JOURNAL OF MATERIALS SCIENCE 9 (1974) 1521-1535

Review
Thermoelasticity, pseudoelasticity and the
memory effects associated with
martensitic transformations
Part 1 Structural and microstructural changes associated
with the transformations

L. D E L A E Y , R. V. K R I S H N A N , * H. T A S t
Departement Metaalkunde, Kathofieke Universiteit Leuven, Belgium
H. W A R L I M O N T
Max-Planck-lnstitut for Metallforschung, Stuttgart, Germany

The literature pertaining to the microstructural and crystallographic features of

thermoelasticity, pseudoelasticity and memory effects associated with martensitic
transformations is reviewed. The interrelations between the various effects are
described. An introduction to the mechanical behaviour and the thermodynamic
parameters is given.

1. I n t r o d u c t i o n effect and the two-way shape memory effect.

Martensitic transformations can be induced by Our main goal is to compile experimental and
the application of stress as well as by changes in theoretical results thus far obtained in this field
temperature. This interchangeability of tempera- and to relate the various phenomena to the
ture and stress as variables affecting the trans- principal properties associated with martensitic
formation is due to two effects: transformations.
(1) the free enthalpy of the matrix and product First we shall describe briefly the transforma-
phase and thus their equilibria depend not only tion and the deformation phenomena which will
on variations in temperature and composition be treated.
but also on stress (the influence of shear stresses A thermoelastic martensitic transformation is
is dominant; volume stresses become significant realized if martensite forms and grows con-
only in the ultra-high pressure range e.g. [1 ]); tinuously as the temperature is lowered, and
(2) the nucleation and growth processes are shrinks and vanishes continuously as the tem-
associated with shear strains and these will perature is raised as shown in Fig. 1. Fig. 2a
interact with stresses acting within, or applied to, gives a schematic representation of this trans-
the specimen. formation by indicating the increase in internal
Moreover, the thermodynamic (1) and the stresses, err (and, thus, of stored elastic energy)
kinetic (2) effects are strongly dependent on the and the fractional increase in the amount of
directions of stresses with respect to the lattice martensite as measures of the progress of
orientations. This nature of martensitic trans- transformation, and the decrease of these
formation leads to the effects which are treated properties due to the reverse transformation.
on their common basis in this paper: thermo- There is no sudden appearance or disappearance
elasticity, pseudoelasticity, the shape memory of large groups of plates (burst). The trans-

*Present address: National Aeronautical Laboratory, Bangalore, India

?Present address: Studiecentrum voor Kernenergie (S.C.K.), Mol, Belgium
9 1974 Chapman and Hall Ltd. 1521
 L. D E L A E Y , R. V. K R I S H N A N , H. T A S , H. W A R L I M O N T

Figure 1 Thermoelastic behaviour in AgCd showing the growth of self-accommodating groups.

formation proceeds essentially in equilibrium taneous or burst whenever the chemical driving
between the chemical driving energy of the energy exceeds the resistive energy to a great
transformation and a resistive energy whose extent. Once the transformation starts, the
dominating component is the stored elastic growth or catalytic nucleation cannot be
energy. Thus the transformation is defined as suppressed by external influences.
being elastic or degenerate elastic if during the The pseudoelastie behaviour is a complete
growth process the chemical driving energy is mechanical analogue to the thermoelastic trans-
always in equilibrium with the resistive energy. formation. In this case the transformation
The term degenerate elastic transformation refers proceeds continuously with increasing applied
to a process which shows small local discontinui- stress, ~a (and external strain 0 and is reversed
ties or jumps during the growth of a martensite continuously when the stress is decreased. Fig. 3
plate. The transformation is said to be spon- shows an example of this behaviour in terms of a
1522
THERMOELASTICITY, PSEUDOELASTIC1TY AND MEMORY EFFECTS: PART 1

'all 8
(a)
(c)

VMIvt
i

~ ~ i'M~l,
(c)
ct~

E
'~/1/ 0 1 2 3 4 5
Strain (%)
%=0
Figure 3 Tensile curve showing the pseudoelasticity in a
A g - C d alloy. The upper part of the curve corresponds
to the transformation, the lower part corresponds to the
reverse transformation. The letters on the figure corre-
spond with the microstructures given in Fig. 6 [30].
(d)

the left-hand diagram of Fig. 2b the stress-strain

curve of Fig. 3 is drawn schematically whereas
the diagram on the right in Fig. 2b indicates the
concomitant change in fractional martensite
Figure 2 (a) Schematic representation of the formation volume. It will be noted that in Fig. 2b a
and reverse transformation of thermoelastic martensite hysteresis is shown to occur. This behaviour is
as a function of temperature; tr~ represents the internal due to the interaction of several thermodynamic
stresses arising by the transformation, Vz~/Vthe fractional and kinetic factors. The treatment of these with
volume of the martensite product. (b) Schematic repre- respect to all phenomena of present interest is the
sentation of pseudoelasticity. Martensite forms as the subject of Part 3 of this series.
applied stress is increased producing the macroscopic
The shape memory effect arises if a macro-
strain. Release of stress causes the martensite to revert
to the parent phase. (c) Schematic representation of shape scopic deformation is accompanied, as before, by
memory effect. Martensite is formed by straining hut a martensitic transformation which is not
remains stable upon removal of the external stress; it is reversed by removing the applied stress; in a
reverted to the parent phase on heating. (d) Schematic second step the reverse transformation and a
representation of two-way memory effect. On cooling concomitant reversal of the macroscopic defor-
macroscopic strain is produced without the application of mation are induced by heating. An example is
an external stress; the strain disappears again on increas- shown in Fig. 4. Fig. 2c shows this behaviour
ing the temperature. schematically; the left-hand diagram pertains to
the performance of a shape memory experiment
in a tensile test. The upper half represents the
stress-strain curve. The "plastic" strain is response of the specimen to the isothermal
caused by the shape strain accompanying the increase and decrease of the applied stress, the
formation of martensite. Therefore, recovery lower half to the effect of the subsequent
occurs when the transformation is reversed. In temperature increase. The right-hand diagram
1523
 L. D E L A E Y , R. V. K R I S H N A N , H. TAN, H. W A R L I M ~ O N T

to account for shear strain as well as volume

changes. Treatments of martensitic transforma-
tions on this basis are not new. They have been
employed to compute the transformation en-
thalpy from the changes in transformation
temperatures (both forward and reverse) with
applied stress [2, 3].
Up to this point we have implied that
pseudoelasticity and the shape memory effect
were associated with a martensitic trans-
formation. The same phenomena can occur even
when the specimen is fully martensitic at the
outset. In this case the reversible fraction of the
resistive energy is stored by reorientation of the
martensite plates and/or their internal structure
(e.g. twins). Thus, pseudoelasticity and the shape
memory effect may be associated with a mar-
tensitic transformation, a reorientation of a
martensitic structure or a combination of both.
The final process to be described is the two-way
shape memory effect (Fig. 2d). This term refers
to a reversible shape change accompanying
thermally induced martensite formation and
reverse transformation. Normally, a thermal
martensitic transformation proceeds by the
formation of random numbers of martensite
plates of each orientation variant in a sufficiently
large sample such that no macroscopic shape
change occurs apart from a volume change. In
the case of a preferred orientation distribution of
nuclei the transformation leads to a corres-
ponding limitation of orientation variants which,
in turn, causes an anisotropic macroscopic shape
change. If the nuclei are not destroyed upon
Figure 4 (a) A series of photographs showing the shape reverse transformation or by high-temperature
memory effect(a) the undeformed state, (b) after deforma- annealing, the transformation-induced shape
tion and before the shape recovery, (c), (d) and (e) during change can be repeated through successive
the shape recovery, (f) after the shape recovery has been thermal cycles. An extreme example of the
completed. two-way shape memory effect is the reversible
shape change accompanying a single interface
martensitic transformation due to the presence
indicates the change in fractional amount of of only one nucleus. However, preferred
martensite again. orientations of persistent nuclei can, also, be
The idealized curves of Fig. 2a to c indicate induced by plastic deformation of the matrix, of
that close interrelations of the processes exist. It the martensite or by inducing the first trans-
will be recognized that if the hysteresis in the formation under uniaxially applied stress.
case of pseudoelastic transformation is so large The martensitic transformations and the
tiaat the reverse transformation is incomplete at reorientation of martensitic structures by applied
oa = 0, the residual martensite can be reverted stresses may be treated as deformation processes
by heating, i.e. by employing the shape memory which are closely related to twinning. The
effect. This exhibits the interchangeability of treatment of continual mechanical twinning by
stress and temperature as state variables. Bolling and Richman [4] taking into account a
Thermodynamically the relation is given by the free energy change is, in fact, identical to a
Clausius-Clapeyron equation in a form modified treatment of the growth process of a diffusionless
1524
THERMOELASTICITY, PSEUDOELASTICITY AND MEMORY EFFECTS: PART 1

structural transformation under stress as Laves Warlimont and Delaey [22], Wasilewski [16],
has pointed out [5 ]. Its application to martensitic Wayma~ and Shimizu [23], Perkins [24J,
transformations in F e - N i - C alloys [6] has Bolling a~d Richman [4, 6] and Nakanishi [25].
shown its potential. In the present papers a Since a number of different terms are in use for
treatment on this general basis, but with the phenomena of present interest, Table II gives
extended attention to structural details, leads to a a survey of the terminology, corresponding terms
more complete assessment of the interactions of being grouped together.
stress with martensitic transformations. The following section deals with the structural
The shape memory effect and the other basis and the microstructural changes associated
processes discussed are not recent discoveries. with the transformations. In Part 2 the macro-
The continuous appearance and disappearance scopic mechanical behaviour and its characteris-
of martensite with falling and rising temperature, tic variables are described. Part 3 deals with the
i.e. the thermoelastic behaviour, has been obser- thermodynamics and kinetics of the processes.
ved by Greninger and Mooradian in a Cu-Zn Some of the open questions will also be dis-
alloy as early as 1938 [7], but the first detailed cussed and considerations regarding practical
study of this effect was only published 11 years applications of these effects summarized.
later by Kurdyumov and Khandros [8]. Pseudo-
elasticity and the shape memory effect were impli- 2. Structural and microstructural
citly studied by observations of length changes by changes associated with the
temperature variation and concomitant mar- transformations
tensitic transformation under constant load by The formation of a martensite plate is accom-
Scheil in Fe-Ni alloys [9] and by Hornbogen panied by a macroscopic shape change. Although
and Wassermann in Cu-Zn [10]. The shape martensite formation is associated with this shape
memory effect was also observed in AuCd by change which is characterized by an invariant
Chang and Read [11]. Pseudoelasticity due to plane strain minimizing the two-dimensional
reorientation and transformation was recognized strain along the habit plane (plane AB in Fig.
by Burkart and Read in In-T1 [2] and by Chang 5a), a three-dimensional strain is built up as the
and Read in AuCd [11] and was studied exten- martensite plate grows into the third dimension.
sively by Birnbaum and Read [12]. The recent If the transformation occurs in a single crystal
revival of interest in the shape memory effect was and if the habit plane extends from one free
instigated by the investigations on NiTi by surface to the other free surface (Fig. 5a), i.e. a
Buehler and co-workers (e.g. [13]) who also single-interface transformation, the two ends of
observed the two-way memory effect. Although the parent will be displaced with respect to each
Wang and his associates assume that the other. The amount and direction of the dis-
structural transitions in this alloy are unique placement will result from the thickness and
[14, 15] all essential features of present interest relative orientation of the martensite plate. The
(in NiTi) correspond to those of the other alloys formation of this single martensite plate can
as shown, in particular, by the extensive work on occur on cooling or on applying an external
NiTi by Wasilewski [16] and Nagasawa [17, 18]. stress to the single crystal. The examples known
In Table I we have compiled the alloy systems in the literature are single-interface transforma-
and phases which have so far been investigated tions upon cooling AuCd [26] and In-T1 single
with respect to one or more of the effects crystals [27] and Fe whiskers [28]. Examples of
covered in the present paper. The dominant role a single interface transformation by deformation
played by bcc ]3-phases, as the parent phase, will are known for Cu-AI-Ni [29] and Ag-Cd [30]
be noted. This is due to distinct and compara- (Fig. 6). Upon heating the crystal or upon
tively large thermodynamic differences between releasing the stress, the martensite plate may
the transformations of/3-phases as compared, for disappear by the same martensitic mechanism.
instance, with the fcc --~ bcc (bct) trans- The original shape of the crystal will be restored.
formations in ferrous alloys. Thus the single interface transformation which
Several previous papers have dealt with the occurs during alternating cooling and heating or
principles which govern the interactions of loading and unloading demonstrates the simplest
stresses with martensitic transformations. Much mechanism for obtaining the two-way memory
of this review is based on work by Nagasawa [18], effect and pseudoelasticity.
Nakanashi et al. [19], Pops [20], Tas et a!, [21], If the starting material consists of a single
1525
 L. D E L A E Y , R. V. K R I S H N A N , H. qAS, H. WARLIMONT

TABLE 1

Alloys Remarks References

Thermoelastic
Iron-platinum FesPt (ordered) 37, 38
Copper-aluminium-nickel ~1 ---> 71' b c c -+ orthor . (2It) 39, 68
Copper-zinc ~2 ---> [32' b c c -+ orthor. (3R) 40, 7, 41
Copper-zinc with ternary additions [33 ~ [32' b c c -+ orthor. (3R) 42, 43
of Ni, Ag, Au, Cd, In, Ga, Si, Ge, Sn, Sb
Ag-Cd ~2 ---> 72' b c c --> orthor. (2H) 44, 45, 30
Ti-Ni 46
Au-Cu-Zn 47, 19
Ni-A1 71

Pseudoelastic
Cu-Zn [33 (bcc) ~ [33' (orthor. 3R) 48, 49
Cu-Zn-X [33 (bcc) + [33' (orthor. 3R) 20
Cu-Zn-Sn [33 (bcc) + orthor. 50, 20
Cu-AI-Ni [31 (bcc) ~ 71' (orthor. 2H) 35, 51, 52, 53, 69
Cu-AI-Mn [31 (bcc) ~ ~'x' (orthor. 2H) 69
Ag-Cd [33 (bcc) ~ ~,~' (orthor. 2H) 30, 73
Au-Cd [33 (bcc) --->73' (orthor. 2H) 11, 74
CuAuZn [33 (bcc) ~ ~3' (orthor. 3R) 47, 19
FesBe fcc --> tetragonal (ordered bcc) 4
Fe3Pt fcc --> tetragonal
In-T1 fcc ~ tetragonal 27, 2
Ni-Ti b c c -~ orthor. 54
Ti-Ni 16
Au-Cu-Zn [32 (bcc) -+ [33"(2H + 18R) 19
Cu-Sn 131(bee) -+ 3,,t' (orthor. 2H) 75

Shape memory effect

[n-Cd 55
Ti-Nb [3 --> orthor. 56
304 stainless lecc --->b c c ~' 57
steel fcc ~ h c p e'
Ni-AI b c c ~ CuAu[ type 58
Cu-Zn 59, 60, 67
Ag-Cd b c c ~ orthor. 30, 72
Fe-Ni 61
Ni-Ti 17
Cu-AI 62, 33, 2t
Cu-AI-Ni 35, 60, 63
Ti-Ni 16,64
Au-Cd 11, 74
In-Tl 65
Fe-Pt 38
Au-Cu-Zn 19
Cu-Zn-Si 66
Cu-Zn-Sn 50
Cu-Sn 75
Fe-Mn-C 76

Two-way shape memory effect

In-Tl fcc --->tetragonal 27
Ti-Ni 13, 16
Cu-At 21
Fe-Mn-C 77

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THERMOELASTICITY, PSEUDOELASTICITY AND MEMORY EFFECTS: PART 1

TAB LE II A comparative compilation of terms

Terms used in this paper Terms used in other papers References
Thermoelastic* (transformation) thermoelastic (transformation) 39

Pseudoelasticity superelasticity 53
metalelasticity 19
rubberlike behaviour t 2
stress-induced pseudoelasticity (STRIPE) 20
elastic shape memory effect 21
ferroelasticity 11
anelastic strain recovery 16
anomalous elongation due to martensitic transformation 52

Shape memory effect plastic shape memory effect 21

Marmem 23
strain memory effect 35
annilation effect of martensitic shears 61

Two-way shape memory effect reversible linear change on transformation 21, 16

*It should be noted that this term is not identical to the term thermoelastie effects used in the general thermodynamic
treatment of crystal properties (e.g. [68]).
?Mainly used in referring to pseudoelasticity by reorientation.

m a r t e n s i t e plate (Fig. 5b) the shape change can different stacking sequences, move. One o f the
be achieved b y a p p l y i n g a shear stress in such a two twin variants or stacking variants will shrink
w a y t h a t the internal interfaces, which m a y either while the o t h e r is growing resulting in the shown
be twin b o u n d a r i e s or interfaces s e p a r a t i n g two m a c r o s c o p i c shape change. W a y m a n a n d
Shimizu [23] have stated the necessary con-
ditions for the shape m e m o r y effect as follows:
----- [ (1) t h a t the martensite is thermoelastic in
l-- I
nature,
(2) t h a t the lattice i n v a r i a n t d e f o r m a t i o n
r---/ occurs by twinning r a t h e r t h a n b y slip,
' b/l/ill)ill)y2
II I )1 (3) t h a t the martensite is f o r m e d f r o m an
r t
o r d e r e d p a r e n t phase.
~' (a) (b)
T h e y also m e n t i o n t h a t " t h e b u l k o f the
e x p e r i m e n t a l evidence indicates t h a t all m a r m e m
alloys consist o f internally twinned martensites".
However, T a b l e I contains a m p l e evidence o f
alloys whose internal structures d o n o t c o n t a i n
twins b u t the structure o f the martensite corres-
7 p o n d s to an a r r a y o f close-packed planes with a
well defined, c o m p l i c a t e d stacking sequence (for
example 3R). This c o m p l i c a t e d structure can, in
q (d)

Figure 5 Changes introduced upon application of external

stress. (a) Movement of the interfaces AB and CD giving
rise to the increase of the volume of martensite. (b)
movement of the boundaries in between the different twin
ielated variants. (c) and (d) changes in the nature of
variants formed in a self-accommodating manner. The
boundary CD is displaced on application of external shear
stress, (e) and (f) dislocations associated with the tapered
(e) (f}
end of the martensite and the bending caused.
1527
 L. D E L A E Y , R. V. K R I S H N A N , I-I. T A S , H. W A R L I M O N T

10), and in a completely martensitic (3R) sample,

which shows perfect memory, the martensite
plate boundaries move (see Fig. 9). These
observations together with those mentioned in
the literature prove that several martensites
whose lattice-invariant deformation is not
associated with twinning show perfect pseudo-
elasticity and shape m e m o r y effect. Hence
twinning as lattice invariant deformation is not
a necessary condition.
These examples show clearly that martensite

Figure 6 Single interface transformation in a single

crystal of Ag-45 at. % Cd on application of an external
stress. The figures show the increase in the amount of
martensite with increase in stress (a ~ c) and later the
decrease in the martensite upon unloading. The figures
correspond to the tensile curve represented in Fig. 3 [30].

fact, be thought to be derived from f c c stacking

with introducing stacking faults regularly, but
this does not mean that irreversible slip is
associated with the martensite formation. Al-
t h o u g h the atomic movements taking place
during the b c c --~ 3R transformation are not
known, the 3R-structure can also be derived
f r o m the b c c by simple shear and shuffle [70]. If
subjected to an applied stress the pre-existing Figure 7 The formation of a stress-accommodating
3R-martensite plates grow and shrink (see Fig. martensite plate group in a pseudoelastic material.
1528
THERMOELASTICITY, PSEUDOELASTIC1TY AND MEMORY EFFECTS: PART 1

Figure 8 The tapering of stress-induced martensite plates.

White, martensite; grey or black, the untransformed
parent phase ([3-Cu-Zn-A1).

formation and reorientation are deformation

mechanisms similar to mechanical twinning.
Under normal conditions, i.e. no single interface
transformation and zero external stress, the
formation and reverse transformation of mar-
tensite will not produce an external shape change
of the specimen because differently oriented
martensite plate variants form in such a way
that the individual shape changes compensate
each other. A particular mode of compensation
of the shape changes is given by the self-
accommodating character of the martensite
formation in certain alloy systems. An idealized
representation is given in Fig. 5c. The parent
phase above and below the martensite plates is
kept fixed, and in order to minimize the strains
and stresses, two or more out of the twenty-four
martensite plate variants will grow together as a
self-accommodating martensite plate group [31 ].
Fig. 1 shows clearly how martensite plate
variants grow together, forming a self-accom-
modating group.
If the sample is not kept fixed but strained by a
shear stress as shown in Fig. 5d, the martensite
plate group tends to minimize the internal
stresses by changing the amount of the two
variants present. This means that the boundary
(CD) between the two martensite plates moves or
that the habit plane (AB) moves faster than the Figure 9 Reorientation of martensite by movement of
habit plane (EF). The series of photographs already existing martensite plate boundaries (A and B)
given in Fig. 7 illustrates this behaviour clearly. while applying an external stress (Cu-Zn-AI-Ni alloy).
If the martensite is in contact with the matrix
phase, the nature of the internal structure of the invariant plane strain conditions must remain
martensite plates will remain unchanged by the satisfied at the habit planes. But the external
external stresses and strains, because the stresses necessary to move the interfaces, may
1529
 L. DELAEY, R. V. KRISHNAN, H. TAS, H. WARLIMONT

matrix, the relative proportions of twins in each

martensite plate are changed, thereby causing a
rotation in the habit plane [32].
The martensite plate does not always belong
to a self-accommodating group of plates, but, as
Fig. 5e represents, the martensite plate may be
tapered at both ends. Because at these tapered
ends the invariant plane strain condition is no
longer fulfilled, dislocations will be present at the
end of the tapers. If the martensite plate shows a
taper only at one end as shown in Fig. 5f, the
specimen will be bent or, conversely, by applying
bending stresses, the martensite can be made to
taper at one end. The tapering of martensite
plates in stressed material is shown in Fig. 8.
If the specimen is fully martensitic and con-
sists of self-accommodating groups of mar-
tensite plates, then on stressing, movements of
existing martensite plate boundaries (Fig. 9) or
creation of new ones (Fig. 10) together with
changes in the internal structure will occur.
Because no untransformed parent phase is
present, no invariant plane strain conditions need
to be satisfied, only a three-dimensional strain
minimization is necessary. The maximum shape
change that can then be achieved is limited by
the Bain strain [33].
Starting from a single crystal of/3 (i.e. copper-
aluminium), martensite forms during quenching
in a completely self-accommodating way, result-
ing in a zero external shape change. The
martensite has a close-packed structure with a
stacking sequence close to ABCBCACAB.
Upon stressing, the amount of the different
variants present in the original fl single crystal
is changed drastically and only a few variants are
left out. On further stressing the martensite, the
structure changes to either fc c or hc p depending
on the orientation of the tensile axis. The single
crystal of ~ has thus been transformed to a
strongly textured and nearly unique orientation
of the fcc or h c p stress-induced phase. The
so-found fcc or hep structure can be regarded
as a structure resulting from the lattice (Bain)
strain only. The maximum possible strain that
Figure 10 A series of micrographs showing pseudoelastic can be obtained was calculated with respect to
reorientation ( C u - Z n - A 1 ) . the crystal orientation and the experimental
values agreed well with the theoretical predic-
tions (Fig. l l a and b) [31, 33].
exceed the yield stress of the matrix phase. Slip In the case of Ag-45 at. ~ Cd alloy single
will then occur in one or both of the phases, crystals, stress-induced martensite was found to
altering the boundary conditions at the habit form directly from the/3-phase at temperatures
plane. It has been shown, in the case of Fe--Ni well above the Ms temperature. This stress-
alloys that, as soon as slip has occurred in the induced martensite formed gradually at an
1530
THERMOELASTICITY,PSEUDOELASTICITYANDMEMORYEFFECTS:PART1
form); this is in contrast to the Cu-AI case where
001 ti ~ transformation of the complete specimen was
considered. Calculations of the amount of
22 elongation have also been performed for the case
18 of pure reorientation of the internally twinned
h c p Cu-A1-Ni martensite [34, 35].
8 The reverse transformation (i.e. from mar-
tensite to the parent phase) proceeds in most
C cases along the same path as the initial trans-
(G} 111 formation, because in these cases the symmetry
001 8 101 of the low temperature (martensite) phase is
lower than the symmetry of the parent phase.
Therefore, whilst a large number of crystallo-
graphically equivalent martensite plates can form
in the parent phase (a maximum of twenty-four
for a cubic parent phase) only a limited number
of different orientations of the parent phase can
form from the martensite crystal. In some cases
only one orientation of the parent phase can be
formed from the martensite crystal, an orienta-
{b) 111
tion indentical to the orientation of the original
parent phase. This is especially so in the case
001 101 where the parent phase possesses long range
order, since this imposes additional restrictions as
well [23]. Even when the formation of several
parent orientations is possible, transformation to
the original parent orientation will still be
6 54'23"7 preferred because in this way no new accom-
modation stresses are introduced and no new
interfaces need be created. This effect will be
very strong for a self-accommodating group of
martensite plates in which a strong mechanical
Figure I1 (a) and (b). Theoretical elongations (%) coupling exists among the different martensite
possible on going from a 3R structure to face-centred variants.
cubic or hexagonal close-packed structure in the case of As mentioned earlier, the effect of an external
Cu-A1 alloy single crystals, for different orientations of tensile stress can either be to form stress-
tensile axis. Calculations are equivalent to going from induced martensite (Fig. 12a) or to cause a
-->fcc or hcp since the martensite forms in a completely
reorientation of existing martensite variants.
self-accommodating way. (c) Theoretical calculations in
the case of Ag-45 at. % Cd alloy single crystals, for However, the restrictive action of the end grips
different orientations of the tensile axis, calculated on the restrains free movement & t h e sample and causes
basis of the total shape deformation associated with the problems of lattice bending and rotation
transformation obtained from the phenomenological adjacent to the grips as in the plastic deforma-
theory. tion process. The variant of martensite formed on
the application of external stress depends on the
almost constant level of stress and the amount of nature of the external stress. Similarly, when
linear strain obtained agreed well with the value more than one variant is present, the reorienta-
calculated using the phenomenological theory of tion will not be identical in tension and in
martensitic transformations [30]. Fig. 1 lc gives compression. This is represented in Fig. 12b, in
the calculated values of the linear strain as a which the variants 1 and 2 are preferred under
function of the orientation of the tensile axis of tensile and compressive stresses respectively.
the specimen. In this case the values were These arguments are based on the glissile nature
obtained without taking into account the rigid of the interface between the two variants. A
body rotation (an infinitesimally small disc of typical example of this behaviour is given in
the tensile specimen was considered to trans- Fig. 9.
1531
7
 L. D E L A E Y , R. V. K R I S H N A N , H. T A S , If. W A R L I M O N T

(a) In simple bending, however, the top and the

b o t t o m layers are under tension and com-
pression, respectively, and so this can be con-
sidered as a combination of the two cases
discussed above. Fig. 12c is a schematic represen-

12L1L2
(b) tation of the processes involved. The specimen
can be considered as being made up of a n u m b e r
of thin layers, which should be extended or
compressed depending on their position with
respect to the neutral plane (i.e. layers above
this plane are extended and those below com-
pressed). If each strip is now elastically bent into
cylindrical shape, the strips can be fitted together
again without any long-range stress, provided
that the change in length o f any given layer is
= = (c) proportional to the distance of that layer f r o m
the neutral plane. The net effect is that the
interfaces between the variants are bent as shown
1 2 1 2 1
Figure 12 (a) Formation of stress-induced martensite
upon application of an external tensile stress. (b) Changes
involved upon tension and compression when the
specimen is composed of two different variants. Note that
variant 1 and 2 are favoured in tension and compression
respectively. (c) Schematic iepresentation showing the
changes involved on bending a specimen containing two
variants.

Figure 13 Bending associated with the tapered martensite plates. The black areas correspond to the untransformed
~-Cu--Zn-A1 phase whilst the white lamellae are the martensite plates.
1532
THERMOELASTICITY, PSEUDOELASTICITY AND MEMORY EFFECTS: PART 1

IAAP

i i
I
I
I
I

///////////,J/
I

(4) (c)

p I'"
A

\ / B

c! D
.i / i " I
(b) (d)

Figure 14 Schematic representation of taper formation on deformation of (a) martensite composed of two variants,
into a single martensite orientation [27]. Parent and martensite phase have a common interface HH (habit
plane); (b) a single parent orientation into a single martensite orientation by combined movement of two
interfaces [27]; (c) a single parent orientation into a single martensite orientation by the combined movement of
tapers and of reorientation. The parent and matrix plane have several planes in common (see Fig. 8); (d) a tensile
sample. Parts AC and BD represent the bending.

in the figure. The relative amounts of the two A single crystal of the parent beta phase can
variants present vary as we go down from the top transform to a single crystal of martensite
to the b o t t o m layer. When the twin planes are according to Fig. 14a to c. Fig. 14a shows the
parallel to the axis of the specimen, no bending is transition region between the martensite and the
possible. The bending of the interface plane can parent phase. This consists of a number of twins
be considered to be associated with twinning which taper at distances away from the interface.
dislocations in this interface. The bending which This tapering is associated with bending of the
is associated with the position of the tapered lattice, while at the habit plane (HH) the correct
martensite plate ends is illustrated in Fig. 13. twin ratio, as dictated by the theory is main-
Basinski and Christian [27] considered the tained. In Fig. 14b, the transformation is
double-interface transformations leading to the achieved by the movement of two interfaces
formation of a single crystal of martensite from resulting in a single orientation of the martensite
a single crystal of the original beta phase. [27] whilst another situation is envisaged in Fig.
Similar arguments can be invoked to explain the 14c. The transition from martensite to the parent
transition zone observed by Hornbogen et al. is gradual with martensite tapering out as small
[36]. In this transition region one can consider a plates. This results in bending and elongation.
diffuse interface arising from tapering of the Farther away from this interface, the internal
twin variants present. The formation of a single twins at A A ' can disappear as represented in Fig.
crystal of martensite from a single crystal of the 14a (refer to Fig. 5b) and this also gives rise to a
matrix phase is illustrated in Fig. 14 following single orientation of martensite. When elonga-
the approach of Basinski and Christian [27]. tion is achieved in the case where the specimen is
1533
 L. D E L A E Y , R. V. K R 1 S H N A N , H. TAS, H. W A R L I M O N T

g r i p p e d a t t h e e n d s , t h e r e is a l w a y s t h e p r o b l e m 24. J. PERKINS, to be published. Met. Trans. 4 (1973)

of bending associated with the transition region. 2709.
T h i s is easily a c c o m m o d a t e d b y t h e t a p e r i n g 25. N. NAKANISHI, M~moirs o f the Kdnan University,
a s s o c i a t e d i n t h e m a r t e n s i t e p l a t e s (Fig. 14c). Science Series 15 Art. 77 (1972).
T h e i m p o r t a n c e o f b e n d i n g is d e a f l y d e m o n - 26. D. S. LIEBERMAN, "Phase Transformations",
(A.S.M., Cleveland, Ohio, 1970) p. 7.
strated in the experiments on polycrystalline
27. z. s. BASINSKI and J. w. C H R I S T I A N , Acta Met
s p e c i m e n s . I t is o f t e n s e e n t h a t s e v e r a l p a r a l l e l
2 (1954) 148.
m a r t e n s i t e p l a t e s g r o w i n s t e a d o f a single 28. R. V. ZERWEKn and c. M. WAYMAN, ibm 13 (1965)
martensite plate of the same volume forming. 99.
T h i s is p r o b a b l y d u e t o t h e f a c t t h a t s e v e r a l 29. K. O T S U K A , M. TAKAHASHI and K. S H I M I Z U , Met.
martensite plates are able to accommodate the Trans. 4 (1973) 2003.
bending moments associated with the trans- 30. R. V. KRISHNAN and L. C. BROWN, Met. Trans. 4
f o r m a t i o n stresses. T h e t a p e r a s s o c i a t e d w i t h (1973) 432; and R. V. KRISHNAN, Ph.D. Thesis,
each plate can account for the bending and University of British Columbia, Canada (1971).
several parallel individual plates can easily 31. H. TAS, L. DELAEY and A. DERUYTTI~RE, Met.
Trans. 4 (1973) 2833.
accommodate more bending compared to a
32. H.-P. SATTLER and G. WASSERMANN, J. Less-
single m a r t e n s i t e p l a t e o f c o m p a r a b l e v o l u m e . Common Metals 28 (1972) 119.
33. H. TAS, L. DELAEY and A. DERUYTTERE, Scripta
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THERMOELASTICITY, PSEUDOELASTICITY AND MEMORY EFFECTS: PART l

54. w . J. BEUHLER and w . B. CROSS, Wire J. 2 (1969) 67. w . ARNEODO and M. AHLERS, submitted to Scripta
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1157. Received 1 F e b r u a r y and accepted 19 F e b r u a r y 1974.

1535