
2. 8 + 10 + 12 + Á + 12n + 62 = n 2 + 7n
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SECTION 9.6 Mathematical Induction 691

In Exercises 5–8, state an explicit rule for the nth term of the recursively In Exercises 31–34, use the results of Exercises 21–24 and Example 2
defined sequence. Then use mathematical induction to prove the rule. to find the sum in terms of n.
n n
31. a 1k 2 - 3k + 42 32. a 12k 2 + 5k - 22
5. an = an - 1 + 5, a1 = 3 6. an = an - 1 + 2, a1 = 7
7. an = 3an - 1, a1 = 2 8. an = 5an - 1, a1 = 3 k=1 k=1
n n
In Exercises 9–12, write the statements P1, Pk, and Pk + 1. (Do not write a 33. a 1k 3 - 12 34. a 1k 3 + 4k - 52
proof.) k=1 k=1
n1n + 12 35. Group Activity Here is a proof by mathematical
9. Pn: 1 + 2 + Á + n = induction that any gathering of n people must all have the same
2
n12n - 1212n + 12 blood type.
10. Pn: 12 + 32 + 52 + Á + 12n - 122 =
3 (Anchor) If there is 1 person in the gathering, everyone in the
1 1 1 n gathering obviously has the same blood type.
n 1n + 12
11. Pn: # + # + Á + # =
1 2 2 3 n + 1 (Inductive hypothesis) Assume that any gathering of k people
n 2
n1n + 1212n + 1213n + 3n - 12 must all have the same blood type.
12. Pn: a k 4 = (Inductive step) Suppose k + 1 people are gathered. Send one
k=1 30
of them out of the room. The remaining k people must all have
In Exercises 13–20, use mathematical induction to prove that the state-
the same blood type (by the inductive hypothesis). Now bring
ment holds for all positive integers.
the first person back and send someone else out of the room.
13. 1 + 5 + 9 + Á + 14n - 32 = n12n - 12 You get another gathering of k people, all of whom must have
14. 1 + 2 + 22 + Á + 2n - 1 = 2n - 1 the same blood type. Therefore all k + 1 people must have the
1 1 1 1 n same blood type, and we are done by mathematical induction.
15. # + # + # + Á + =
1 2 2 3 3 4 n1n + 12 n + 1 This result is obviously false, so there must be something
1 1 1 n wrong with the proof. Explain where the proof goes wrong.
12n - 1212n + 12
16. # + # + Á + =
1 3 3 5 2n + 1 36. Writing to Learn Kitty is having trouble understanding
n
17. 2 Ú 2n n
18. 3 Ú 3n mathematical induction proofs because she does not under-
stand the inductive hypothesis. If we can assume it is true for k,
3
19. 3 is a factor of n + 2n. 20. 6 is a factor of 7n - 1. she asks, why can’t we assume it is true for n and be done with
In Exercises 21 and 22, use mathematical induction to prove that the it? After all, a variable is a variable! Write a response to Kitty
statement holds for all positive integers. (We have already seen each to clear up her confusion.
proved in another way.)
21. The sum of the first n terms of a geometric sequence with first Standardized Test Questions
term a1 and common ratio r Z 1 is a111 - r n2/11 - r2.
37. True or False The goal of mathematical induction is to
22. The sum of the first n terms of an arithmetic sequence with prove that a statement Pn is true for all real numbers n. Justify
first term a1 and common difference d is your answer.
Sn = 32a1 + 1n - 12d4 38. True or False If Pn is the statement “1n + 122 = 4n,”
n
2 then P1 is true. Justify your answer.
In Exercises 23 and 24, use mathematical induction to prove that the
You may use a graphing calculator when solving Exercises 39–42.
formula holds for all positive integers.
n n1n + 12 39. Multiple Choice In a proof by mathematical induction that
23. Triangular Numbers a k = n1n + 12
k=1 2 1 + 2 + 3+Á+n = for all positive integers n,
n 21n + 122
2
n
3 the inductive hypothesis would be to assume that
24. Sum of the First n Cubes ak = 4
k=1 (A) n = 1.
[Note that if you put the results from Exercises 23 and 24 together, you (B) k = 1.
obtain the pleasantly surprising equation
111 + 12
13 + 23 + 33 + Á + n 3 = 11 + 2 + 3 + Á + n22.4
(C) 1 = .
2
In Exercises 25–30, use the results of Exercises 21–24 and Example 2 n1n + 12
(D) 1 + 2 + 3 + Á + n = for all positive integers n.
to find the sums. 2
25. 1 + 2 + 3 + Á + 500 26. 12 + 22 + Á + 250 2 k1k + 12
(E) 1 + 2 + 3 + Á + k = for some positive
27. 4 + 5 + 6 + Á + n 28. 13 + 23 + 33 + Á + 753 2
34 integer k.
29. 1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + Á + 2
30. 1 + 8 + 27 + Á + 3375
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692 CHAPTER 9 Discrete Mathematics

40. Multiple Choice The first step in a proof by mathemati- 46. Give an alternate proof of the assertion in Exercise 44 based on
cal induction is to prove the fact that n1n + 121n + 22 is a product of three consecutive
(A) the anchor. integers.

(B) the inductive hypothesis.

(C) the inductive step. Extending the Ideas
(D) the inductive principle. In Exercises 47 and 48, use mathematical induction to prove that the
statement holds for all positive integers.
(E) the inductive foundation.
47. Fibonacci Sequence and Series
41. Multiple Choice Which of the following could be used n
to prove that 1 + 3 + 5 + Á + 12n - 12 = n 2 for all Fn + 2 - 1 = a Fk, where 5Fn6 is the Fibonacci sequence.
positive integers n? k=1

I. Mathematical induction 48. If 5an6 is the sequence 12, 22 + 12,

II. The formula for the sum of a finite arithmetic sequence 32 + 22 + 12, Á , then an 6 2.
III. The formula for the sum of a finite geometric sequence 49. Let a be any integer greater than 1. Use mathematical induction to
prove that a - 1 divides a n - 1 evenly for all positive integers n.
(A) I only
50. Give an alternate proof of the assertion in Exercise 49 based on
(B) I and II only
the Factor Theorem of Section 2.4.
(C) I and III only
It is not necessary to anchor a mathematical induction proof at
(D) II and III only n = 1; we might only be interested in the integers greater than or
(E) I, II, and III equal to some integer c. In this case, we simply modify the anchor
and inductive step as follows:
42. Multiple Choice Mathematical induction can be used to Anchor: Pc is true.
n
prove that, for any positive integer n, a k 3 = Inductive Step: If Pk is true for some k Ú c, then Pk + 1 is true.
k=1
n 1n + 122
2 (This is sometimes called the Extended Principle of Mathematical
n1n + 12
(A) . (B) . Induction.) Use this principle to prove the statements in Exercises
2 2 51 and 52.
n 21n + 122 n 1n + 123
3
51. 3n - 4 Ú n, for all n Ú 2 52. 2n Ú n 2, for all n Ú 4
(C) . (D) .
4 2 53. Proving the interior angle formula Use
n 1n + 123
3
extended mathematical induction to prove Pn for n Ú 3.
(E) .
8 Pn: The sum of the interior angles of an n-sided polygon is
180°1n - 22.
Explorations
43. Use mathematical induction to prove that 2 is a factor of
1n + 121n + 22 for all positive integers n.
44. Use mathematical induction to prove that 6 is a factor of
n1n + 121n + 22 for all positive integers n. (You may assume
the assertion in Exercise 43 to be true.)
45. Give an alternate proof of the assertion in Exercise 43 based on
the fact that 1n + 121n + 22 is a product of two consecutive
integers.