ELEKTROMAGNET I

Vector Analysis
(Griffiths;1.1 - 1.2)

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 Chapter 1. Vector Analysis

Source : Prof. S.H. Song

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 1.1 Vector Algebra
1.1.1 Vector Operations

Addition is commutative: A + B = B + A Addition

is associative: (A + B) + C = A + (B + C)
To subtract is to add its opposite: A - B = A + (-B)

Dot product (= scalar product) is commutative: A . B = B . A

Dot product (= scalar product) is distributive: A . (B + C) = A . B + A . C

Cross product (= vector product) is not commutative: B x A = A x B

Dot product (= vector product) is distributive: A x (B + C) = A x B + A x C

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 1.1.2 Vector Algebra: Component form

Unit vectors
Component form

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 1.1.2 Vector Algebra: Component form

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 1.1.3 Triple Products

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 1.1.3 Triple Products

 BAC-CAB rule

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 1.1.4 Position, Displacement, and Separation Vectors

Position vector:

Infinitesimal displacement vector:

Separation vector from source point to field point:

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 1.1.5 How Vectors transform

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 1.2 Differential Calculus
1.2.1 “Ordinary” Derivatives

1.2.2 Gradient

 Gradient of T
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  What’s the physical meaning of the Gradient:

 Gradient is a vector that points in the direction of maximum increase of a function.

Its magnitude gives the slope (rate of increase) along this maximal direction.

 Gradient represents both the magnitude and the direction of the maximum rate of
increase of a scalar function.

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 1.2.3 The Del Operator: 

: a vector operator, not a vector.

(gradient)
 Gradient represents both the magnitude and the direction
of the maximum rate of increase of a scalar function.
(divergence)
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 1.2.4 The Divergence div A  .A

Ax  Ay  Az

. A : scalar, a measure of how much the vector A
x y z
spread out (diverges) from the point in question

: positive (negative if the arrows pointed in) divergence

: zero divergence

: positive divergence

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 1.2.5 The Curl curl A  rot A  A

: a vector, a measure of how much the vector A

curl (rotate) around the point in question.

Zero curl :

Non-zero curl :

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 1.2.6 Product Rules (six rules)

Prove al the six rules!

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 1.2.7 Second Derivatives

 The curl of the gradient of any scalar field is identically zero!

 The divergence of the curl of any vector field is identically zero.

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 (Note) Two Null Identities of second derivatives

(I) The curl of the gradient of any scalar field is identically zero.

  V   0

(ex) If a vector is curl-free, then it can be expressed as the gradient of a scalar field.

 E  0 E  V

(II) The divergence of the curl of any vector field is identically zero.

   A  0

(ex) If a vector is divergenceless, then it can be expressed as the curl of another vector field.

 B  0 B   A
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 Summary of the useful vector formulas

Triple Products
(BAC-CAB rule)

Product Rules

Second Derivatives

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 Appendix A: Vector Calculus in Curvilinear
Coordinates
A.1 (orthogonal) Curvilinear Coordinates: (u,v, w)

A.2 Notation

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 A.3 Gradient in Curvilinear Coordinates:

 Gradient of t in arbitrary curvilinear coordinates.

 Fundamental theorem for gradients

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 A.4 Divergence in Curvilinear Coordinates:

, the side lengths of the volume are

Therefore the volume of the infinitesimal volume is

For the front surface: the area is

For the back surface at (u + du):

at (u + du) - at (u) 
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 Divergence in Curvilinear Coordinates:

The front and back sides yield,

The divergence of A in curvilinear coordinates is defined by

 Divergence theorem
 It converts a volume integral to a closed surface integral, and vice versa. 22
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 A.5 Curl in Curvilinear Coordinates:

The area is

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 Curl in Curvilinear Coordinates:

The curl of A in curvilinear coordinates is defined by

Now we generalize the line integral to the u, v, and w components,

Therefore, we can extend it to finite surface:

 Stokes’ theorem

 It converts a volume integral to a closed surface integral, and vice versa.

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 A.6 Laplacian in Curvilinear Coordinates:

Laplacian = “the divergence of the gradient of ”  2  

 Gradient of T

 Divergence of A

(Ex) Laplace equation: 2V  0

Poisson equation: 2V   

0
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ELEKTROMAGNET I

Vector Analysis
(Griffiths;1.3 - 1.4)

FISIKA
UNAND
mutyavonnisa@
sci.unand.ac.id

Mutya Vonnisa

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 Chapter 1. Vector Analysis

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 1.3 Integral Calculus
1.3.1 Line, Surface, and Volume Integrals
(a) Line Integrals. A line integral is an expression of the form

If the path P in question

forms a closed loop (that is, if b = a),

Example 1.6
(path 1)

(path 2)

For the loop that goes out (1) and back (2) 
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 Line, Surface, and Volume Integrals

(b) Surface Integrals. A surface integral is an expression of the form

perpendicular
to the surface

If the surface is closed

Example 1.7

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 Line, Surface, and Volume Integrals

(c) Volume Integrals. A volume integral is an expression of the form

A vector functions

Example 1.8

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 1.3.2 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

OR

Fundamental theorem
 the integral of a derivative over an interval is given by
the boundaries (the value of the function at the end points)

In vector calculus, there are three derivatives (gradient, divergence, and curl),

Fundamental theorem for gradients

Fundamental theorem for divergences

 Gauss's theorem, Green's theorem, or, simply, the divergence theorem

Fundamental theorem for curls

 Stokes’ theorem 6
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 1.3.3 The Fundamental Theorem for Gradients

The integral (here a line integral) of a derivative (here the gradient) is

given by the value of the function at the boundaries (a and b).

Example 1.9
Check the fundamental theorem for gradients.

 Let's go out along the x axis, step (i), and then up, step (ii)
Are they consistent
with the fundamental theorem?
 Yes! T(b) – T(a) = 2 – 0 = 2

 Now, calculate the same integral along path (iii):

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 1.3.4 The Fundamental Theorem for Divergences

The integral (here a volume integral) of a derivative (here the divergence) is

given by the value of the function at the boundaries (surface).

 Gauss's theorem
 Green's theorem
 Divergence theorem

If v represents the flow of an incompressible fluid,

then the flux of v is the total amount of fluid passing out through the surface, per unit time.

Example 1.10 Check the divergence theorem using the function

 In this case,

 To evaluate the surface integra l,

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 1.3.5 The Fundamental Theorem for Curls

The integral (here a surface integral) of a derivative (here the curl) is

given by the value of the function at the boundaries (perimeter of the surface).

 Stokes’theorem

For dl, which way are we supposed to go around (clockwise or counterclockwise)?

For da, which way does it point? which way is "out?"

 Consistency in Stokes' theorem  Let’s Keep the right-hand rule

Example 1.11
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 1.3.6 Integration by Parts

Integrating
both sides

 We can transfer the derivative from g to f,

 at the cost of a minus sign and a boundary term.

Example 1.12

Note:

by the product rules of vector calculus

From the divergence theorem

 Same as the integration by parts
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 1.4 Curvilinear Coordinates
A.1 (orthogonal) Curvilinear Coordinates: (u, v, w)

A.2 Notation

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 Cartesian Coordinates

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 Permukaan difrensial dan Volume difrensial

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 Cylindrical Coordinates

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 Spherical Coordinates

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 Coordinates transform

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 1.4.1 Spherical Polar Coordinates (r, , )

polar
angle x  r sin cos
y  r sin sin 
z  r cos
azimuthal
angle

Beware that
The unit vectors, , at a particular point P, change direction as P moves around.
 Do not naively combine the spherical components of vectors associated with different points

The unit vectors themselves are functions of position

 Do not take outside the integral
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 Spherical Polar Coordinates (r, , )

Infinitesimal displacement 
Infinitesimal volume 
Infinitesimal surfaces  depend on the orientation of the surface
r is constant 
 is constant 

Example 1.13 Find the volume of a sphere of radius R.

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 Vector derivatives in (r,  ,  ) Coordinates

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 1.4.2 Cylindrical Coordinates (s, , z)

x  s cos
y  s sin 
zz

azimuthal
angle

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 Appendix A: Vector Calculus in Curvilinear Coordinates

f g h
x, y, z 1 1 1
s, , z 1 r 1
r, ,  1 r r sin

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ELEKTROMAGNET I

Vector Analysis
(Griffiths;1.5 - 1.6)

FISIKA
UNAND
mutyavonnisa@
sci.unand.ac.id

Mutya Vonnisa
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 Chapter 1. Vector Analysis

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 1.5 The Dirac Delta Function
Describe the graphs of :

a.  (t  3)
b. 2  (t  3)

, x  0
  ( x) x 1  (x) 
Then show the result of integral.
 0, x  0
1
0
,   t  
2
 (t ) 
0, everywhere else
y  (t )   (t )
1 lim
0
2 

  t lim

  (t ) t 1
0  


1
  (t ) t  2 .

2
1

1 t    2
 2 2  2 2  2 1
t  |  

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 b. 2  (t  3)
-

- a.  (t  3)
| | |
1 2 3

0, t  c 
 (t  c)    (t  c) t 1




" " , t  c 

 

 2  (t  c) t  2   (t  c) t  2
 

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 1.5 The Dirac Delta Function

1.5.1 The Divergence of

Consider the vector function directed radially:

Let’s apply the divergence theorem to this function:

Does this mean that the divergence theorem is false? What's going on here?
 The divergence theorem MUST BE right since it’s a fundamental theorem.
 The source of the problem is the point r = 0, where v blows up!
( ) vanishes everywhere except r = 0, its integral must be 4.
 The entire contribution of must be coming from the point r = 0!
 No ordinary function behaves like that.
 It's zero except at the source location, yet its integral isfinite!
 It’s called the Dirac delta function.
 It is, in fact, central to the whole theory of electrodynamics.
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 1.5.2 The One-Dimensional Dirac Delta Function

infinitely high,
infinitesimally narrow "spike,"

If f(x) is some "ordinary" function,

 Zero everywhere except at x = a.

 Under integral, picks out the value of f(x) at x = a.

Example 1.14  pick out the value of x3 at the point x = 2  23 = 8.

 Would be zero!

Example 1.15 Show that

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 1.5.3 The Three-Dimensional Dirac Delta Function

Generalize the delta function to three dimensions:

with its volume integral is 1:

 As in the one-dimensional case, integration with  picks out the value f at r = 0.

 The divergence of is zero everywhere except at the origin.
 The integralof over any volume containing the origin is a constant (= 4)

More generally,

or Since

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 The Three-Dimensional Dirac Delta Function:

Example 1.16 Evaluate the integral

Solution 1: It demonstrates something of the power and beauty of the delta function.

Solution 2: It is much more cumbersome but serves to illustrate the method of integration by parts.

Using the relation of partial integral:

on the boundary (where r = R),

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 1.6 The Theory of Vector Fields
1.6.1 The Helmholtz Theorem
• Since E and B are vectors, the differential equations naturally
involve vector derivatives: divergence and curl.
Maxwell reduced the entire theory of electrodynamics to four differential
equations, specifying respectively the divergence and the curl of E
and B.

• Maxwell's formulation raises an important mathematical question:

• To what extent is a vector function
determined by its divergence and curl? Or,
can we determine the function F if its
divergence and curl are specified?

• To solve a differential equation appropriate boundary

conditions are required.
• In electrodynamics we typically require that the fields go to zero
"at infinity" (far away from all charges).

• The Helmholtz theorem guarantees that

• the field, E or B is uniquely determined by its divergence 9
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and curl.
 Appendix B: A proof of the Helmholtz theorem
Suppose that the divergence and curl of a vector function F(r) are specified by

where C(r) must be divergenceless, because the divergence of a curl is always zero.

Question: can we, on the basis of this information, determine the function F?
 If D(r) and C(r) go to zero sufficiently rapidly at infinity, the answer is yes!
 “Helmholtz theorem”
(Proof) Assume that where

Then, (the divergence of a curl is zero at W)

(the curl of a gradient is zero at U)

0
1 1 1
r ' ( )   '( )  r ( ) since

Helmholtz
theorem

Corollary

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 Appendix B: The Helmholtz theorem

Helmholtz
theorem

where

Corollary

For example, in electrostatics

(V: Scalar potential)

In magnetostatics,

(A: Vector potential)

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 1.6.2 Potentials
Note the two null identities
 the curl of the gradient of any scalar field is identically zero: V   0
 The divergence of the curl of any vector field is identically zero:    A  0
 F  0  If the curl of a vector field (F) vanishes (everywhere),
then F can be written as the gradient of a scalar potential (V)  F V
(The minas sign is purely conventional.)
Theorem 1: Curl-less fields (or "irrotational“ fields)

 F  0
 F  V

F  0  If the divergence of a vector field (F) vanishes (everywhere),

then F can be written as the curl of a vector potential (A)  F   A
Theorem 2: Divergence-less fields (or “solenoidal“ fields)

F  0
 F   A

For all cases, any vector field can be written as F  V   A

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