Harvard Psychology Final Exam

1. 2 types of 1. Extrinsic motivation: external goals toward 13. Circumplex Emotions classified along different
incentives which activity is directed model dimensions
- money for working - Emotions plotted along 2 continuums:
- getting good grades as a result of studying - - > Valence (how negative/positive they
2. motivation to perform because of are)
pleasure associated with that activity, rather - - > arousal (how arousing they are -
than for an apparent external goal or physiological activation...increased brain
purpose activity, etc.)
- listening to music Cognition
14. - older people have difficulty storing
- reading changes with multiple pieces of info simultaneously in
- doing crossword puzzles age working memory
2. Achievement Desire to do well relative to standards of - working memory affected more than
motive excellence long-term memory
- sitting in the front of the class, etc - Older adults tend not to use strategies
3. actor/observer used to facilitate memory
people focus on situations to explain their
discrepancy own behavior but focus on other people's 15. cognitive uncomfortable mental state resulting from
dispositions to explain others' behavior dissonance contradiction between two attitudes

4. Attachment strong, intimate, emotional connection - I know smoking is bad but I still smoke
between people that persists over time and 16. companionate strong commitment to care for and support
across circumstances (John Bowlby) love a partner
- develops slowly over time because it is
5. attitudes people's evaluations of objects, of events, or
based on friendship, trust, and intimacy
of ideas
17. compliance tendency to agree to do things requested
6. attributions people's explanations for why events or
actions occur by others
18. Concrete Third stage in Piaget's theory of cognitive
7. bystander failure to offer help by those who observe
operational development. Age 7 to 12. Children begin
intervention someone in need when other people are
stage to think about and understand logical
effect present
operations and are no longer fooled by
8. Cannon-Bard Emotion and physical reactions happen appearances.
theory of independently but at the same time. - Children understand that actions can be
emotion - If we see a grizzly bear, you undone, such as turning a light off and on.
simultaneously sweat, feel afraid, experience - children understand the law of
a pounding heart, and run conservation of quantity
9. --CH12 ... - can reason logically
- children only think about things that are
10. Challenge to Children and adults move back and forth
concrete, not hypothetical things and what
Piaget's view between stages if they are working on
might be possible
different types of tasks.
19. conformity changing one's behaviors to match those of
11. Challenge to Object permanence develops in the first few
Piaget's view other people
months of life rather than at 8/9 months
#2 20. crystallized the ability to retain and use knowledge that
intelligence was acquired through experience
12. Characteristics 1. Energizing - motivational states are
of motivation energizing/stimulating. They activate 21. defense unconscious mental strategies that the mind
behaviors like the desire to wake up early mechanisms uses to protect itself from distress
and go for a run 22. deindividuation state of reduced individuality and self-
2. Directive - motivation guides behaviors awareness. People forget their personal
toward satisfying specific goals/needs. Ex: standards; generally occurs when people
hunger motivates you to eat. are part of a group (rioting)
3. Persist - Animals persist until they achieve
23. discrimination inappropriate and unjustified treatment of
their goals. Hunger gnaws at you until you
find something to eat. other people as a result of prejudice

4. Strength - motives differ in strength

24. Display rules Rules learned through socialization that 34. Freud's 1. Id - operates according to the pleasure
dictate which emotions are suitable in structural principle, directs people to seek pleasure and
given situations model of avoid pain
- Loud and obnoxious Americans personality 2. superego - acts as a brake on Id,
- Cold and bland English internalization of societal and parental codes
- Warm and emotional Italians of conduct
Display rules explain why identification of 3. ego - operates according to the reality
facial expressions is easier within cultures principle. Involves rational thought and
than between cultures problem solving

25. drive psychological state that, by creating 35. fundamental tendency to overemphasize personality traits
arousal, motivates an organism to satisfy a attribution and underestimate situational factors
need. error

26. elaboration persuasive communication leads to 36. Gender One's sense of being male or female
likelihood attitude change in 2 ways: identity
model 1. persuasion takes the central route -
37. Gener role Behavior associated with being male or
people pay attention to arguments,
female
consider all info, use rational cognitive
processes 38. group process by which initial attitudes of groups
2. peripheral route - people minimally polarization become more extreme over time.
process a message - if a jury discusses a case, individual jurors
believe more strongly in their initial opinions
27. Embarrassment - embarrassment represents submission to
and blushing and affiliation with the social group 39. groupthink tendency of a group to make a bad decision
acknowledge - can reaffirm close relationships after in an effort to preserve the group and its
social wrongdoing cohesiveness; especially likely when a group
awkwardness is under intense pressure

28. Emotion immediate, specific negative or positive 40. Homeostasis tendency for bodily functions to maintain
response to environmental events or equilibrium
internal thoughts - if you feel hot, you sweat to reduce body
Has 3 components: temperature
1. Physiological process (heart beating 41. how can 1. show interest
fast) psychology 2. be affectionate
2. Behavioral response (eyes open wide) rekindle 3. show you care
3. Feeling (I'm scared!) relationships 4. spend quality time together
29. explicit attitudes a person can report 5. maintain loyalty
attitudes - if you say you like bowling, you are 6. learn how to handle conflict
reporting your explicit attitude 42. How NOT to Thought suppression: Attempt to not feel or
30. feelings subjective experience of the emotion, such control respond to emotion at all. This leads to the
as feeling scared
emotions rebound effect where people think more about
something after suppression.
31. five-factor personality can be described using five
Rumination: Involves thinking about and
theory factors: openness to experience,
focusing on undesired thoughts or feelings.
conscientiousness, extraversion,
This prolongs the emotion and impedes
agreeableness, and neuroticism
successful emotion regulation strategies.
32. Fluid ability to process new general information
intelligence that requires no specific prior knowledge
33. Formal Fourth stage in Piaget's theory of cognitive
operational development. Age 12 to adulthood. People
stage can think abstractly. They can formulate
and test hypotheses through deductive
logic.
43. How to 1. Control the location: 55. James-Lange theory of the theory that emotion results
control - If you want to feel romantic when emotion from physiological states
emotions proposing, propose at a nice intimate bistro triggered by stimuli in the
rather than a fast-food join environment.
2. Change the meaning: - If we see a grizzly bear, we
- Reappraise (reassess) events in more begin to sweat which generates
neutral terms, If you get scared while the emotion of fear
watching a movie, remind yourself that the Jeffrey Gray's model of
56. 1. Behavioral approach system -
whole spectacle has been staged the relationships brain structures that lead
3. Find humor: between learning and organisms to approach stimuli in
- Laughing can help people distance personality pursuit of rewards
themselves from negative emotions (during a
2. behavioral inhibition system -
funeral lmao) and can also help with
the stop system. inhibits behavior
strengthening connections with other people
because it might lead to
4. Distract yourself:
pain/punishment
- Doing something other than the troubling
57. Lev Vygotsky thinking - Emphasized social/cultural
activity
about cognitive relations over objects in thinking
44. humanistic approaches to studying personality that development
approaches about cognitive development
emphasize how people seek to fulfill their
- Culture dictates what people
potential through greater self-understanding
need to learn
45. idiographic - Language development
person-centered approaches to assessing
approaches
personality; they focus on individual lives influences cognitive development
and how various characteristics are 58. Listening to Mozart
certain types of motor skills, not
integrated into unique persons only enhanced...
abilities like working memory or
46. implicit attitudes that influence a person's feelings verbal ability.
attitude and behaviors at an unconscious level 59. locus of control how much control people have
47. Imprinting the process by which certain animals form over outcomes
attachments during a critical period very internal locus - people believe
early in life they bring about their own
48. inclusive explanation for altruism that focuses on the rewards
fitness adaptive benefit of transmitting genes, such 60. mere exposure effect greater exposure to a stimulus
as through kin selection, rather than focusing leads to greater liking for it
on individual survival
61. Milgram's experiment People are obedient to authority:
49. Infantile Inability to remember events from early Teacher kept on shocking learner
amnesia childhood even though learner was in agony
50. informational people assume behavior of a crowd 62. Misattribution of arousal When people misidentify the
influence represents the correct way to respond source of their arousal
51. ingroup people more likely to favor and privilege 63. modern racism subtle forms of prejudice
favoritism members of ingroup rather than outgroup
64. Moods Do not interrupt behavior. Refers
52. insecure- child is inconsolably upset when the to people's vague senses that they
ambivalent attachment figure leaves; child will both seek feel certain ways
attachment and reject caring contact Ex: Getting cut off can make you
53. insecure- angry (emotion) but also irritable
Child is not distressed when attachment
avoidant (mood)
figure leaves. May prefer to play with
attachment
stranger rather than parent during time in a 65. Motivation Process that energizes, guides,
playroom. Avoids attachment figure when and maintains behavior toward a
he/she returns goal.

54. interactionism theory that behavior is determined jointly by 66. Need biological or social deficiency
situations and underlying dispositions (water/to be with other people)
67. need hierarchy Maslow's arrangement of needs in which 82. Plot losing a $1 Valence: Negative
basic survival needs must be met before bill on the Arousal: Slightly (increase your
people can satisfy higher needs circumplex autonomic responses)
- survival needs at the base (hunger and model
thirst) postdecisional
83. focusing on positive aspects of
- personal growth at the pinnacle dissonance something you chose and the negative
68. need to theory that the need for interpersonal aspects of something you did not choose
belong theory attachments is a fundamental motive that
84. prefrontal cortex Especially important for thinking about
has evolved for adaptive purposes
other people
69. nomethetic approach to personality that focuses on
85. prejudice negative feelings and opinions
approach identifying general laws that govern the
associated with a stereotype
behavior of all individuals
86. Preoperational Second stage in Piaget's theory of
70. nonverbal body language - facial expressions, stage cognitive development. Age 2 to 7.
behavior gestures, mannerisms, and movements by
Children think symbolically about
which one communicates with others
objects, but they reason based on
71. normative when people go along with the crowd to fit intuition and superficial appearance
influence in and avoid looking foolish rather than logic. Ex: short, fat glass of
Object water poured into tall, think glass will
72. the awareness that things continue to exist
permanence seem like a different quantity of water to
even when they are hidden from view
the child.
73. outgroup tendency to view outgroup members as - Children also think egocentrically.
homogeneity less varied than ingroup members Engage in thought processes that revolve
effect
around their own perspectives. Ex: Little
74. Oxytocin Hormone related to social behaviors, girl hides behind a tree by covering her
including infant/caregiver attachment. own eyes. She thinks that if she can't see
Affects maternal tendencies, feelings of the searchers, they can't see her.
social acceptance and bonding. 87. Primary Innate and universal (anger, fear,
75. passionate state if intense and longing desire emotions sadness)
love - falling head over heels for each other 88. Prosocial Any voluntary action performed with the
- experienced early in a relationship behavior intent of benefiting another person. Ex:
76. personal explanation of people's behaviors due to Cheering someone up
attributions their internal characteristics 89. Psychodynamic unconscious forces determine behavior
77. personality person's characteristic thoughts, emotional theory (Freud)
responses, and behaviors 90. psychopathology ...
78. personality pattern of thought, emotion, and behavior 91. psychosexual developmental stages that correspond to
trait stages (Freud) distinct urges. Progression profoundly
79. Piaget 1. Assimilation: New experience is placed affects personality
believed that into existing scheme 1. oral stage (birth to 18 months) - infants
there are 2 2. Accommodation: New scheme is created seek pleasure through the mouth
learning or an existing one is dramatically altered to 2. anal stage (2-3 yrs old) - learn to
processes include new info control bowels and focus on the anus
3. phallic stage (3-5 yrs old) - focus
80. Piaget's stages sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete
energy toward genitals
of cognitive operational, formal operational
4. latency stage - brief period in which
development
children suppress sexual urges and
81. Pleasure We act to seek pleasure and avoid pain channel them into doing schoolwork or
principle other such activities
(Sigmund 5. genital stage (adolescents and adults)
freud) - attain mature attitudes and focus urges
on capacities to reproduce and
contribute to society
92. Psychosocial 27 basic needs that yielded important 101. Self- People are rarely aware of their specific
needs (Henry insights into what motivates human perception motives. They draw inferences about their
Murray) behavior. People are especially motivated theory motives according to what makes sense.
to achieve personal goals Ex: After you drink a glass of water, you
reciprocal think, "wow i must have been thirsty" even
93. theory that how personality is expressed
determinism though you were unaware of any physical
can be explained by the interaction of
sensation of thirst earlier.
environment, person factors, and behaviors
itself 102. Self- Process by which people change their
regulation behavior to attain personal goals
94. Schachter- A person experiences physiological
Singer theory changes and applies a cognitive label to 103. self-schema integrated set of memories, beliefs, and
(Two-factor explain those changes. generalizations about the self
theory of - You see a grizzly bear, begin to sweat and 104. self-serving tendency for people to take credit for
emotion) experience a pounding heart. You can then bias success but blame failure on external factors
label those bodily actions as responses to
105. Sensorimotor First stage in Piaget's theory of cognitive
the bear.
stage development. During this stage, from birth
95. Schemes Ways of thinking based on personal till age 2, infants acquire information about
experience the world through their senses and motor
96. Secondary Blend of primary emotions (remorse, guilt, skills. Reflexive responses develop into more
emotions submission) deliberate actions through the development
97. secure attachment style for majority of infants; and refinement of schemes.
attachment infant is confident to play in an unfamiliar 106. Sex vs. sex is biological; gender is psychological
environment as long as the caregiver is gender differences
present. When caregiver leaves, child is
107. situational explanation of people's behaviors due to
distressed and looks for attachment figure.
attributions external events like weather, luck, accidents,
When caregiver returns, child is happy and
etc.
then feels secure enough to return to
playing 108. situationism behavior is determined more by situations

Pinnacle of Maslow's theory of need than by personality traits

98. Self-
actualization hierarchy 109. social tendency for people to evaluate their own
- When a person achieves his/her personal comparison actions, abilities, and beliefs by contrasting
dreams and aspirations them with other people's.
110. social we are motivated to have accurate
Argument against organization of need comparison information about ourselves and others
hierarchy: theory
- sometimes people starve themselves in
111. social presence of others generally enhances
hunger strikes to demonstrate the facilitation performance.
importance of their personal beliefs
- if dominant action is good, presence of
99. self- people are motivated to satisfy needs for others helps
determination competence and autonomy which is a sense - if dominant action (not learned well) is bad,
theory of personal control. presence of others impairs action
- argues that extrinsic rewards may reduce 112. social idea that ingroups consist of individuals who
intrinsic value because rewards undermine identity perceive themselves to be part of the same
people's feeling that they are choosing to do theory social category and take pride through
something for themselves
group membership
100. Self-efficacy the expectation that your efforts will lead to
113. social loafing tendency for people to work less hard in a
success.
group than when working alone
- People with high self-efficacy set
challenging goals that lead to success 114. sociometer internal monitor of social acceptance or
rejection
115. temperament biologically based tendencies to feel or act in certain ways
- broader than personality traits
116. theory of mind Ability to understand that other people have mental states that influence their behavior.
- Children's development of theory of mind coincides with maturation of brain's frontal lobes
117. trait approach approach to studying personality that focuses on how individuals differ in personality dispositions
118. Turning hot cognitions into mentally transforming the desired object into something undesired
cold cognitions - thinking of a tasty pretzel as a dirty, brown log
119. What are the theories of 1. Type
personality 2. Trait
3. Psychodynamic
4. Humanistic
120. working self-concept reflects how a person thinks of herself at a certain moment

121. Yerkes-Dodson Law This law states that performance on challenging tasks increases with arousal up to a moderate level.
After that point, additional arousal interferes with performance.
- Moderate anxiety can motivate someone to do well on a test
- Too high anxiety can lead to people falling apart due to too much stress