Example/(page – 28)

A metal sphere is exactly 25 mm diameter at 20C. Find the increase in diameter, increase in surface
area, and increase in volume, when heated to 260C, if the coefficient of linear expansion of the metal is
1.810-5/C.

Increase in temperature = 260 – 20 = 240C

Increase in diameter =   d  (2 - 1)

= 1.810-5  25  240
= 0.108 mm

Increase in area = 2  A  (2 - 1)

= 2  d2  (2 - 1)
= 2  1.810-5    252  240
= 16.96 mm2

Increase in volume = 3  V  (2 - 1)

= 3  1.810-5  /6  253  240
= 106 mm3

Test example 3

Test Example 2/page – 32

A solid cast iron sphere is 150 mm diameter. If 2110 kJ of heat energy is transferred to it, find the increase in
diameter, taking the following values for cast iron: density = 7.21 g/cm3, specific heat = 0.54 kJ/kgK,
coefficient of linear expansion = 1.1210-5/C.

Given: d = 150 mm = 150÷1000 (1m=1000mm) = 0.15 m

Q = 2110 kJ
 = 1.1210-5/C
c = 0.54 kJ/kgK
density  = 7.21 g/cm3
7.21
(1kg=1000g)
1000
= 1
( 1m3 = 1003 cm3 )
1003

7.12×106
= = 7.12103 kg/m3
103
Find: increase in diameter = ? =   d  

m = volume  density
= 1/6 d3  7.12103
= 1/6  3.14  0.153  7.12103
= 12.73 kg

1
 Q = m  c  
2110 = 12.73  0.54  
2110
∆𝜃 = 12.75 × 0.54
= 306.7 K

Increase in diameter =   d  
= 1.1210-5  0.15  306.7
= 0.0005152 m

Test Example 3/ page-32

A bi-metal control device is made up of a thin flat strip of aluminium and a thin flat strip of steel of the same
dimensions, connected together in parallel and separated from each other by two brass distance pieces 2.5
mm long, their centres being 50 mm apart. Find the radius of curvature of the strips when heated through
200C, taking the following values for the coefficients of linear expansion: Aluminium  = 2.510-5/C
steel  = 1.210-5/C
Brass  = 2.010-5/C

Al

brass 50 mm 2.5 mm

R R+2.5


Given:  = 200C
Aluminium  = 2.510-5/C
steel  = 1.210-5/C
Brass  = 2.010-5/C

Find: radius of aluminium = ?

Radius of steel = ?

Solution:
New length for aluminium = l  1 +  () 
= 50  1 + 2.510-5 (200) 
= 50  1.005
= 50.25 mm

2
New length for steel = l  1 +  () 
= 50  1 + 1.210-5 (200) 
= 50  1.0024
= 50.12 mm

New length for brass = l  1 +  () 

= 50  1 + 2.010-5 (200) 
= 50  1.004
= 2.51 mm

Let R = radius of curvature of steel

R + 2.51 = radius of curvature of aluminium

Subtended angle of  is common to both

𝑎𝑟𝑐 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ [ 𝑚𝑚 ]
∅[𝑟𝑎𝑑] =
𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 [𝑚𝑚]

50.12
∅ 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 =
𝑅

50.25
∅ 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐴𝑙 =
𝑅 + 2.51

50.12 50.25
=
𝑅 𝑅 + 2.51

50.12R + 125.8 = 50.25 R

50.25 R – 50.12 R = 125.8
0.13R = 125.8
125.8
R= 0.13
= 967.7 mm
Radius of steel = R = 967.7 mm
Radius of Al = R+2.51 = 967.7 + 2.51 = 970.21 mm

3
Test Example 4/page 32

The pipe line of a hydraulic system consists of a total length of steel pipe of 13.7m and internal diameter 30
mm. If the coefficient of linear expansion of the steel is 1.210-5/C and coefficient of cubical expansion of
the oil in the pipe is C, calculate the volumetric allowance in litres to be made for oil overflow from the pipe
when the temperature rises by 27C.

Given: h = 13.7 m
d = 30 mm = 30/1000 (1000 mm = 1 m) = 0.03 m
 = 27C
 = 1.210-5/C
 = 910-4/C

Find: volume of oil overflow from pipe = ? [L]

Solution: Let P = 3

Volume of oil flow = volume increase of liquid – volume increase of pipe

=   V   - 3 V  
= ( - 3)  V  
𝜋
= (910-4 - 31.210-5)  4 𝑑 2 ℎ  27
= 8.6410-4  0.7854  (0.003)2  13.7  27
= 2.25910-4 m3

1 m3 = 1000L
2.25910-4 = ?
= 2.25910-4  1000
= 0.2259 L

Test Example 7/page-33

A straight length of steam pipe is to be fitted between two fixed points with no allowance for expansion. If
the compressive stress in the pipe is to be limited to 35 hbar (= 350 MN/m2) calculate the initial tensile
stress to be exerted on the pipe when fitted cold at 17C to allow for a steam temperature of 220C. Take the
coefficient of linear expansion of the pipe material as 1.1210-5/C and the modulus of elasticity as 206
GN/m2.

Given: compressive stress = 350106 N/m2

1 = 17C
2 = 220C
 = 1.1210-5/C
E = 206 GN/m2 = 206109 N/m2

Find: initial tensile stress = ?

Solution:
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 =
𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ

4
 𝛼 ×𝑙 ×(𝜃2 − 𝜃1 )
= 𝑙
=   (2 - 1)
= 1.1210-5  (220 – 17)

= 1.1210-5  203

Stress = strain  E
= 1.1210-5  203  206109
= 4.684108 N/m2

Initial tensile stress = final stress – compressive stress

= 4.684108 - 350106
= 118.4 MN/m2

5
 CHAPTER – 4
HEAT TRANSFER
Test Example 1/page -44

Calculate the quantity of heat conducted per minute through a duralumin circular disc 127 mm
diameter and 19 mm thick when the temperature drop across the thickness of the plate is 5C. Take
the coefficient of thermal conductivity of duralumin as 150 W/mK.

Given: d = 127 mm  1000 ( 1m= 1000mm) = 0.127 m

S = 19 mm  1000 = 0.019 m
t = 1 min = 60 sec
=150 W/mK
Find: Q = ?

W
 [mK]  A[m2 ] × t[s] × (T1 − T2 )[K]
Q[J] =
S[m]
150 × 𝜋/4𝑑2 × 60 × 5
=
0.019
150 × 0.7854 × 0.1272 × 60 × 5
=
0.019
= 3 × 104 𝐽 = 30 𝑘𝐽

Test Example 2/page -44

A cold storage compartment is 4.5 m long by 4 m wide by 2.5 m high. The four walls, ceiling and
floor are converted to a thickness of 150 mm with insulating material which has a coefficient of
thermal conductivity of 5.810-2 W/mK. Calculate the quantity of heat leaking through the insulation
per hour when the outside and inside face temperatures of the material is 15C and -5C respectively.
Given: long = 4.5 m
Wide = 4 m
High = 2.5 m
S = 150 mm = 150/1000 (1m = 1000 mm) = 0.15 m
t = 1 hr = 3600 s
 = 5.810-2 W/mK
T1 = 15 + 273 = 288 K 2.5 m
T2 = -5 + 273 = 268 K
4m
Find: Q = ?
Solution:
Total surface area of compartment = 2{(4.52.5) + (42.5) + (4.54)}
1
 = 78.5 m2

  A × t × (T1 − T2 )
Q=
S
5.8×10−2 × 78.5 ×3600 ×(15 − (−5))
=
0.15

= 2.185106 J

Test Example 6/page -45

A flat circular plate is 500 mm diameter. Calculate the theoretical quantity of heat radiated per hour when
its temperature is 215C and the temperature of its surrounds is 45C. Take the value of the radiation
constant as 5.6710-11 kJ/m2s K4.

Given: d = 500 mm = 500/1000 (1m = 1000mm)=0.5 m

t = 1 hr = 3600 s
T1 = 215 + 273 = 488 K
T2 = 45 + 273 = 318 K
Find: Q = ?
Solution: 𝑄 = 5.67 × 10−11 × 𝐴 𝑡 (𝑇14 − 𝑇24 )
𝜋 2
= 5.67 × 10−11 × 𝑑 × 3600 × (4884 − 3184 )
4
= 5.67 × 10−11 × 0.7854 × 0.52 × 3600 × (4884 − 3184)

= 1862 kJ

2
3
4
Example/page – 57

A quantity of air mass 0.23 kg, pressure 100 kN/m2, volume 0.1934 m3 and temperature 20C is enclosed in
a cylinder with a gas-tight moveable piston, and heat energy is transferred to the air to raise its temperature
to 142C.

(a) If the piston is prevented from moving during heat transfer so that the volume of the air remains
unchanged, calculate (i) the heat supplied, taking the specific heat at constant volume cv = 0.718
kJ/kgK, and (ii) the final pressure.
(b) If the piston moves to allow the air to expand in volume at such a rate as to keep the pressure
constant, calculate (i) the heat supplied, taking the specific heat at constant pressure cp = 1.005
kJ/kgK, and (ii) the final volume.

Given: m = 0.23 kg
p = 100 kN/m2
V = 0.1934 m3
T1 = 20+273 = 293 K
T2 = 142+273 = 415 K
Find: (a) Q=?, p2 = ?
(b) Q = ?, V2 = ?

Solution:
(a) Q = m  c  (T2 – T1)
= 0.23  0.718  (415 – 293)
= 20.15 kJ

𝑝1 𝑉1 𝑝2 𝑉2
=
𝑇1 𝑇2
The volume is constant  V2 = V1 and cancels,
𝑝1 𝑇2
𝑝2 =
𝑇1
100 × 415
= = 𝟏𝟒𝟏. 𝟔 𝒌𝑵/𝒎𝟐
293
(b) Q = m  c  (T2 – T1)
= 0.23  1.005  (415 – 293)
= 28.19 kJ

𝒑𝟏 𝑽𝟏 𝒑𝟐 𝑽𝟐
=
𝑻𝟏 𝑻𝟐
The volume is constant  p1 = p2 and cancels,
𝑉1 𝑇2
𝑉2 =
𝑇1
0.1934 × 415
= = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟕𝟑𝟖 𝑚3
293
Test Example 4/pg-62

An air storage system consists of two cylindrical vessels with hemispherical ends, each being 300 mm
diameter and 1.5 m long overall. Calculate the volume of “free” air (i.e. air at atmospheric pressure, say 100
kN/m2) to be taken from the atmosphere and pumped into the two vessels at 2800 kN/m2 gauge. Assume that
the vessels initially contain air at atmospheric pressure and that the temperature of the compressed air
delivered is the same as the temperature of the atmosphere.

1.5 m

Given: d = 300 mm (1000 mm = 1 m)

= 0.3 m
Total L = 1.5 m
Cylinder = 1.5 – 0.3 = 1.2 m
p1 = 100 kN/m2
p2 = 2800 kN/m2 gauge
absolute pressure = gauge pressure + atmospheric pressure
= 2800 + 100
= 2900 kN/m2

Volume of two vessel = 2 (volume of sphere + volume of cylinder)

𝜋 𝜋
= 2 (6 𝑑 3 + 4 𝑑 2 ℎ)
𝑑 ℎ
= 2d2 ( 6 + 4)
0.3 1.2
= 23.140.32 ( 6 + )
4
= 0.19782 m3
𝑝1 𝑉1 = 𝑝2 𝑉2

100  V1 = 2900  0.1979

2900 × 0.1979
𝑉1 =
100
= 5.74 m3

the volume to be taken from the atmosphere = 5.74 – 0.1979 = 5.5421 m3

Test Example 9/pg-63

Taking the characteristic gas constant R for nitrogen as 0.297 kJ/kgK, calculate (i) the mass of 0.05 m3 of
nitrogen at 550 kN/m2 and temperature 28C, (ii) the volume of m = 1kg of nitrogen at 1 MN/m2 and 0C.
pV = mRT

Given: (i) R = 0.297 kJ/kgK

V = 0.05 m3

p= 550 kN/m2

T=28+273=301 K

Find: mass = ?

𝑝𝑉 = 𝑚𝑅𝑇

550 × 0.05
𝑚=
0.297 × 301
= 0.3076 𝑘𝑔

Given: (ii) R = 0.297 kJ/kgK

m = 1kg

p= 1 MN/m2 = 1106 MN/m2 = 1000 kN/m2

T=0+273=273 K

Find: mass = ?

𝑝𝑉 = 𝑚𝑅𝑇

1 × 0.297 × 273
𝑉=
1000
= 0.0811 𝑚3
Test Example 10/page-63

A cylinder oxygen bottle has one flat end and one hemispherical end, the diameter is 240 mm and the overall
length is 1.24 m. Calculate (i) the mass of oxygen contained in the bottle when the pressure is 700 kN/m 2
gauge and temperature 20C. Calculate (ii) the mass of oxygen drawn off when the pressure falls to 500
kN/m2 gauge and temperature 15C. Take the atmospheric pressure as 1.013 bar and R for oxygen 0.26
kJ/kgK.

Given: d = 240 mm (1m = 1000 mm)

= 0.24 m
L = 1.24 m
(i) m=?

p = 700 kN/m2 gauge

absolute pressure = gauge pressure + atmospheric pressure

= 700 + 101.3
= 801.3 kN/m2
T = 20 +273 = 293
Volume of bottle = volume of hemispherical end + volume of cylinder part
1 𝜋 𝜋
= 2 × 6 𝑑3 + 𝑑2𝑙
4
𝑑 𝑙
= d2 ( 12 + 4)
0.24 1.12
= 3.140.242 ( 12 + )
4
= 0.054 m3
𝑝𝑉 = 𝑚𝑅𝑇
801.3 ×0.05429
𝑚= 0.26 × 293
= 0.571 𝑘𝑔

(ii) m=?

p = 500 kN/m2 gauge

absolute pressure = gauge pressure + atmospheric pressure

= 500 + 101.3
= 601.3 kN/m2
T = 15 +273 = 288 K

𝑝𝑉 = 𝑚𝑅𝑇
601.3 ×0.05429
𝑚= 0.26 × 288
= 0.4359 𝑘𝑔

Mass drawn off = 0.571 – 0.4359 = 0.1351 kg

Test Example 12/page-63

The dimensions of a ship’s saloon are 12 m by 16.5 m by 4 m. The air is completely changed once every 30
minutes and the temperature is maintained at 21C. If the temperature of the outside atmosphere is 30C,
calculate the quantity of heat required to be extracted from the supply air per hour, and the equivalent
power, taking the density of air at atmospheric pressure and 0C as 1.293 kg/m3 and the specific heat at
constant pressure as 1.005 kJ/kgK.

Given: length:width:height = 12:16.4:4

Volume of saloon per 30 mins = 1216.44 m3
= 792 m3
Volume of saloon per 1 hour = 2(1216.44) m3
= 1584 m3

t = 1 hr = 3600 sec
T1 = 21 + 273 = 294 K
T2 = 30 + 273 = 303 K

Find: Q = ?
P = ? (t = 1 hr)
 = 1.293 kg/m3 and
cp = 1.005 kJ/kgK

solution: V T
1
𝑉∝ 𝜌
1
𝑇∝ 𝜌

T   = constant
𝑇1 𝜌1 = 𝑇2 𝜌2 = 𝑇3 𝜌3 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
T1 = 0 + 273 = 273 K
T2 = 21 + 273 = 294 K

𝑇1 𝜌1 = 𝑇2 𝜌2
𝑇1 𝜌1
𝜌2 =
𝑇2
273 × 1.293
=
294
= 1.2 kg/m3

m=V
= 1584  1.2
 = 1901 kg

Q = m  cp  (T2 – T1)
= 1901  1.005  (303 – 294)
= 17194.5 kJ
𝑄
𝑃=
𝑡
17194.5
= 3600

= 4.776 𝑘𝑊

Test Example 13/page 63

The burning period of the fuel in a diesel engine cylinder takes place at constant pressure while the piston
moves a fraction of its power stroke, calculate the external work done during the burning period if (i) the
pressure is constant at 34.5 bar and the volume of the air increases from 0.0425 m3 to 0.0935 m3, (ii) the
cylinder contains 0.63 kg of air and the temperature increases from 538C to 1511C. Take R for air = 0.287
kJ/kgK.

Given: p = 34.5 bar

= 34.5  100 (1bar = 100 kN/m2)
= 3450 kN/m2
V1 = 0.0425 m3
V2 = 0.0935 m3
m = 0.63 kg
T1 = 538+ 273 = 811K
T2 = 1511+ 273 = 1784 K
R for air = 0.287 kJ/kgK
Find: W = ?
Solution:
(i) W = p (V2 – V1)
= 3450  (0.0935 – 0.0425)
= 175.95 kJ

(ii) W = mR (T2 – T1)

= 0.63  0.287  (1784 – 811)
= 175.9 kJ
Example/pg-18
A shift runs at a rotational speed of 50 rev/s in oil-cooled bearings 178 mm diameter. The force
between the surfaces of the shaft journals and bearings is 2.67 kN and the coefficient of friction is 0.04.
Find (i) the friction force at the surface of the journals, (ii) the mechanical energy expended in friction per
revolution, (iii) the power loss due to friction, (iv) the temperature rise of the oil if the volume flow
through the bearings is 18 litre/min, the specific heat of the oil being 2 kJ/kgK and its density 0.9 g/ml.

Friction force =  × normal force between the surfaces

= 0.04 × 2.67×103
= 106.8 N

E=P*t
E = W/t * t
W = E = F *s
Work done per revolution = friction force × circumference of journal
= 106.8 × πd
= 106.8 × 3.14 × 0.178
= 59.7 J

P = W/t
= 59.7/1 sec. * 50
Power expended = energy per revolution × rev/s
= 59.7 × 50
= 2985 W = 2.985 kW

Density of oil = 0.9 g/ml = 0.9 kg/liter

Mass flow of oil = volume flow × density

= 18/60 × 0.9
= 0.27 kg/s

Q [kJ] = m [kg] × c [kJ/kgK] × (T2 – T1) [K]

2.985 = 0.27 × 2 × (T2 – T1)
(T2 – T1) = 5.527 K or 5.527˚C

1
Example/pg-20

In an experiment to find the specific heat of lead, 0.5 kg of lead shot at a temperature of 51˚C is poured into
an insulated calorimeter containing 0.25 kg of water at 13.5˚C and the resultant temperature of the mixture
is 15.5˚C. If the water equivalent of the calorimeter is 0.02 kg, find the specific heat of the lead.

Pb = Calorimeter ( water + water equivalent of calorimeter)

51 = 13.5
15.5
Heat received by water and calorimeter when their temperature is raised from 13.5˚C to 15.5˚C:
Q = m × c × (T2 – T1)
= (0.25 + 0.02) × 4.21 × (15.5 – 13.5)
= 0.27 × 4.2 × 2 kJ

Heat lost by lead in cooling from 51˚C to 15.5˚:

Q = m × c × (T2 – T1)
= 0.5 × c × (51 – 15.5)
= 0.5 × c × 35.5 kJ

Heat transferred from the lead is equal to the heat received by the water and calorimeter:
QL = QW
mL × cL × (T2 – T1)L = mW × cW × (T2 – T1)W
0.5 × c × 35.5 = 0.27 × 4.2 × 2
0.27 ×4.2 ×2
c = 0.5 ×35.5
= 0.1278 kJ/kgK

2
Example/page – 21

Calculate the heat required to be given to 2 kg of ice at -15˚C to change it into steam at atmospheric
pressure, taking the values:
Specific heat of ice = 2.04 kJ/kgK
Latent heat of fusion = 335 kJ/kg
Specific heat of water = 4.2 kJ/kgK
Latent heat of evaporation = 2256.7 kJ/kgK

Heat to raise the temperature of the ice from - 15˚C to its melting point of 0˚C, i.e. a temperature rise
of 15˚C:
Sensible heat = m × c × (T2 – T1)
= 2 × 2.04 × 15
= 61.2 kJ

Heat to change the ice at 0˚C into water at 0˚C:

Latent heat = 2×335 = 670 kJ

Heat to raise the temperature of the water from 0˚C to its boiling point of 100˚C, i.e. a temperature
rise of 100˚C:
Sensible heat = 2 × 4.2 × 100
= 840 kJ

Heat to evaporate the water at 100˚C into steam at 100˚C:

Latent heat = 2 × 2256.7
= 4513.4 kJ

Total heat = 61.2 + 670 + 840 + 4513.4

= 6084.6 kJ

3
Test Example – 2

No. 2/pg – 23

A water brake coupled to an engine on test absorbs 70 kW of power. Find the heat generated at the brake per
minute and the mass flow of fresh water through the brake, in kg/min if the temperature increase of the water
is 10˚C. Assume all the heat generated is carried away by the cooling water.
c = 4.2 kJ/kgK

Given: P = 70 kW (or) kJ/s = 70/160 = 7060 = 4200 kJ/min

t = 1 min
T = 10C = 10 K
c = 4.2 kJ/kgK

Find: heat generated per minute = ? = E or Q or W

Mass flow = ? [mass flow = volume flow *density]

Solution:
E=Pt
= 4200  1
= 4200 kJ

Q = m  c  T
4200 = m  4.2  10
4200
m = 4.2 ×10
= 100 kg/min

No. 3/pg – 23
The journals of a shaft are 380 mm diameter, it runs at 105 rev/min and the coefficient of friction between
journals and bearings is 0.02. If the average load on the bearings is 200 kN, find (i) the power lost due to
friction at the bearings, (ii) the heat generated per minute at the bearings.

Given: d = 380 mm = 380÷1000 (1m = 1000 mm) = 0.38 m

No. of revolution = 105 rev/min
 = 0.02
F = 200 kN

Find: P = ?
E = ? per minutes (t = 1 min)

Solution: P = W/t = F*s/t = F**s/t

E = P*t

Friction Force =   normal force

= 0.02  200
= 4 kN

4
W=Fs
= 4  d (cycle)
= 4  3.14  0.38
= 4.7728 kNm (or) kJ

W
P=
t

= 4.7728  105 rev/1min

= 501.144 kJ/min

E=Pt
= 501.144  1
= 501.144 kJ

4/pg – 23
The effective radius of the pads in a single collar thrust block in 230 mm and the total load on the thrust
block is 240 kN when the shaft is running at 93 rev/min. Taking the coefficient of friction between thrust
collar and pads as 0.025, find (i) the power lost due to friction, (ii) the heat generated per hour, (iii) the mass
flow of oil in kilogrammes per hour through the block assuming all the heat is carried away by the oil,
allowing an oil temperature rise of 20C and taking the specific heat of the oil as 2 kJ/kgK.

Given : r = 230 mm = 230÷1000 (1m = 1000 mm)=0.23

F = 240 kN
No. of rev. = 93 rev/min
c = 2 kJ/kgK
 = 0.025
T = 20C = 20K

Find: P = ? W/t
E = ? 1 hr
m = ? [kg/h]

Solution:

Friction Force =   normal force

= 0.025  240
= 6 kN
W = F*s
= 6 *2r
= 6*2*3.14*0.23
= 8.67 kNm (or) kJ

P = W/t  rev/t
= 8.67  93/1
= 806.3 kJ/min
806.3

= 1
1 = 806.3  60 = 48378 kJ/h
60
5
E=Pt
= 48378  1
= 48378 kJ

Q = m  c  T
𝑄
𝑚 = 𝑐 × ∆𝑇

48378
= 2 ×20
= 1209.5 kg/h

7/pg – 23
In an experiment to find the specific heat of iron, 2.15 kg of iron cuttings at 100C are dropped into a
vessel containing 2.3 litre of water at 17C and the result temperature of the mixture is 24.4C. If the water
equivalent of the vessel is 0.18 kg, determine the specific heat of the iron.

Given: mass of iron = 2.15 kg,

T1 of iron = 100C
T2 of iron = 24.4C

Mass of water + vessel of water equivalent = 2.3+0.18

T1 of water = 100C
T2 of water = 24.4C
Find : specific heat of iron = ?
Specific heat of water = 4.2 kJ/kgK

ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑟𝑜𝑛 = 𝑄𝑖 = 𝑚𝑖 × 𝑐𝑖 × (𝑇1 − 𝑇2 )

= 2.15 × 𝑐𝑖 × (100 − 24.4)

ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝑄𝑤 = 𝑚𝑤 × 𝑐𝑤 × (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )

= (2.3 + 0.18) × 4.2 × (24.4 − 17)
𝑄𝑖 = 𝑄𝑤
2.15 × 𝑐𝑖 × (100 − 24.4) = (2.3 + 0.18) × 4.2 × (24.4 − 17)
2.48 × 4.2 × 7.4
𝑐𝑖 =
2.15 × 75.6
= 0.4742 kJ/kgK

6
No. 8/pg – 24
With three different quantities, A, B, and C, of the same kind of liquid, of temperatures 9, 21 and 38C
respectively, it is found that when A and B are mixed together the resultant temperature is 17C, and when B
and C are mixed together the resultant temperature is 28C. Find the resultant temperature (i) if A and C
were mixed, (ii) if all three were mixed together.

Given: A = 9C ( T1 )
B = 21C
C = 38C
A+B = 17C (T2)
B + C = 28C

Find: A+C = ?
A+B+C = ?

Solution: A+B
Heat gained: QA = mA  (T2 – T1)
Heat lost : QB = mB  (T1 – T2)
QA = QB
mA  (T2 – T1) = mB  (T1 – T2)
mA  (17 – 9) = mB  (21 – 17)
8 mA = 4 mB
mA = 4/8 mB
mA = 0.5 mB

B+C
Heat gained: QB = mB  (T2 – T1)
Heat lost : QC = mC  (T1 – T2)
QB = QC
mB  (T2 – T1) = mC  (T1 – T2)
mB  (28 – 21) = mC  (38 – 28)
7 mB = 100 mC
mC = 7/100 mB
mC = 0.7 mB

A+C = ? (9+38)/2 = 23.5

Heat gained: QA = mA  (T2 – T1)
Heat lost : QC = mC  (T1 – T2)
QA = QC
mA  (T2 – T1) = mC  (T1 – T2)
0.5 mB  (T2 – 9) = 0.7 mB  (38 – T2)
0.5T2 – 4.5 = 26.6 – 0.7 T2
0.5T2 + 0.7T2 = 26.6 + 4.5
T2 = 25.92C

7
Heat gained: QA = mA  (T2 – T1) (9+21+38)/3= 23
Heat gained: QB = mB  (T2 – T1)
Heat lost : QC = mC  (T1 – T2)
QA + QB = QC
mA  (T2 – T1) + mB  (T2 – T1) = mC  (T1 – T2)
0.5 mB  (T2 – 9) + mB  (T2 – 21) = 0.7 mB  (38 – T2)
0.5T2 – 4.5 + (T2 – 21) = 26.6 – 0.7 T2
0.5T2 + T2 + 0.7T2 = 26.6 + 21 + 4.5
2.2 T2 = 52.1
T2 = 23.68C

No. 9/pg – 24
0.9 kg of ice was put into 10 kg of water at 22C contained in a calorimeter of water equivalent 0.2 kg, and
the resultant temperature of the mixture was 13C. Calculate the initial temperature of the ice, taking its
specific heat as 2.04 kJ/kgK and the latent heat of fusion 335 kJ/kg.

Given: mice = 0.9 kg

mW = 10 kg
mcal = 0.2 kg 13
T1 = 22C
T2 = 13C 0 0
c = 2.04 kJ/kgK L.H.F
L.H.F = 335 kJ/kg -T1

Find: T1 = ?

-T1 → 0 → 13 [sensible heat]

Ice → water → water [L.H.F]

Sensible Heat: Q = m  c  (T2 – T1)

= 0.9  2.04  (0 – T1)
= 1.836  (0 – T1)
= - 1.836 T1 kJ

Sensible Heat: Q = m  c  (T2 – T1)

= 0.9  4.21  (13 – 0)
= 49.14 kJ

L.H.F = 0.9  335

= 301.5 kJ

Total Heat gain of ice = 301.5 + 49.14 - 1.836 T1

= 350.64 - 1.836 T1

Heat lost of water and calorimeter: Q = m  c  (T1 – T2)

8
 = (10+0.2)  4.21  (22 – 13)
= 385.56 kJ

Qice = QW
350.64 - 1.836 T1 = 385.56
- 1.836 T1 = 385.56 – 350.64
= 34.92
= - 34.92/1.836
= - 19.019C

No. 10/pg – 24
0.5 kg of ice at -5C is put into a vessel containing 1.8 kg of water at 17C and mixed together, the result
being a mixture of ice and water at 0C. Calculate the final masses of ice and water, taking the water
equivalent of the vessel as 0.148 kg, specific heat of ice 2.04 kJ/kgK, latent heat of fusion 335 kJ/kgK.

0 --------- 0
L.H.F

-5

Given: mice = 0.5 kg, T1 = - 5C (ice)

mW = 1.8 kg
mcal = 0.148 kg
T1 = 17C (water)
T2 = 0C (resultant )
c = 2.04 kJ/kgK
L.H.F = 335 kJ/kg

Find: Final mass of ice = ?

Final mass of water = ?

Let Final mass of ice = 0.5 – x

Final mass of water = 1.8 + x

-5 → 0 [sensible heat]
Ice → water [L.H.F]

Sensible Heat: Q = m  c  (T2 – T1)

= 0.5  2.04  (0 – (- 5))
= 5.1 kJ

L.H.F = x  335
= 335x kJ

9
Total Heat gain of ice = (x  335) + 5.1 kJ

Heat lost of water and calorimeter: Q = m  c  (T1 – T2)

= (1.8+0.148)  4.21  (14 – 0)
= 139.08 kJ

Qice = QW
5.1 + 335x = 139.08
139.08−5.1
x= 335

= 0.399 kg

Final mass of ice = 0.5 – 0.399 = 0.101 kg

Final mass of water = 1.8 + 0.399 = 2.199 kg

10
 CHAPTER 6

EXPANSION AND COMPRESSION OF PERFECT GASES

Example/page 79

7.08 litres of air at a pressure of 13.79 bar and temperature 335C are expanded according to the law
𝑝𝑉 1.32 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡, and final pressure is 1.206 bar. Calculate (i) the volume at eh end of expansion, (ii) the
work transfer from the air, (iii) the temperature at the end of expansion, (iv) the mass of air in the system,
taking R = 0.287 kJ/kgK.

𝑝1 𝑉11.32 = 𝑝2 𝑉21.32

1379 × 0.007081.32 = 120.6 × 𝑉21.32

1379 × 0.007081.32
𝑉21.32 =
120.6

1.32 1379
𝑉2 = 0.00708 × √
120.6

= 0.04484 𝑚3

𝑝1 𝑉1 − 𝑝2 𝑉2
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 =
𝑛−1
1379 × 0.00708 − 120.6 × 0.04484
=
1.32 − 1
9.763 − 5.408 4.355
= = = 13.61 𝑘𝐽
0.32 0.32

𝑝1 𝑉1 𝑝2 𝑉2
=
𝑇1 𝑇2

1379 × 0.00708 120.6 × 0.04484

=
335 + 273 𝑇2

608 × 120.6 × 0.04484

𝑇2 = = 336.6 𝐾
1379 × 0.00708

1
 𝑝1 𝑉1 = 𝑚𝑅𝑇1

1379 × 0.00708
𝑚=
0.287 × 608
= 0.05595 kg

Example/page 80

A perfect gas is compressed in a cylinder according to the law 𝑝𝑉 1.3 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡. The initial condition of
the gas is 1.05 bar, 0.34 m3 and 17C. If the final pressure is 6.32 bar, calculate (i) the mass of gas in the
cylinder, (ii) the final volume, (iii) the final temperature, (iv) the work done to compress the gas, (v) the
change in internal energy, (vi) the transfer of heat between the gas and cylinder walls. Take cv = 0.7175
kJ/kgK and R = 0.287 kJ/kgK.

(i) the mass of gas in the cylinder

𝑝1 𝑉1 = 𝑚𝑅𝑇1

105 × 0.34
𝑚=
0.287 × 290
= 0.4289 kg

(ii) the final volume

𝑝1 𝑉11.3 = 𝑝2 𝑉21.3

1.05 × 0.341.3 = 6.32 × 𝑉21.3

1.05 × 0.341.3
𝑉21.3 =
6.32

1.3 1.05
𝑉2 = 0.34 × √
6.32

= 0.08549 𝑚3

(iii) the final temperature

𝑝1 𝑉1 𝑝2 𝑉2
=
𝑇1 𝑇2

1.05 × 0.34 6.32 × 0.08549

=
290 𝑇2

290 × 6.32 × 0.08549

𝑇2 = = 438.8 𝐾
1.05 × 0.34
2
, (iv) the work done to compress the gas

𝑝1 𝑉1 − 𝑝2 𝑉2
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 =
𝑛−1
105 × 0.34 − 632 × 0.08549
=
1.3 − 1
35.71 − 54.04 −18.33
= = = −61.1 𝑘𝐽
0.3 0.3
Note that the minus sign indicates that work is done ON the gas.

Work to compress gas = 61.1 kJ

(v) the change in internal energy

Increase in internal energy:

𝐸2 − 𝐸1 = 𝑚𝑐𝑣 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )

= 0.4289 × 0.7175 × (438.8 − 290)

= 0.4289 × 0.7175 × 148.8 = 45.78 𝑘𝐽

(vi) the transfer of heat between the gas and cylinder walls

Heat supplied in the gas = Increase in internal energy + Work done by the gas

= 45.78 – 61.1

= - 15.32 kJ

The minus sign means that heat is rejected by the gas during compression, that is, this amount of heat energy
is transferred from the gas to the cylinder wall surrounds.

Transfer of heat = 15.32 kJ.

3
TEST EXAMPLE

Test Example 11/ page 85

0.113 m3 of air at 8.25 bar is expanded in a cylinder until the volume is 0.331 m3 . Calculate the final
pressure and work done if the expansion is (i) isothermal, (ii) adiabatic, taking  = 1.4.

Isothermal expansion:

p1V1 = p2V2
8.25  0.113 = p2  0.331
8.25 × 0.113
𝑝2 = = 2.817 𝑏𝑎𝑟 (𝑜𝑟) 281.7 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2
0.331
r=V2/V1
0.331
𝑟= = 2.929
0.113

𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 𝑝𝑉𝑙𝑛𝑟

= 825 × 0.113 × 𝑙𝑛2.929
= 825 × 0.113 × 1.0747
= 100.2 𝑘𝐽

Adiabatic compression
𝛾 𝛾
𝑝1 𝑉1 = 𝑝2 𝑉2
8.25 × 0.1131.4 = 𝑝2 × 0.3311.4
8.25 × 0.1131.4
𝑝2 =
0.3311.4
0.113 1.4
= 8.25 × { }
0.331
= 8.25 × 0.341.4 = 183.2 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2

𝑝1 𝑉1 − 𝑝2 𝑉2
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 =
𝑛−1
825 × 0.113 − 183.2 × 0.331
=
1.4 − 1
93.24 − 60.64 32.6
= = = 81.5 𝑘𝐽
0.4 0.4

4
Test Example 12/page 85

A gas is expanded in a cylinder behind a gas-tight piston. At the beginning of expansion the pressure is 36
bar, volume 0.125 m3 , and temperature 510C. At the end of expansion the volume is 1.5 m3 and
temperature 40C. Taking R = 0.284 kJ/kgK and cv = 0.71 kJ/kgK, calculate (i) the pressure at the end of the
expansion, (ii) the index of expansion, (iii) the mass of gas in the cylinder, (iv) change of internal energy, (v)
work done by the gas, (vi) heat transfer during expansion.

𝑝1 𝑉1 𝑝2 𝑉2
=
𝑇1 𝑇2

36 × 0.125 𝑝2 × 1.5
=
510 + 273 40 + 273
36 × 0.125 × 313
𝑝2 = = 1.199𝑏𝑎𝑟 𝑜𝑟 119.9 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2
783 × 1.5

𝑝1 𝑉1𝑛 = 𝑝2 𝑉2𝑛

36 × 0.125𝑛 = 1.199 × 1.5𝑛

36 1.5 𝑛
={ }
1.199 0.125
36 1.5
log { } = 𝑛 × log { }
1.199 0.125

1.4775 = 𝑛 × 1.0792

1.4775
𝑛= = 1.37
1.0792

𝑝1 𝑉1 = 𝑚𝑅𝑇1

3600 × 0.125
𝑚=
0.284 × 783
= 2.023 kg

𝐸2 − 𝐸1 = 𝑚𝑐𝑣 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )

= 2.023 × 0.71 × (313 − 783)

5
 = 2.023 × 0.71 × (−470) = −675.1 𝑘𝐽

The minus sign indicates a decrease in internal energy. Decrease in internal energy = 675.1 kJ

𝑝1 𝑉1 − 𝑝2 𝑉2
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 =
𝑛−1
3600 × 0.125 − 119.9 × 1.5
=
1.37 − 1
450 − 179.9 270.1
= = = 730.2 𝑘𝐽
0.37 0.37

Heat supplied in the gas = Increase in internal energy + External work done

= - 675.1 + 730.2

= 55.1 kJ

6
Example

A mass of 1600 kg is lifted by a winch through a height of 25 m in 30 seconds. Calculate (i) the work
done, and, if the efficiency of the winch is 60%, find (ii) the input power in kW and (iii) the energy
consumed in kWh.

Given : mass = 1600 kg

Height distance = 25 m
Time = 30 s = 30/3600 (1hr = 3600s)
Find: (i) the work done, (ii) the input power in kW and (iii) the energy consumed in kWh.

Solution:

F =m×g
= 1600 × 9.81
= 15696 N

Work done = Force × distance moved

= 15696 × 25
= 392400 Nm (or) J
= 392400 ÷ 1000 ( 1kJ = 1000 J)
= 392.4 kJ

Work done
Output power = time
392.4
= 30
= 13.08 kW

output power
% = × 100%
input power

output power
𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = × 100%
%

13.08
𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = × 100%
60%

= 21.8 kW

Energy = input power × time

= 21.8 × (30/3600)
= 0.1817 kWh

1
Test Examples – 1 (pg – 15)
A pump discharges 50 tonne of water per hour of a height of 8 m, the overall efficiency of the pumping
system being 69%. Calculate the output power and the input power. Calculate also the energy
consumed by the pump in 2 hours, expressed in kWh and in MJ.

Given : m = 50 tonne = 501000 ( 1 tonne = 1000 kg) = 50000 kg

t = 1 hour = 3600 sec
distance (s) = 8 m
 = 69%
Find : (1) output power = 
(2) input power = 
(3) Energy = 
Output power = work done/time = (weight × distance)/time = (mass  g  distance)/time
 = output power/input power
E = input power  time

• Weight (or) Force = mass  g

= 50000  9.81
= 490500 N
= 490500 ÷ 1000 (1 kN = 1000 N)
= 490.5 kN
Work done = Force  distance
= 490.5  8
= 3924 kNm (or) kJ
Work done
Power = time
3924
= 3600
= 1.09 kW

𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
 =
𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = ×100%


1.09
= 69
 100
= 1.579 kW
Energy = input power  time
= 1.579  2
= 3.158 kWh
1 kWh = 3.6 MJ
3.158 kWh = 
= 3.158  3.6
= 11.37 MJ
2
 2(a) Express a pressure of 20 mm water in N/m2 and mbars.
(b) Express a pressure of 750 mmHg in kN/m2 and bars.

(a) 1 mm of water pressure = 9.81 N/m2

20 mm of water pressure = 
= 20  9.81
= 196.2 N/m2
= 196.2 ÷ 100 (1mbar = 100 N/m2 )
= 1.962 mbar

(b) 1 mm of Hg pressure = 133.3 N/m2

750 mm of Hg pressure = 
= 750  133.3
= 99975 N/m2
= 99975 ÷ 1000 (1000 N/m2 = 1 kN/m2 )
= 99.975 kN/m2
= 99.975 ÷ 100 (1bar = 100 kN/m2 )
= 0.99 bar

3. A condenser vacuum gauge reads 715 mmHg when the barometer stands at 757 mmHg. State the
absolute pressure in the condenser in kN/m2 and bar.

𝐴𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = (𝑏𝑎𝑟𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔 − 𝑉𝑎𝑐𝑢𝑢𝑚 𝑔𝑎𝑢𝑔𝑒) × 133.3

= (757 − 715) × 133.3
= 5598.6 𝑁/𝑚2
= 5598.6 ÷ 1000 (1000 𝑁/𝑚2 = 1𝑘𝑁/𝑚2 )
= 5.6 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2
= 5.6 ÷ 100 (1𝑏𝑎𝑟 = 100𝑘𝑁/𝑚2 )
= 0.056 𝑏𝑎𝑟

4(i) Water is raised in temperature through 162F, express this increase in temperature in degree Celsius.

5
Interval on Celsius scale = 9 × interval on F
5
= 9 × 162
= 90C

4(ii) The temperature inside a refrigerated cold chamber is -3F when the outside temperature is 60F.
Express the temperature difference between inside and outside in degrees Celsius.
Inside = -3F outside = 60F
Interval on temperature = Final temperature reading – Initial temperature reading
= 60 - (-3)
= 63F
3
 5
Interval on Celsius scale = 9 × interval on F
5
= 9 × 63
= 35C

5. Convert the following temperature readings from F to C: 140F, 5F, -31F, -40F.

Reading on C scale = (F – 32)× 5/9

= (140 – 32)×5/9 = 60C
= (5 – 32)×5/9 = -15C
= (-31 – 32)×5/9 = -35C
= (-40 – 32)×5/9 = -40C

6. Oil flows full bore at a velocity of 2 m/s through a nest of 16 tubes in a single pass cooler. The
internal diameter of the tubes is 30 mm and the density of the oil is 0.85 g/ml. Find the volume flow in
liters per second and the mass flow in kilogrammes per minutes.

• Given: diameter (d) = 30 mm

= 30 ÷ 1000 (1000 mm = 1 m) = 0.03 m
0.85
(1000 g=1 kg)
1000
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 1 = 0.85 kg/L
(1000 ml=1L)
1000
- Find: Volume flow = ? [L/s]
mass flow = ? [kg/min]
𝜋
-solution: Area of tube = 4 𝑑2
= 0.7854 ×(0.03)2
Area of 16 tube = 16 × 0.7854 ×(0.03)2
= 0.0113 𝑚2
Volume flow = area × velocity
= 0.0113 × 2
𝑚3
= 0.0226 𝑠
= 0.0226×1000 (1𝑚3 = 1000 L) = 22.6 L/s

• Mass flow = volume flow [L/s] × density [kg/L]

= 22.6 × 0.85
= 19.21 kg/s
= 19.21 × 60
= 1153 kg/min