Mojica, Abygail R.

BSN 1-Y2-3 Robert Koch – proved the germ theory by cultivating

anthrax bacteria (bacillus anthracis) injecting it to mice.
WEEK 1
The procedures he used later on became known as
I. THE SCIENCE OF MICROBIOLOGY Koch’s Postulates.

Microbiology – (micro = small, bio = life, logy = study) Pasteur and Koch’s discoveries made the late 1800s to
the study of living organisms that are too small to be early 1900s the Golden Age of Microbiology as
seen with the naked eye (microbes). scientists seized the opportunity to further develop the
new found knowledge. The spread of epidemics was
Ex. halted due to the discovery of various microbial
– Bacteria diseases’ etiologic agents.
– Archaea Antibiotics were first used after the World War II, the
– Virus incidence of many diseases such as tuberculosis,
– Prion meningitis, syphilis declined with the use of antibiotics.
– Protozoa
II. INTRODUCTION TO PROKARYOTES
– Fungi
AND EUKARYOTES
– Algae
Eukaryotes – has a nucleus with organelles and generally
Microorganisms – collection of organisms that share the larger (fungi, protozoa, and simple algae)
same characteristic of only being visible through the use
of a microscope. Prokaryotes – doesn’t have a nucleus with little to no
organelles (bacteria and cyanobacteria, rickettsiae,
HISTORY OF MICROBIOLOGY chlamydiae, and mycoplasmas)
Robert Hooke – made key observations in the mid-
– Said to be some of the smallest living
1600s; he is believed to have observed strands of fungi.
organisms
Anton Van Leeuwenhoek – known as the father of » Mycoplasmas = 0.15 μm
microbiology; made careful observations of » Chlamydiae = 0.25 μm
microorganisms and called it animalcules in 1670s; the » Rickettsiae = 0.45 μm
first person to make accurate descriptions of bacteria, » Most of the bacteria = to about
protozoa and fungi. 2.0 μm
– May appear in certain shapes
Francisco Redi – disapproved the theory of spontaneous
generation (microorganisms can rise from lifeless » Cocci (spherical)
matter) by Aristotle by proving that maggots do not » Bacilli (rod like)
come from decaying meat. » Vibrio (comma)
» Spirochete (flexible and wavy)
John Needham – advanced the theory of spontaneous » Spirillum (cork screw like)
generation. » Pleomorphic (various shapes)
Lazzaro Spallanzani – disputed theory of spontaneous – Clings to each other in distinct
generation by proving that microorganisms won’t rise arrangement
from boiled broth. Ex. (Cocci)
» Diplococcus = 2 coccus
Louis Pasteur – proposed the germ theory » Streptococcus = chain
(microorganisms are the causes of infectious disease) by
» Tetracoccus = 4 arranged in a
proving that bacteria made wine and dairy sour, and
cube
proposed the idea that if bacteria made wine and dairy
» Staphylococcus = grape like
“sick” perhaps it’s also what causes human illnesses;
cluster
ended theory of spontaneous generation through his
swan flask experiment (the experiment that made people
III. MICROBIAL METABOLISM
speculate that there are microorganisms in the air and it
can cause diseases).
Microbial metabolism – refers to the process where a Sexual Reproduction – reproduction that allows the
microbe obtains the energy and nutrients it needs. fusion of gametes and chromosomes, therefore allowing
genetic variations
1. Cellular respiration – organisms obtain energy
from carbohydrates - Meiosis – reproduction process where a single
2. Photosynthesis – sunlight is used as the source cell divides twice, making 4 daughter cells that
of energy to turn carbon dioxide and water into contain half the original amount of genetic
glucose and oxygen information
3. Chemical reactions and energy
» *Endergonic – energy requiring Growth Curve – logarithms of the actual numbers of
population are plotted at the growth curve along the side
» *Exergonic – energy yielding
axis while the time is at the base.
» *Catalyst – Substances that speed up
chemical reactions
IV. GROWTH REQUIREMENTS FOR
MICROORGANISMS
1. Chemical Requirements – virtually all chemicals
have carbon in some form
» Chemoautotrophs – produce nutrients
from chemical reactions
» Photoautotrophs – produce nutrients
thru photosynthesis
» Aerobic – require oxygen
» Anaerobic – do not require oxygen
» Facultative – can live with or without
oxygen
1. Lag phase – population of the bacteria remains
» Microaerophilic – require little oxygen
the same as they start to accustom to their new
» Capnophilic – require carbon dioxide
environment; metabolic activity is present and
new cells are being produced.
2. Physical Requirements – certain physical 2. Logarithmic (log) phase – the peak of cell
conditions affect the growth of microorganisms production, bacterial growth is optimum and the
– Temperature population doubles rapidly.
» Psychrophile – 0° to 20° 3. Stationary phase – cell population reaches a
» Mesophile – 30° to 40° plateau as the production offsets because of the
» Thermophile – 40° and above death of cells.
– Acidity/ Alkalinity 4. Death phase – bacteria will die off rapidly due to
» Neutrophilic – 6.5 to 7.5 pH various factors and the last cell in the population
» Acidophilic – 6.0 pH and below will soon die.
» Halophilic – live in high salt VI. MICROBIAL GENETICS
concentrations 1. Bacterial conjugation – postulated in the 1940s
V. MICROBIAL REPRODUCTION AND by Joshua Lederberg and Edward Tatum; two
GROWTH cells come together and transfer genetic
information thru “mating” or direct contact.
Asexual Reproduction – reproduction that does not 2. Bacterial transformation – discovered by
require the fusion of gametes or combination of Frederick Griffith in 1828; a process by which
chromosomes. bacteria will take up and replicate naked DNA
- Mitosis – reproduction that occur in eukaryotes; molecules from the environment along its own
produces 2 daughter cells DNA.
- Binary Fission – reproduction that occurs in 3. Bacterial transduction – a process where a
bacteriophage transfers DNA fragments from
prokaryotes; produces an exact replica of
themselves one bacterium to another.
 » Lytic cycle – a cycle that occurs when - Organisms who breed among each other are
the host bacterium undergoes lysis and considered the same type of species.
releases prophages. - Microorganisms who are biochemically similar
» Lysogenic cycle – occurs when a by 70% are considered the same type of species.
prophage integrates its own DNA to the
Genus (plural: genera) – a group of species
bacterium DNA.
4. Mutation – is the permanent change that Family – a group of genera
happens in the sequence of nitrogenous bases of
a DNA molecule. Order – a group of families
» Point mutation (substitution) – a single Class – a group of orders
nucleotide base is inserted, deleted or
replaced Phylum/ Division – a group of classes
» Missense mutation – happens if the
Kingdom – a group of phyla/divisions
alteration that happened in a nucleotide
in point mutation results to a different Robert Whittaker – suggested the five-kingdom
amino acid classification
» Nonsense mutation – happens if the
1. Monera (Prokaryotae) – bacteria/ cyanobacteria
alteration that happened stops the
2. Protista – protozoa, unicellular algae, slime
formation of the sequence too early and
molds
destroys the genetic information it
3. Fungi – mushroom, mold, yeast
contains; this results in a premature
4. Plantae – plants
protein that may not function properly
5. Animalia – animals
or not function at all.
» Frameshift mutation – a pair of BRIEF DESCRIPTIONS OF MICROORGANISMS
nucleotides are inserted, deleted or
replaced 1. Bacteria - prokaryotic organisms whose cells
lack a nucleus or nuclear membrane.
- Spontaneous mutation – not caused by
2. Protozoa - eukaryotic, unicellular organisms.
laboratory intervention
3. Fungi - eukaryotic microorganisms that include
- Induced mutation – caused by a laboratory
multicellular molds and unicellular (single‐
intervention
celled) yeasts.
- Mutagens – agents capable of bringing out
4. Algae - plantlike organisms
mutation
5. Virus - ultramicroscopic bits of genetic material
» Chemical mutagen – nitrous acid, base
(DNA or RNA)
analog
» Physical mutagen - x rays, gamma rays, Nomenclature of microorganisms – established by
and ultraviolet light (radiation damage Linnaeus; each organism is given a binomial name; the
can be repaired by photoreactivation) first name being the genus where the organism belongs
- Mutation rate – the probability of a mutation to and the second name is an adjective called species
happening during cellular division modifier

VII. MICROBIAL SYSTEM OF

WEEK 2
CLASSIFICATION
I. NORMAL FLORA OF THE HUMAN BODY
Taxonomy – the science of classification.
Normal Microflora – the microbial collection that grow
Carolus Linnaeus – first known taxonomer; classified all
in and on the human body
known plants and animals during the 1750s to 1760s and
wrote down rules for nomenclature. Human Microbiome – the sum of microorganisms that
reside in and on the human body
Species – the fundamental rank of classification defined
by Linnaeus
 Sepsis – a clinical condition where infectious agents
spread from a localized site and start showing signs of
organ damage
Asepsis – the absence of disease-causing agents

» Medical asepsis – aims to reduce disease

causing agents to prevent spreading
» Surgical asepsis – aims to totally eliminate
disease causing agents to prevent spreading
Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) – equipment to be
worn and used by health workers, patients and visitors
against infection (mask, gowns, goggles)
Universal Precautions – measures made specifically for
dealing with patients infected of an unknown pathogen
Hand hygiene
1. Before interaction with patient
2. Before procedure
Normal Microbiota of the Skin – largest organ;
3. After exposure to body fluid
colonized by a wide variety of microorganisms, most of
4. After interaction with patient
which are beneficial
5. After touching patient’s surroundings
Normal Microbiota of the Mouth and Upper Respiratory
Transmission based precautions – precautions made to
Tract – microbiota of infants may vary depending on the
prevent the spread of infectious agents
way they were delivered
1. Airborne precautions
- More organisms rise as a child’s teeth grow
Private room, negative-pressure airflow of at least 6-
Normal Microbiota of Intestinal Tract
12 exchanges per hour via high- efficiency
- Intestine is sterile at birth but not as soon as it is particulate air (HEPA) filtration; Mask or respiratory
introduced with food protection device; N-95 respirator (depending on
- Diet of an individual also plays a big role condition).

Normal Microbiota of Urethra 2. Contact precautions

- Anterior urethras of both sexes contain small Private or cohort patients (see agency policy),
amounts of the same organisms found in the skin gloves, gowns (Patients may leave their room for
and perineum procedures or therapy if infectious material is
contained or covered, placed in a clean gown and if
Normal Microbiota of the Vagina hands are cleaned.)
- The presence of organisms in the vagina may 3. Droplet precautions
vary before puberty, during child bearing age
and after menopause Private room or cohort patients (see agency policy),
- Organisms in the vagina may infect newborn mask or respirator required (depending on condition)
during vaginal birth 4. Protective environment
Normal Microbiota of the Conjunctiva Private room; positive airflow with 12 or more Air
exchanges per hour; HEPA filtration for Incoming
- Normally held in check by flow of tears
air; mask to be worn by patient when out of room
during times of construction in area.
II. MEDICAL AND SURGICAL SEPSIS
 Operating room – one of the most sterile areas in the » Water is boiled at a higher pressure
hospital allowing the steam under pressure to
have higher penetrating power
III. PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL METHODS OF
» Autoclave is used
STERILIZATION
b. Dry heat (160°C–180°C) – denatures
Sterilization – destruction of all microbial life (bacterial and lyses proteins in microorganisms;
spores) kills bacteria by conduction; surface
absorbs heat which will then be
Disinfection – destruction of pathogenic conducted to the next layer until ideal
microorganisms on inanimate objects temperature of sterilization is achieved
Antisepsis – destruction of pathogenic » Red heat – holding instruments over
microorganisms on a live object bunsen flame until they become red
due to the heat
Sanitation – reduction in the number of pathogens » Flaming - instruments are dipped
Degerming – physical removal of microorganisms by into alcohol or some gas and
soap or detergent exposed to flame for some time
where microbes and other dust are
Germicide – kills microorganisms; more effective at burnt
high temperature » Incineration – conducted during
Bactericide – kills bacteria final disposal of waste (usually in
hospitals); scraps are heated until it
Fungicide – kills fungi turns into ashes
» Infrared radiation – radiation will be
Bacteriostatic agent – prevents the spread of bacteria
used and converted into heat energy
without necessarily killing those that are present
to sterilize instruments
Physical Methods of Sterilization » Hot air oven – sterilizes objects by
letting heat from the outer surface
1. Heat Sterilization – pccurs more rapidly in a be conducted inwards
fully hydrated state; still can be applied to both 2. Filtration – removes microorganisms rather than
moisture resistant (moist heat) and moisture destroying; uses membranous filters that let
sensitive (dry heat) products. liquid pass through but not bigger particles
a. Moist heat – (121°C to 134°C) steam a. Filtration Sterilization for Liquids –
under pressure acts as bactericidal agent; happens through the use of membrane
microorganisms are killed by filters in the form of discs with coarse-
coagulating their proteins grade fiberglass depth prefilter
Temperature > 100 b. Filtration Sterilization for Gases – made
out of pleated sheets of glass
» Pasteurization – reducing the microfibres separated and supported by
number of viable microbes to so corrugated sheets of Kraft paper or
they can stop causing diseases aluminum; can remove 99.997% of
particles 0.3mm or bigger
Temperature = 100
3. Irradiation – exposing objects to radiation for
» Does not ensure complete sterility; sterilization
boiling distilled water is used for a. Ultraviolet (non-ionizing) radiation –
30-40 minutes uses light rays from 150-3900 Å, 2600
» Tyndallization – sterilization using of which is the ideal for having the
sugar and gelatin at 100° for 30 highest bactericidal effect; doesn’t have
minutes for 3 consecutive days high penetration power and therefore
only sterilizes the surface
Temperature < 100
 b. Ionizing radiation – sterilization A good chemical agent must possess the following
happens through the use of gamma rays characteristics:
and x-ray
4. Sound (Sonic) Waves Vibration – if sound 1. It should be broad spectrum, able to destroy a
waves along with shock waves and wide variety of microorganisms
hydrodynamic pressure reach a certain level, it 2. It should be fast-acting, able to destroy microbes
can physically remove debris and loosen within a short period of time
microorganisms from even the most inaccessible 3. It should be active in the presence of organic
parts of an instrument matter
5. Pressure (Pascalization) – also known as High- 4. It should be active in any pH
Pressure Processing where products are 5. It should be stable
processed under very high pressure that kills 6. It should be non-toxic, non-allergenic, non-
certain microorganisms and inactivates certain irritative, and non-corrosive
enzymes making it an ideal procedure for 7. It should be soluble in water and easy to apply
sterilization and preservation. 8. It should leave a residual anti-microbial film on
6. Sunlight (Solar Disinfection) – pathogens are the treated surface
inactivated and damaged by UV-A (wavelength 9. It should have high penetrating power
320-400 nm) as a result of its reaction with 10. It should not be expensive and must be easily
oxygen that releases highly reactive forms of available
oxygen 11. It should be safe under storage and shipping
under reasonable periods of time
12. It should not have a bad odor
WEEK 3 Classifications of Chemical Disinfectants
CHEMICAL METHODS OF STERILIZATION
Chemical disinfectants may be classified into the
Chemicals can inhibit the growth of pathogens either following: (1) consistency, (2) spectrum of activity, or
temporarily or permanently. (3) mechanism of action.
Factors that can affect the efficacy of a chemical agent: Mechanism of Action
 Concentration and potency of the chemical  Damage to the cell membrane – can cause
agent – higher concentration can mean smaller molecules to leak out of the bacterial
bactericidal and lower concentration means cell and interfere with the active transport and
bacteriostatic (not true for alcohol) energy metabolism within the cell.
 Duration of exposure – the longer the 1. Surface active agents –
exposure, the better the bactericidal effect
 Temperature – higher temperature speeds up Chemical Methods of Sterilization
chemical reaction and bactericidal effect (can
Chemical sterilization is the process of removing
happen in lower temperature too)
microorganisms using chemical bactericidal agents.
 Nature of the surrounding medium –
materials surrounding the chemical agent may 1. Gaseous Sterilization – is the process of
lower or increase its efficacy and may bind exposing instruments to different gases in a
chemical agent to the surface close heated or pressurized chamber; can pass
 Nature of the organism – refers to the through a tiny orifice and provide more effective
resistance of the target microorganism to results; mechanism of action is different for each
disinfectants, some microorganisms can resist gas
disinfectants better than others and are therefore a. Ethylene Oxide (EO) – common gas
harder to kill used for chemical treatment applied to
 Number of organism/ sizes of inoculum – the sterilize, pasteurize or disinfect and
larger the number or size, the longer it will take often replaces other sterilization
the chemical agent to destroy it techniques. It has good penetrating
 nature and is used for almost 70% of before sterilization can be obtained.
sterilization and for 50% of disposable Acts by oxidizing organic compounds
medical devices. The mechanism of and which results in modification of
antimicrobial action of this gas is proteins in microbes which will lead to
assumed to be through the alkylation of death.
sulphydryl, amino, hydroxyl, and
carboxyl groups on proteins and imino
groups of nucleic acids.
b. Formaldehyde – Obtained by heating ANTIMICROBIAL AGENTS
formalin to 70-80°C. It has broad Antibiotics or antimicrobials – substances that are either
spectrum biocidal activity but doesn’t made synthetically or out of microorganisms capable of
have the same penetrating power as inhibiting the growth of microorganisms even at low
ethylene oxide and due to its low concentrations.
penetrating power, it is often used on
paper and cotton fabrics. An ideal antimicrobial agent must possess the following
c. Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2) – a rapid and characteristics:
effective sterilant that can be used for
1. It should be able to kill the microbial agent and
the removal of common microbes like
inhibit its growth
bacteria, fungi and even spores. NO2’s
2. It must have a broad spectrum of activity
low boiling point enables it to be used at
3. It should not cause any damage or adverse effect
standard pressure and temperature.
to the patient
Degrades DNA by making the
4. It should remain stable when stored in either
phosphate backbone undergo nitration.
liquid or solid form
d. Ozone – highly reactive industrial gas
5. It should be able to remain in specific body
used for sterilizing air and water and for
tissues long enough for it to be effective
disinfecting surfaces. Can be generated
6. It should be able to kill the organism or inhibit
from medical grade oxygen and capable
its growth before it has had a chance to mutate
of destroying a wide range of organisms.
and develop resistance.
It is very hazardous and can only be
7. It must exhibit selective toxicity. It must be
used at a concentration of 5ppm.
toxic to the microbial cell but not to the host’s
2. Liquid Sterilization – involves submerging
cell.
equipment into a liquid sterilant to kill all viable
microorganisms and their spores; it is Antibiotics are classified in several ways:
appropriate for conditions where only low
contamination is present.  Spectrum Activity
a. Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) – a strong - Broad Spectrum Antibiotics – wide
oxidant that can destroy a wide range of coverage of activity against many
microorganisms. A higher concentration microorganisms
of about 35-90% is used in medical - Narrow Spectrum Antibiotics – limited
applications. It has a short sterilization coverage of activity against limited
cycle of as short as 28 minutes. number of microorganisms
b. Glutaraldehyde – a sterilizing agent  Antimicrobial Activity
that requires long immersion time (as - Bactericidal – kills bacteria
long as 22 hours) due to its solid - Bacteriostatic – inhibits the growth of
particles. Limited to cleaning surface bacteria
areas only with less contamination.  Absorbability from site of administration
c. Hypochlorite – is also known as liquid - Locally acting antibiotic – action is
bleach and it can also be used for limited to the site of administration only
disinfecting although sterilization is - Systemically acting antibiotic – affects
difficult to obtain with this chemical, it several systems of the body once
requires 22-24 hours of submersion administered
Classification of Antibiotics According to Mechanism of  Prevention of Cellular Uptake or Reflux – gram
Action negative bacteria has developed the ability to
change the composition of the lipid of their outer
 Agents that Interfere with the Synthesis of
membrane and prevent the antibiotic from
Bacterial Cell Wall – agents that act by
reaching its target.
inhibiting the different stages of peptidoglycan
 Modification of target sites – Antibiotics have
synthesis or by destroying an already formed
target sites and any alteration or modification in
peptidoglycan by using activated autolytic
those target sites will cause the antibiotic to fail
enzymes
 Overproduction or Bypass of Target Enzyme –
 Agents that Alter the Function of Permeability
overproduction of target enzyme will occur, and
of the Cell Membrane
even if the antibiotic reaches the target enzyme,
 Agents that Inhibit Protein Synthesis – this type
there will still be more left
of agent binds to either or both the 30s or 50s
 Target mimicry – bacteria produce proteins that
sub-units of a ribosome and interfere with the
are identical to the target, causing the antibiotic
protein synthesis. Agents that bind to the 30s
to bind to the replica and not the actual target.
inhibit the initiation process while those that
bind to the 50s inhibit the elongation process.
 Agents that Act on the Nucleic Acid
1. Agents that inhibit DNA topoisomerases HOST RESPONSE TO INFECTION
2. Agents that inhibit RNA synthesis Immunology – study of the immune system and immune
 Agents inhibit Microbial Metabolic Pathways response
Mechanisms of Drug Resistance Immunogen – a substance capable of inducing immune
An organism is said to have developed a resistance to an response, can be humoral, cell mediated or both
antibiotic if the said antibiotic no longer works on the Antigen – A substance recognized by the immune
organism. Resistance to an antibiotic may either be system but won’t necessarily trigger an immune
innate (intrinsic) or acquired. response
 Innate (intrinsic) resistance – resistance that is Epitope – structure in an antigen that can be recognized
due to the genetic property that is encoded in the by the t or b cell
chromosomes of an organism
 Acquired resistance – this is resistance that Hapten – a substance that has low molecular weight and
develops over time due to overexposure to the can only induce immune response if it is bound to an
antibiotic immunogenic substance
 Chromosomal mutation – genetic exchange Properties of Antigens
between microorganisms
- Transformation – naked or free 1. Foreignness and genetic composition –
microbial DNA attaches and inserts genetically foreign and will be recognized by the
itself to another DNA of the same body as non-self
species. 2. Chemical composition and complexity –
- Transduction – transfers genetic substances with more complex structures are
material through a bacteriophage more antigenic
- Conjugation – transfer of genetic 3. Molecular size and stability – molecules that
material through the sex pilus weigh lower than 10,000 daltons are weakly
immunogenic compared to those that weigh
Mechanisms of Drug Resistance more than 10,000 daltons which are considered
potent but stability must also be taken into
 Drug Modification or Inactivation – a resistance
account because some substances break into
gene may inactivate an antibiotic, cause
smaller molecules and lose their
hydrolysis that will destroy the antibiotic and
immunogenicity despite having a greater
therefore be ineffective.
molecular weight
 4. Mode of entry of antigen – some antigens may Antibodies – immunoglobins that react to antigens that
not pose a reaction if administered activate them
intramuscularly but may work better if given
Important functions of Antibodies
subcutaneously
1. Neutralize toxins and viruses
The Immune System
2. Opsonize microbes to make them more
 Composed of molecular and cellular recognizable and easier to phagocytosed
components 3. Activate complement system
 Central lymphoid is where the differentiation 4. Prevent attachment of microbes to mucosal
and maturation of important cells such as T cells surfaces
and B lymphocytes happen. (Thymus, bone
Classes of Immunoglobins
marrow)
 Peripheral lymphoid is composed of the lymph 1. IgG – It is the most predominant in secondary
nodes, spleen, and the mucosa associated immune response. Can fix or activate
lymphatic tissues which includes the tonsils, complement system with IgM and enhance
adenoids, peyer’s patches and appendix. This is phagocytosis. It is the main immunoglobin in
where antigens are trapped and meet the T cells chronic infections and it has 4 subclasses, IgG1,
and B lymphocytes. IgG2, IgG3, IgG4.
2. IgM – the largest among immunoglobins. Main
Cells of the Immune System immunoglobin produced during primary
 White Blood Cells response.
- Granulocytes 3. IgA – known as the secretory immunoglobin
- Lymphocytes since it it the main immunoglobin during
secretions like tears, saliva, colostrum as well as
- Monocytes and Macrophages
respiratory, gastrointestinal and genitourinary
- Platelets
tract secretions.
 Antigen Presenting Cells – cells that are
4. IgE – also known as reaginic antibody. It is
involved in presenting antigens to T cells
proven to be the immunoglobin responsible for
- Macrophages mediating immediate or anaphylactic
- B cells hypersensitivity reaction and provides defense
- Dendritic Cells against parasites.
- Langerhans cells in the skin 5. IgD – has no known antibody function. It is
- Kupffer cells in the liver found on the surface of B cells.
- Glial cells in the central nervous system
Cell-mediated immunity’s 4 basic functions
 Natural killer T cells
1. Provide resistance and aid in recovery from
Innate Immunity – immunity that a person is born with,
infections due to intracellular organisms
also known as natural immunity
2. Defense against fungi, parasites, and bacteria
Adaptive Immunity – immunity that is activated after 3. Involved in transplant and graft rejection
being exposed to a certain antigen 4. Main defense against tumor cells
Immune Response – Exposure to an antigen for the first Nonspecific Mechanisms of Defense – prevent
time will activate Th1 cells which will then activate microorganisms from gaining a foot hold in the body
inflammatory response. In case of a re-exposure to the and to kill them if they go deeper
same antigen, secondary immune response will occur
and activate Th2 cells.  Mechanical barriers
 Mucous membranes
Antibody-mediated or Humoral immunity – B cells are  Chemical defenses
activated to turn into plasma cells that will secrete  Genetic barriers
antibodies in response to the antigen. Other activated B  Inflammation
cells will turn into memory cells which will be activated  Fever
in case of a reoccurrence.
  Interferon - Artificially acquired active
 Phagocytosis immunization – acquired through
vaccines
Complement System – complement components interact  Passive immunization – antibodies are acquired
with each other to produce new substances that will in the body from an outside source
induce the reaction of others
- Naturally acquired passive
Detecting Antibodies with Laboratory Tests immunization – happens when
antibodies from the lining of the
 The agglutination and precipitation tests placenta are passed on to the baby
 The complement fixation test. - Artificially acquired passive
 The neutralization test. immunization – acquiring antibodies
 The fluorescent antibody test. through injection
 Enzyme immunoassays.
Types of Vaccines
Hypersensitivity Reactions – are exaggerated and
inappropriate reactions that harm the host  Live Attenuated Vaccine – Derived from disease
causing viruses bacteria and weakened through
 Type I: Immediate (Anaphylactic) culturing. Once administered, the virus will
Hypersensitivity – common allergic reaction replicate enough to cause an immune response
caused by IgE  Toxoid Vaccine – vaccine is made from the
 Type II: Antibody-mediated Hypersensitivity – exotoxin of the causative agent, it requires
formerly known as cytolytic or cytotoxic multiple doses which will eventually make us
hypersensitivity and has 3 subtypes, 2 of which immune to the harmful effects of the infection
involve destruction of cells while 1 doesn’t.  Killed Vaccine – a vaccine derived from
- 1st subtype – opsonization and bacterial sources
phagocytosis  Inactivated Vaccine – produced by growing
- 2nd subtype – complement and Fc bacteriumor virus in culture media and
receptor-mediated inflammation inactivating it through heat. This method will
- 3rd receptor – formation of antibodies not cause disease due to replication of the virus
directed against specific cellular but it will require multiple doses to before
receptors achieving immunity
 Type III: Immune Complex-mediated  Polysaccharide Vaccine – made up of long
Hypersensitivity – initiated by the formation of chains of sugar molecules that make up the
immune complexes in the circulation surface of the capsule bacteria; this stimulates B
 Type IV: Cell-mediated Hypersensitivity – cells
formerly known as delayed hypersensitivity  Recombinant Vaccine – a type of vaccine that is
where T lymphocytes destroy tissue or kill target genetically engineered
cells.  Subunit vaccine – a vaccine that is made from a
specific antigen or structure of the organism, it
Vaccines – it can contain a weak or inactivated form of
requires accurate selection
an organism, the whole organism itself or toxins
produced by the microorganism and it makes the Problems with Vaccine Use – can cause virulent forms
immune system produce antibodies that should work and may pose life threatening effects to the
against the said microorganism. immunocompromised or pregnant women
Types of Immunization

 Active immunization – acquired as the body BACTERIA AND DISEASE

produces antibodies
- Naturally acquired active immunization Disease – result of an undesirable relationship between
– develops if the person is exposed to a the host and pathogen
microorganism that doesn’t necessarily Infection – invasion of pathogens in the body
have to cause a disease
Symbiosis – prolonged and close interaction between  Environmental Reservoir – disease
organisms of different species transmitted from the environment to
humans
Mutualism – a form of symbiosis where both organisms
3. Portal of Exit – route where the infectious agent
benefit
exits the host
Parasitism – a form of symbiosis where only one 4. Mode of Transmission – how the infectious
organism benefits agent was transmitted to the host
 Direct Contact
Pathogenicity – the ability of a pathogen to cause a - Person to person contact – skin
disease
to skin or sexual transmission
Virulence – describes the degree of pathogenicity of an - Droplet spread – by sneezing
organism and coughing
 Indirect Contact
Contamination – presence of unwanted materials in
- Airborne transmission –
places where they should not be
transmitted from an infected
Pollution – presence of contaminants that can cause person to another through
adverse biological effects to humans and communities aerosols or dust
- Vehicle transmission –
Bacteremia – bacteria in blood transmitted through the use of
Septicemia – multiplying bacteria in the blood media such as water, milk, food
or biological substances such as
Pyemia – pus-producing bacteria in the bloodstream blood and other body secretions
- Vector Transmission –
Viremia – viruses in the blood
transmitted thorough insects;
Toxemia – toxins in the blood can either be mechanical
meaning it is transferred from
Koch’s Postulate – cultivating bacteria and injecting it to
the insect’s body to the host or
a healthy individual
biological meaning it involves
The Chain of Infection biting the person
5. Portal of Entry – how the infectious agent enters
1. The infectious agent – a microorganism that is the host
pathogenic in nature 6. Host – the new carrier of the infectious agent
 Dose – the number of microorganisms and the final link of the chain of infection
 Invasiveness – ability of pathogens to
penetrate the tissues How Organisms Produce Diseases
 Capsules – able to resist the host’s 1. Mechanical: Invasiveness – by directly
defense by interfering with phagocytosis damaging tissues or body surfaces (eg. open
 Enzymes – overcomes body defenses to wounds) consists of colonization, invasion and
establish themselves in the host extrusion)
 Coagulases – enzymes that clot in the
blood 2. Chemical: Toxin Production
 Streptokinase – dissolves blood clot - Toxins – bacteria that can produce
 Hyaluronidase – destroys hyaluronic poisonous substances
acid and polysaccharides - Exotoxin – produced by the bacteria
2. Reservoir – source of disease producing during their growth and released to the
microorganism environment; neurotoxin = nervous
 Animal reservoir – disease transmitted system, enterotoxin = GIT, antitoxin =
from animals to humans antibodies
 Human reservoir – disease is transmitted - Endotoxin – portions of the cell wall of
from one human to another (respiratory gram-positive bacteria
diseases and std)
 3. Immunologic – disease produced as an immune - Secondary infection – caused by
response opportunistic pathogens after primary
infection
Classification of Infectious Diseases
- Subclinical or inapparent infection –
1. Based on how they behave within a host and does not cause noticeable illness
within a given population
Stages of an Infectious Disease
- Communicable disease – if disease can
be spread from one person to another 1. Incubation period – time between the entry of
- Contagious diseases – if disease can be the agent and the appearance of initial symptoms
easily and rapidly spread from one 2. Prodromal period – occurs for a short time only
person to another and refers to the appearance of mild symptoms
- Fulminant infection – if the infection 3. Period of illness – where the maximum invasion
of the agent occurs
causes the death of a patient
4. Period of decline – also known as period of
- Non-communicable disease – if the defervescence; where the symptoms start
diseases cannot be spread from one subsiding
person to another 5. Period of convalescence – refers to the recovery
2. Based on the source of Microorganism of the patient from the disease
- Exogenous – if source is from outside
(nosocomial infection – from the
hospital)
- Endogenous – if source of infection is
from inside the body
3. Based on the occurrence of a disease
- Sporadic disease – occurs occasionally
- Endemic disease – constantly present at
low levels
- Epidemic – if a low number of people in
a certain area develop a disease
- Pandemic – if it has involved at least 3
regions in the world
4. Based on the severity or duration of a disease
- Acute disease – develops rapidly but
doesn’t last long
- Chronic disease – develops slowly but
lasts long
- Latent disease – remains inactive but
can become active again
5. Based on the extent of host involvement
- Localized infection – limited to a small
area of the body
- Systemic or generalized infection - the
causative agent is spread through the
blood or lymph
- Focal infection – the causative agent
that spread through the blood or lymph
enters a lymphatic vessel and become
confined to a specific area
- Primary infection – infection that causes
the initial illness