related to the mental and emotional state of a person.

I which responsible for the thinking and makes awareness.

Me when he or she makes himself or herself the object of his or
her own thinking.
tHREE ASPECTS OF “ME”
Spiritual me. One’s own understanding of selves as creatures
who think, feel, act, and experience life.
Social me. It consists of the recognition that the self can get from
others. James believed that people have several social me’s.
Material me. It consists of one’s body, valued possessions, and
loved ones. It identifies the self most clearly in terms of material
possessions.

Bandura (2009a) defined human agency as “the human capability

to exert influence over one’s functioning and the course of events
by one’s actions”
- Rejects the notion that selfhood is culturally influenced,
rather it looks upon every human being as capable of
thinking, deciding and controlling of his or her actions, free
to decide for ourselves.

Main Features of Human Agency:

1. Intentionality - acts done intentionally
- how an individual forms intentions with action plans and
strategies to realize them.
2. Forethought - anticipate likely consequences
- refers to how an individual positions his or her plans in the
future.
3. Self-Reactiveness - making choices - choosing appropriate
course of action.
- agents are not only planners but also self regulators. For her
actions to be successful an individual needs to self regulate his
eeforts for her vision to become reality.
4. Self-reflectiveness - ability to reflect on the adequacy of his or
her thoughts and actions
- signifies people are capable of self examining their own function.

Global versus Differentiated Models

Global models look into a human being in his or her totality, as an
invisible entity that cannot be broken down into parts. The two
prominent schools of thought supporting this idea are Gestalt
psychology and humanistic psychology. Gestalt psychology is
guided by the principle that “the whole is greater than the sum of
all its parts.” Gestalt psychologists reject the view that the self is a
“structure” composed of id, ego, and superego. This particular
school of thought is interested in looking at the entirety of the
self-the mind, body, physical attributes, behaviors, and more.
- Looking at the entirety of the self—the mind, body, physical
attributes behaviors and more.
The word Gestalt is used in modern German to mean the way a
thing has been “placed,” or “put together.” There is no exact
equivalent in English. “Form” and “shape” are the usual
translations; in psychology the word is often interpreted as
“pattern” or “configuration.”

Humanistic psychology is guided by the principle that “human

beings, as humans, supersede the sum of their parts.” They cannot
be reduced to components. It posited the idea that personality
should be studied from the point of view of an individual’s
subjective experience.
- They cannot reduced by components. It is better to
understand one’s emotions and experiences in order to know
more about one’s identity.
Self-Concept
 The term self-concept is a general term used to refer to how
someone thinks about, evaluates or perceives themselves. To be
aware of oneself is to have a concept of oneself.

Self-Concept vs. Self-Esteem

•Self-concept is not self-esteem, although self-esteem may be a
part of self-concept. Self-concept is the perception that we have
of ourselves, our answer when we ask ourselves the question
“Who am I?” It is knowing about one’s own tendencies, thoughts,
preferences and habits, hobbies, skills, and areas of weakness.
• Self-esteem: Self-esteem refers to a person’s overall sense of
his or her value or worth. It can be considered a sort of measure
of how much a person “values, approves of, appreciates, prizes,
or likes him or herself” (Adler & Stewart, 2004).
• According to self-esteem expert Morris Rosenberg, self-
esteem is quite simply one’s attitude toward oneself (1965).
He described it as a “favourable or unfavourable attitude
toward the self”.
Self-Concept vs. Self-Image
• Self-image is related to self-concept, but is generally less broad.
Self-image is how an individual sees him- or herself, and it does
not necessarily have to align with reality!
• A person’s self-image is based only on how they see themselves,
while self-concept is a more comprehensive evaluation of the
self-based on how a person sees herself, values herself, thinks
about herself, and feels about herself. 

SIGMUND FREUD
 The Father of Modern Psychology
Self is multi-layered.
 The Three Layers of the Self

Theory of Infantile Sexuality/Freud’s Five Basic Stages

of Psychosexual Development
1. oral stage – birth to 1 yr 6 mos
2. anal stage – 1 yr 6 mos to 3 yrs
3. phallic stage – 3 yrs to 5 yrs
4. latency stage – 5 yrs to 12 yrs
5. genital stage – 12 yrs to adulthood

Frustration, Overindulgence, and Fixation

Some people do not seem to be able to leave one stage and

proceed on to the next.  One reason for this may be that the needs
of the developing individual at any particular stage may not have
been adequately met in which case there is frustration. 
Or possibly the person's needs may have been so well satisfied
that he/she is reluctant to leave the psychological benefits of a
particular stage in which there is overindulgence.
Both frustration and overindulgence (or any combination of the
two) may lead to what psychoanalysts call fixation at a particular
psychosexual stage.
Fixation refers to the theoretical notion that a portion of the
individual's libido has been permanently 'invested' in a particular
stage of his development.

Psychosexual Stages
Freud believed that children are born with a libido – a sexual
(pleasure) urge. There are a number of stages of childhood,
during which the child seeks pleasure from a different ‘object’

To be psychologically healthy, we must successfully complete

each stage. Mental abnormality can occur if a stage is not
completed successfully and the person becomes ‘fixated’ in a
particular stage.

During the oral stage, the infant's primary source of interaction

occurs through the mouth, so the rooting and sucking reflex is
especially important. The mouth is vital for eating, and the infant
derives pleasure from oral stimulation through gratifying
activities such as tasting and sucking.

Because the infant is entirely dependent upon caretakers (who are

responsible for feeding the child), the child also develops a sense
of trust and comfort through this oral stimulation.

Freud said oral stimulation could lead to an oral fixation in later

life.  We see oral personalities all around us such as smokers, nail-
biters, finger-chewers, and thumb suckers.  Oral personalities
engage in such oral behaviors, particularly when under stress.

Freud believed that this type of conflict tends to come to a head in

potty training, in which adults impose restrictions on when and
where the child can defecate.  The nature of this first conflict with
authority can determine the child's future relationship with all
forms of authority.
Early or harsh potty training can lead to the child becoming an
anal-retentive personality who hates mess, is obsessively tidy,
punctual and respectful of authority.  They can be stubborn and
tight-fisted with their cash and possessions.
This is all related to pleasure got from holding on to their faeces
when toddlers, and their mum's then insisting that they get rid of
it by placing them on the potty until they perform!
Not as daft as it sounds.  The anal expulsive, on the other hand,
underwent a liberal toilet-training regime during the anal stage.
In adulthood, the anal expulsive is the person who wants to share
things with you.  They like giving things away.  In essence, they
are 'sharing their s**t'!'  An anal-expulsive personality is also
messy, disorganized and rebellious.
The Phallic Stage
Age Range: 3 to 6 Years
Erogenous Zone: Genitals

Freud suggested that during the phallic stage, the primary focus of
the libido is on the genitals. At this age, children also begin to
discover the differences between males and females.

Freud also believed that boys begin to view their fathers as a rival
for the mother’s affections. The Oedipus complex describes these
feelings of wanting to possess the mother and the desire to replace
the father. However, the child also fears that he will be punished
by the father for these feelings, a fear Freud termed castration
anxiety.
The term Electra complex has been used to describe a similar set
of feelings experienced by young girls.

Latency Stage (6 years to puberty)

Latency Stage (6 years to puberty)

No further psychosexual development takes place during this
stage (latent means hidden).  The libido is dormant.
Freud thought that most sexual impulses are repressed during the
latent stage, and sexual energy can be sublimated (re: defense
mechanisms) towards school work, hobbies, and friendships. 
Much of the child's energy is channeled into developing new skills
and acquiring new knowledge, and play becomes largely confined
to other children of the same gender.
The Genital Stage
Age Range: Puberty to Death
Erogenous Zone: Maturing Sexual Interests

The onset of puberty causes the libido to become active once

again. During the final stage of psychosexual development, the
individual develops a strong sexual interest in the opposite sex.
This stage begins during puberty but last throughout the rest of a
person's life.

Where in earlier stages the focus was solely on individual needs,

interest in the welfare of others grows during this stage. The goal
of this stage is to establish a balance between the various life
areas.

Genital Stage (puberty to adult)

Genital Stage (puberty to adult)

This is the last stage of Freud's psychosexual theory of personality
development and begins in puberty.  It is a time of adolescent
sexual experimentation, the successful resolution of which is
settling down in a loving one-to-one relationship with another
person in our 20's.
Sexual instinct is directed to heterosexual pleasure, rather than
self-pleasure like during the phallic stage. 
For Freud, the proper outlet of the sexual instinct in adults was
through heterosexual intercourse.  Fixation and conflict may
prevent this with the consequence that sexual perversions may
develop. 
For example, fixation at the oral stage may result in a person
gaining sexual pleasure primarily from kissing and oral sex, rather
than sexual intercourse.
 The Theory of the Unconscious
The conscious, pre-conscious and unconscious
1. On the surface is consciousness, which consists of those
thoughts that are the focus of our attention now, and this is
seen as the tip of the iceberg
2. The pre-conscious contains thoughts and feelings that a
person is not currently aware of, but which can easily be
brought to consciousness
3. The third and most significant region is the unconscious.
Here lie the processes that are the real cause of most
behaviour. Like an iceberg, the most important part of the
mind is the part you cannot see
 Freud used the analogy of an iceberg to describe the three levels
of the mind

Tripartite Theory
Similar with the account of the mind offered by Plato (rational,
emotional, irrational)
1. id - part of the mind in which are situated the instinctual
sexual drives which require satisfaction; 2. ego -
develops from the id during infancy. The egos goal is to satisfy
the demands of the id in a safe a socially acceptable way
In contrast to the id the ego follows the reality principle as it
operates in both the conscious and unconscious mind.
 all objects of consciousness reside in the ego
3. super-ego - develops during early childhood (when the
child identifies with the same sex parent)

 The Three Layers of the Self

 Id– pleasure principle
 The psychic structure, present at birth, which represents psychological
drives and is fully unconscious.
  Ego – reality principle
 The second psychic structure to develop characterized by self-awareness,
planning, and delays of gratification.
 Controls the id
 Superego – moral principle
 The third psychic structure which functions as a moral guardian and sets
forth high-standards for behavior.

Trust vs. Mistrust

From birth to 12 months of age, infants must learn that adults can
be trusted. This occurs when adults meet a child’s basic needs for
survival. Infants are dependent upon their caregivers, so
caregivers who are responsive and sensitive to their infant’s needs
help their baby to develop a sense of trust; their baby will see the
world as a safe, predictable place. Unresponsive caregivers who do
not meet their baby’s needs can engender feelings of anxiety,
fear, and mistrust; their baby may see the world as unpredictable.
If infants are treated cruelly or their needs are not met
appropriately, they will likely grow up with a sense of mistrust for
people in the world.

Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt

As toddlers (ages 1–3 years) begin to explore their world, they
learn that they can control their actions and act on their
environment to get results. They begin to show clear preferences
for certain elements of the environment, such as food, toys, and
clothing. A toddler’s main task is to resolve the issue of autonomy
vs. shame and doubt by working to establish independence. This
is the “me do it” stage. For example, we might observe a budding
sense of autonomy in a 2-year-old child who wants to choose her
clothes and dress herself. Although her outfits might not be
appropriate for the situation, her input in such basic decisions has
an effect on her sense of independence. If denied the opportunity
to act on her environment, she may begin to doubt her abilities,
which could lead to low self-esteem and feelings of shame.

Initiative vs. Guilt

Once children reach the preschool stage (ages 3–6 years), they are
capable of initiating activities and asserting control over their
world through social interactions and play. According to Erikson,
preschool children must resolve the task of initiative vs. guilt.By
learning to plan and achieve goals while interacting with others,
preschool children can master this task. Initiative, a sense of
ambition and responsibility, occurs when parents allow a child to
explore within limits and then support the child’s choice. These
children will develop self-confidence and feel a sense of purpose.
Those who are unsuccessful at this stage—with their initiative
misfiring or stifled by over-controlling parents—may develop
feelings of guilt.

Industry vs. Inferiority

During the elementary school stage (ages 6–12), children face the
task of industry vs. inferiority. Children begin to compare
themselves with their peers to see how they measure up. They
either develop a sense of pride and accomplishment in their
schoolwork, sports, social activities, and family life, or they feel
inferior and inadequate because they feel that they don’t measure
up. If children do not learn to get along with others or have
negative experiences at home or with peers, an inferiority complex
might develop into adolescence and adulthood.

Identity vs. Role Confusion

In adolescence (ages 12–18), children face the task of identity vs.
role confusion. According to Erikson, an adolescent’s main task is
developing a sense of self. Adolescents struggle with questions
such as “Who am I?” and “What do I want to do with my life?”
Along the way, most adolescents try on many different selves to
see which ones fit; they explore various roles and ideas, set goals,
and attempt to discover their “adult” selves. Adolescents who are
successful at this stage have a strong sense of identity and are able
to remain true to their beliefs and values in the face
of problemsand other people’s perspectives. When adolescents
are apathetic, do not make a conscious search for identity, or are
pressured to conform to their parents’ ideas for the future, they
may develop a weak sense of self and experience role confusion.
They will be unsure of their identity and confused about the
future. Teenagers who struggle to adopt a positive role will likely
struggle to “find” themselves as adults.

Intimacy vs. Isolation

People in early adulthood (20s through early 40s) are concerned
with intimacy vs. isolation. After we have developed a sense of
self in adolescence, we are ready to share our life with others.
However, if other stages have not been successfully resolved,
young adults may have trouble developing and maintaining
successful relationships with others. Erikson said that we must
have a strong sense of self before we can develop successful
intimate relationships. Adults who do not develop a positive self-
concept in adolescence may experience feelings of loneliness and
emotional isolation.

Generativity vs. Stagnation

When people reach their 40s, they enter the time known as
middle adulthood, which extends to the mid-60s. The social task
of middle adulthood is generativity vs. stagnation. Generativity
involves finding your life’s work and contributing to the
development of others through activities such as volunteering,
mentoring, and raising children. During this stage, middle-aged
adults begin contributing to the next generation, often through
childbirth and caring for others; they also engage in meaningful
and productive work which contributes positively to society.
Those who do not master this task may experience stagnation and
feel as though they are not leaving a mark on the world in a
meaningful way; they may have little connection with others and
little interest in productivity and self-improvement.

Integrity vs. Despair

From the mid-60s to the end of life, we are in the period of
development known as late adulthood. Erikson’s task at this stage
is called integrity vs. despair. He said that people in late
adulthood reflect on their lives and feel either a sense of
satisfaction or a sense of failure. People who feel proud of their
accomplishments feel a sense of integrity, and they can look back
on their lives with few regrets. However, people who are not
successful at this stage may feel as if their life has been wasted.
They focus on what “would have,” “should have,” and “could have”
been. They face the end of their lives with feelings of bitterness,
depression, and despair.