Chemistry Lesson Notes For Form Two

Page 1 of 35 CHEMISTRY FORM TWO
WATER AND SOLUTION
WATER
Water is a compound of oxygen and hydrogen. Life would be impossible on earth without water.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF WATER
• Pure water is colourless, odourless and tasteless.

• It melts and freezes at 0oc.
• Its density is 1g/cm3.
• It is neutral to litmus.
SOLUTION
A solution is a uniform or homogeneous mixture of a solute and a solvent.

DEFINITION OF RELATED TERMS
1. Solute: it is the dissolved substance in a solution i.e. it is the substance that dissolves in another
substance to form a solution. A solution can be a solid, a liquid or a gas.
In a solution, the solute is always present in a smaller quantity i.e. it is always the minor component of a
solution.
2. Solvent: it is the substance in which a solute dissolves. Most solvents are liquids.
In a solution, the solvent is always the major component i.e. it is always present in a larger quantity.
3. Suspension: it is a heterogeneous mixture of small particles of an insoluble solid in a liquid. It is usually
cloudy in appearance. When a suspension is allowed to stand undisturbed for some time, the solid
particles in it will slowly settle to the bottom of the container leaving a clear liquid at the top. Examples
of suspensions are; muddy water, whitewash, chalk in water, flour in water, raw palp in water, etc.
WATER AS A UNIVERSAL SOLVENT
Water is known as a universal solvent because it dissolves more substances than any other solvent.
AN AQUEOUS SOLUTION
It is a solution with water as the solvent e.g. the solution of sugar or salt in water is an aqueous solution.
TYPES OF SOLUTIONS
1. A concentrated solution: It is a solution which contains a large proportion of a solute dissolved in a

small amount of a solvent i.e. the ratio of the dissolved solute to the solvent is high.
2. A dilute solute: it is a solution which contains a small proportion of a solute dissolved in a larger
amount of a solvent I.e. the ratio of the dissolved solute to the solvent is low.
NYIANG KENNET’S PROPERTY , DO NOT COPY WITHOUT AUTHORISATION
3. A saturated solution: it is a solution that has dissolved a maximum amount of solute and cannot
dissolve more of the solute at a particular temperature.
4. An unsaturated solution: it is a solution that can still dissolve more solute at a particular temperature.
5. A super saturated solution: it is a solution that contains more dissolved solute than it can normally
hold at a particular temperature. Super saturated solutions are usually unstable and are formed only
with some particular solutes.
AN EXPERIMENT TO PREPARE A SATURATED SOLUTION OF COMMON SALT (SODIUM CHLORIDE) IN

WATER AT ROOM TEMPERATURE ( 25OC)
Requirements: Two beakers, a thermometer, common salt, a teaspoon, distilled water, Bunsen burner,
filter and funnel.
Procedure:
1. One beaker is half-filled with distilled water.
2. The thermometer is placed into the water and the water is heated to the required temperature of 25oC
using a Bunsen burner.
3. A teaspoon of common salt is added and the mixture is stirred with the thermometer.
4. More salt is added while stirring until some of the salt remains undissolved. When this happens, the
solution is already saturated.
5. The undissolved salt is filtered out using a filter paper and funnel. The saturated solution is collected as
a filtrate in the second beaker.
SOLUBILITY IN WATER
The solubility of a substance in water is defined as the mass in grams of the substance that will saturate
one hundred grams (100g) of water at a particular temperature.
SOLUBLE AND INSOLUBLE SUBSTANCES
a. Soluble substances: a substance that easily dissolves in a liquid is said to be soluble in the liquid e.g.
sugar, common salt and ethanol are soluble in water.
b. Insoluble substances: a substance which does not dissolve in a liquid is said to be insoluble in the liquid
e.g. sand, kerosene etc are insoluble in water.
A substance which dissolves only partly or slightly in a liquid is said to be partially or sparingly soluble in
the liquid.
FACTORS AFFECTING THE SOLUBILITY OF SUBSTANCES
1. The amount of the solvent: a larger amount of a solvent dissolves more solute than a smaller amount
of the solvent.
2. Powdering a solid: the solubility of a solid increase when it is powdered. Lumps of a solid are less
soluble than the powdered solid.
3. Stirring: the solubility of a solute in a solvent increases when the mixture is stirred.
4. The pressure of a gas: the solubility of a gas increases when the pressure of the gas over the solvent is
increased. Pressure affects the solubility of gases only.
5. Temperature: the solubility of most solids in a liquid increase with an increase in the temperature of
the mixture.
Note: the solubility of gases decrease with an increase in temperature. Generally, solids are more soluble in
hot solvents than in cold ones, while gases are more soluble in cold solvents than in hot ones.
HOW TO MEASURE THE SOLUBILITY OF A SUBSTANCE
To measure the solubility of a substance in water at a particular temperature, the following steps are taken:
• A saturated solution of the substance in water at that particular temperature is first prepared.
• The mass of the substance that saturates the water is determined.
• The mass of water saturated is determined.
• The mass of the substance that will saturate 100g of water (the solubility) is then calculated.
AN EXPERIMENT TO DETERMINE THE SOLUBILITY OF SODIUM CHLORIDE (COMMON SALT) IN WATER AT

ROOM TEMPERATURE (25OC)
Procedure:
A saturated solution of sodium chloride at 25oc is prepared.

A clean, dry and empty evaporating dish is weighed and the mass, mo is recorded.
Some of the saturated solution of sodium chloride is poured into the evaporating dish. The dish and the
solution are weighed and the mass, m1 is recorded.
The solution is then evaporated to dryness by heating over a water bath.
The dish and salt left behind are weighed and the mass, m2 is recorded.
Collection of data:
Mass of empty dish = m0
Mass of dish + solution = m1
Mass of dish + salt = m2
=>Mass of solution = m1 - m0
=>Mass of salt = m2 - m0
∴ Mass of water saturated = mass of solution - mass of salt
= (m1 - m0) - (m2 - m0)
= m1 - m0 - m2 + m0
= m1 - m2
In one such experiment to determine the solubility of sodium chloride at 16oc, the following data was
obtained:
Mass of empty dish = 35.24g
Mass of dish + solution = 78.53g
Mass of dish + salt = 46.67g
Using the data, the solubility of sodium chloride at 16oc is calculated as follows:

Mass of solution = 43.29g
Mass of salt = 11.43g
Mass of water saturated = mass of solution - mass of salt
= 43.29g - 11.43g
= 31.86g
If 31.86g of water is saturated by 11.43g of sodium chloride
∴ 100g of water will be saturated by g of sodium chloride
(31.86)() = (100)(11.43)
.
.
= 35.9g
Hence the solubility of sodium chloride at 16oc = 35.9g/100g of water
SOLVED EXAMPLES ON SOLUBILITY
1. 27g of potassium nitrate saturated 20g of water at 60oc find the solubility of potassium nitrate in water
at that temperature.
2. 20g of water is saturated by 10g of potassium chloride at 90oc. Calculate the solubility of the salt at that
temperature.
ASSIGNMENT
1. 7g of common salt saturated 25g of water at 30oc. Calculate the solubility of common salt in water at
that temperature.
2. Calculate the solubility of a certain salt at 50oc, using the following data:
Mass of empty evaporating dish = 6.9g
Mass of evaporating dish + solution = 53.4g
Mass of evaporating dish + salt = 28.4g
SOLUBILITY IN NON-AQUEOUS SOLVENTS
Solvents different from water are known as non-aqueous solvents. They dissolve certain substances that
are insoluble in water. Examples of non-aqueous solvents are:
a. Alcohols e.g. ethanol

b. Benzene
c. Turpentine
d. Paraffins e.g. kerosene and petrol.
e. Carbon tetrachloride.

USES OF SOLVENTS IN EVERYDAY LIFE
1. Solvents like petrol, kerosene and ammonia solution are used to remove fats, oils and grease stains in
laundries and dry-cleaners.
2. Turpentine is used to remove paint stains.
3. Coffee or tea stains are removed by a solution of borax in water.
4. In the manufacture of perfumes, aromatic oils (sweet-smelling oils) are dissolved in ethanol.
5. Rubber and some other substances are usually dissolved in benzene to produce vulcanizer’s solution
that is used to mend punctured car and motor bike tyres and to make raincoats.
6. Iodine is dissolved in ethanol to produce “a tincture of iodine” which is a mild antiseptic for fresh
wounds and bruises.
7. Turpentine is a useful solvent in the manufacture of water-proof paints used to paint walls.
8. Water is a common solvent in laboratories, industries, homes and in living organisms.
CRYSTALS
A crystal is a solid with a definite shape, having flat surfaces, straight edges and sharp angles. All crystals of
particular substance have the same geometrical shape but may vary in sizes.
THE SHAPES OF SOME CRYSTALS
The shapes of crystals include; Cubic, Octahedral, Needle-like or Prismatic, Triclinic, Rhombic etc. The
shapes of some crystals are shown below.
CRYSTALLIZATION
It is the process by which crystals of a substance are formed by cooling a hot saturated solution of the
substance.
WHY CRYSTALS FORM WHEN A HOT SATURATED SOLUTION OF A SUBSTANCE IS COOLED
When a hot saturated solution is cooled, the solute becomes less and less soluble in the solvent. At a lower
temperature, most of the solute separates from the solution as crystals, since the solvent can no longer
hold as much solute as it did at a higher temperature.

THE PROCESS OF CRYSTALLIZATION
To obtain crystals from the solution of a substance, the following steps are taken:
• The solution is first heated to drive away some of the solvent so as to obtain a hot saturated solution.
• The hot saturated solution is then cooled for crystals to form.
• The crystals are removed by filtration, washed with distilled water and dried between filter papers.
CRYSTALLIZATION AS A METHOD OF PURIFYING CRYSTALLINE SOLIDS
Pure crystals have fixed melting points. Crystals containing impurities do not have fixed melting points; they
melt over a range of temperatures. Crystals produced by the first process of crystallization are usually not
sufficiently pure. Their purity can be improved by re-crystallization.
To carry out re-crystallization, crystals containing impurities are dissolved in water or any other suitable
solvent. A hot saturated solution is prepared and cooled. On cooling, the crystals are deposited while most
of the impurities remain in solution. Re-crystallization should be carried out several times to produce
crystals with a high degree of purity.
WATER OF CRYSTALLIZATION
This is a fixed amount of water which combines loosely with the crystals of certain substances, as they
crystallize from a hot saturated solution.
HYDRATES
A hydrate is a substance which crystallizes with water of crystallization i.e. it is a crystal which contains
water of crystallization.
When a hydrate loses its water of crystallization, it becomes anhydrous and its crystalline structure is
destroyed as it crumbles into powder. Also, its colour may change. A hydrate may lose its water of
crystallization because of one or all of the following reasons:
Heating.
Exposure to a dry atmosphere.
THE TEST FOR WATER
Water is identified in the laboratory by any one of the following methods:
1. A colourless, odourless liquid that turns white anhydrous copper (II) sulphate blue is water.
2. A colourless, odourless liquid that turns blue anhydrous cobalt (II) chloride pink is water.

CHEMICAL ELEMENTS
An element is a simple substance which cannot be further split into simpler substances by any chemical
means.
Elements are the building blocks of matter. There are over 109 known elements. About 92 of these
elements occur naturally on the earth’s crust and about 13 are man-made.
Each element is made up of only one type of atom. An atom is the smallest particle of an element that still
retains (maintains) the properties of that element.
PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION BY MASS OF ELEMENTS IN THE EARTH’S CRUST
SYMBOLS OF ELEMENTS
The symbol of an element is a form of chemical shorthand for representing that element. The symbol of an
element represents only one atom of that element.
The symbol of an element is either a single capital letter or a capital letter followed by a small letter. Jacob
Berzelius was the first in 1814 to use letters as symbols of elements.
HOW SYMBOLS OF ELEMENTS ARE DERIVED
Symbols of elements are derived from their English names (or Latin names in some cases) as follows
The first letter of the name in capital is taken as symbol for some elements, e.g. H = Hydrogen, O =
Oxygen, C = Carbon, N = Nitrogen, S = Sulphur etc.
The first letter of the name in capital and a small letter taken from the name, constitute the symbol for
some elements e.g. Ca = Calcium, Mg = Magnesium, Al = Aluminium, Zn = Zinc etc.
The table below shows the symbols of some elements. The Latin names of some elements are written in
brackets against their English names.

ELEMENT SYMBOL
1. Aluminium Al
2. Argon Ar
3. Barium Ba
4. Beryllium Be
5. Boron B
6. Bromine Br
7. Calcium Ca
8. Carbon C
9. Chlorine Cl
10. Chromium Cr
11. Cobalt Co
12. Copper (Cuprum) Cu
13. Fluorine F
14. Gold (Aurum) Au
15. Helium He
16. Hydrogen H
17. Iodine I
18. Iron (Ferrum) Fe
19. Krypton Kr
20. Lead (Plumbum) Pb
21. Lithium Li
22. Magnesium Mg
23. Manganese Mn
24. Mercury (Hydragyrum) Hg
25. Neon Ne
26. Nickel Ni
27. Nitrogen N
28. Oxygen O
29. Phosphorus P
30. Platinum Pt
31. Potassium (Kalium) K
32. Silicon Si
33. Silver (Argentum) Ag
34. Sodium (Natrium) Na
35. Sulphur S
36. Strontium Sr
37. Tin (Stannum) Sn
38. Titanium Ti
39. Tungsten (Wolfram) W
40. Zinc Zn

THE NAMES OF ELEMENTS
Some elements are named:

a) After the countries or places where they were discovered, e.g.
Element Country or place of discovery
Germanium (Ge) Germany
Francium (Fr) France
Americium (Am) America
Californium (Cf) California
Magnesium (Mg) Magnesia
Europium (Eu) Europe
b) After some great scientists, e.g.
Element Scientist
Curium (Cm) Madam Marie Curie
Einsteinium (Es) Albert Einstein
Mendelevium (Md) Mendeleev
c) After some gods, e.g.
Element god
Titanium (Ti) Titan
Vanadium (V) Vanadis
Thorium (Th) Thor
METALS AND NON-METALS
On the basis of their properties, elements have been classified into metals and non-metals.
a. METALS: Examples of metals are: Aluminium, Barium, Sodium, Potassium, Beryllium, Magnesium,
Magnesium, Calcium, Copper, Iron, Mercury, Lead, Silver, Nickel, Gold, Zinc, Platinum, Manganese, Tin,
Chromium, Cobalt, Lithium, etc.
PROPERTIES OF METALS
1) PHYSICAL STATE: all metals are solids at room temperature except mercury which is a liquid.
2) APPEARANCE: metals are generally lustrous or shiny.

3) HEAT AND ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY: metals are good conductor s of heat and electricity.
4) SONORITY: metals are sonorous, which means that they produce a ringing sound when sharply
struck.
5) MALLEABILITY AND DUCTILITY: metals are malleable, which means they can be hammered into thin
sheets and ductile, which means they can be drawn into wires.
6) MELTING AND BOILING POINTS: they have high melting and boiling points.

b. NON-METALS: Examples of non-metals are: Bromine, Carbon, Chlorine, Fluorine, Hydrogen, Iodine,
Nitrogen, Oxygen, Phosphorus, Sulphur, Argon, Neon, Helium, etc.
PROPERTIES OF NON-METALS
1) They are solids or gases except bromine which is a liquid at room temperature.
2) They are often dull in appearance when solid except carbon on the form of diamond that is shiny.
3) They are poor conductors of heat and electricity, except carbon in the form of graphite.
4) They are not sonorous.
5) Non-metals are neither malleable nor ductile. They are brittle and scatter when hammered.
6) Their melting and boiling points are often low.
The classification of elements as metals and non-metals is not very satisfactory because some elements
called metalloids or semi-metals have both metallic and non-metallic properties. Examples of metalloids
are: Boron, Silicon, Germanium, Tellurium etc.
ALLOYS
An alloy is a solid solution of two or more elements. An alloy is therefore a uniform solid mixture of two
elements. Examples of alloys are:
ALLOY CONSTITUENT ELEMENTS
Brass Copper and Zinc
Bronze Copper and Tin
Steel Iron and Carbon
Solder Lead and Tin
Stainless steel Iron, Nickel, Chromium and Carbon
Duralumin Aluminium, Copper and Magnesium
USES OF SOME METALS AND THEIR ALLOYS
1) Sodium: it is used in;

Sodium vapour lamps for street-lighting.
The extraction of titanium.
2) Magnesium: it is used:
To produce flares.
In fireworks.
3) Aluminium:
Used in making kitchen utensils e.g. pots, frying pans.
Used in making overhead electric cables.
Used in making furniture e.g. door and window frames.
Used in manufacture of paint for mirrors, cars, petrol and milk tanks.
Used in the manufacture of roofing sheets.
It is a constituent of the alloy duralumin that is used to construct aircrafts.
4) Zinc:
Used in galvanizing iron to prevent rusting.
Used to make foil for packaging.
It a constituent of the alloy brass that is used to make musical instruments, jewels, rods,
ornaments etc.
5) Iron:
Iron as steel is used to construct bridges, and to make cars, ships, tools, gates, nails, window
protectors, hoes and cutlasses etc.
It is a constituent of stainless steel which is used to make cutlery, tools and surgical
instruments.
6) Tin:
Used in coating iron cans for food packaging.
It is a constituent of the alloy bronze which is used to make coins and medals.
7) Lead:
Used for making water and gas pipes.
Used in the manufacture of accumulators.
It is a constituent of the alloy solder which is used for welding and plumbing.
8) Copper: it is used in making;
Electric wires.
Water pipes.
Alloys such as brass and bronze.
9) Mercury: it is used in;
Thermometers and barometers.
Mercury vapour lamps.
ATOMIC THEORY
Democritus and other ancient Greek philosophers as far back as 400BC suggested that all matter is made
up of tiny indivisible particles, which they called atoms from the Greek word “” meaning indivisible.
This theory was not taken seriously until 1808 that John Dalton, an English school master re-stated the
theory and developed it further.
DALTON’S ATOMIC THEORY
John Dalton in his theory suggested that:
1. All matter is made up of tiny indivisible particles called atoms.

2. These atoms can neither be created nor destroyed.
3. The atoms of the same element are alike i.e. the same in all ways but different from atoms all the
other elements.
4. Chemical combinations occur between small whole numbers of atoms.
5. Chemical reactions result from combination or separation of atoms.

COMPOUNDS
A compound is a substance formed by the chemical combination of two or more elements in fixed
proportions by mass. Examples of compounds are:
Compound Constituent elements

Water Hydrogen and Oxygen
Common salt Sodium and Chlorine
Carbon dioxide Carbon and Oxygen
Sugar Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen
Limestone Calcium, carbon and Oxygen
Kerosene Carbon and Hydrogen
Sand Silicon and Oxygen
Ethanol Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen
Soap Sodium, Carbon, Hydrogen and
Oxygen
Ammonia Nitrogen and Hydrogen
MOLECULES
A molecule is the smallest particle of an element or compound that can normally exist independently.
The molecule of an element consists only of atoms of that element while the molecule of a compound
consists of atoms of two or more elements, chemically combined together.
ATOMICITY
It is the number of atoms present in a single molecule of a chemical element. The table below shows the
atomicities of some elements.
ELEMENT MOLECULE ATOMICITY

Helium He 1
Carbon C 1
Sodium Na 1
Hydrogen H2 2
Oxygen O2 2
Nitrogen N2 2
Chlorine Cl2 2
Bromine Br2 2
Oxygen(ozone) O3 3
Phosphorus P4 4
Sulphur S8 8

Depending on the atomicity of a molecule, it is described as:

• Monatomic: if it is made up of only one atom e.g. carbon (C)
• Diatomic: if it is made up of two atoms chemically combined together e.g. hydrogen (H2)
• Triatomic: if consists of three atoms chemically combined together e.g. ozone (O3)
• Tetra atomic: if consists of four atoms chemically combined together e.g. phosphorus (P4)
• Polyatomic: if consists of many atoms chemically combined together e.g. sulphur (S8)
RADICALS
A radical is a group of atoms which function as a single unit but cannot exist independently. Radicals
normally exist as part of compounds. Examples of radicals include:
VALENCY
It the combing power of an element or radical. Below are the valencies of some elements (the valencies of
some radicals are given in the table above).

ELEMENT SYMBOL VALENCY
Lithium Li 1
Potassium K 1
Sodium Na 1
Hydrogen H 1
Fluorine F 1
Chlorine Cl 1
Iodine I 1
Silver Ag 1
Bromine Br 1
Magnesium Mg 2
Oxygen O 2
Calcium Ca 2
Zinc Zn 2
Copper Cu 1 and 2
Aluminium Al 3
Iron Fe 2 and 3
Carbon C 2 and 4
Silicon Si 2 and 4
Lead Pb 2 and 4
Nitrogen N 3 and 5
Phosphorus P 3 and 5
Sulphur S 4 and 6
CHEMICAL FORMULAE OR FORMULAS
A chemical formula is a shorthand method of representing an element or a compound, using symbols.
CHEMICAL FORMULAE OF ELEMENTS
The chemical formula of an element is its symbol and its atomicity written as a sub-script to the symbol.
The formula represents one molecule of an element e.g.
1) is the formula of the hydrogen molecule, showing that one molecule of hydrogen consists of two H
atoms chemically combined together.
2) is the formula of the phosphorus molecule, showing that one molecule of phosphorus consists of
four P atoms chemically combined together.
NOTE: monatomic elements such as metals, noble gases, carbon etc, are represented by their symbols only
e.g. C = Carbon, Na = Sodium, He = Helium etc.

CHEMICAL FORMULAE OF COMPOUNDS
The chemical formula of a compound consists of symbols of the elements that make up the compound.
Numbers apart from 1 are usually written as sub-scripts to symbols of certain elements to indicate the
number of atoms of those elements present.
The formula of a compound represents one molecule of that compound or the smallest possible
unit of that element. Below are the formulae of some compounds:
1) is the formula of water, showing that one molecule of it consists of two H atoms and one O atom.
2) is the formula of sulphuric acid showing that one molecule of it consists of two H atoms, one S
atoms and four O atoms.
3) !! is the formula of calcium carbonate, showing that the smallest possible unit of it contains one
Ca atom, one C atom and three O atoms.
NOTE: symbols of elements are always written very close to each other in the formula of a compound to
show that the atoms of the elements are chemically combined together.
THE USE OF BRACKETS IN CHEMICAL FORMULAE
When more than one unit of a particular radical is present in a compound, the radical is written in brackets
in the formula and the number of units present is indicated as a sub-script to the bracket e.g.
1) ! is the formula of calcium hydroxide containing two OH radicals. Hence, the smallest unit of
the compound contains one Ca atom, two O atoms and two H atoms.
2) "# is the formula of iron (III) nitrate with three # radicals. Therefore, the smallest unit of it
contains one Fe atom, three N atoms and nine O atoms.
3) # is the formula of ammonium sulphate with two # radicals. One molecule of it therefore
contains two N atoms, eight H atoms, one S atom and four O atoms.
A NUMBER BEFORE THE FORMULA OF AN ELEMENT OR COMPOUND
A number written before the formula of an element or compound indicates the number of molecules
present e.g.
1) 3 Represents three molecules of oxygen with a total of six O atoms.

2) 5 Represents five molecules of water with a total of 10 H atoms and 5 O atoms.
3) 3# Shows three molecules of ammonium phosphate with a total of 9 N atoms, 36 H atoms, 3
P atoms and 12 O atoms.
ASSIGNMENT
Give the number of atoms of each element, present in each of the following compounds as shown:
a) &
! d) 2"
b) '( e) !
c) 3#

THE USE OF VALENCIES IN WRITING CHEMICAL FORMULAS
The rules below are followed:
1. Write the symbols of the elements present and the formula of any radical present.
2. Write the valency of each element below its symbol and the valency of any radical below its formula.
3. Express the valencies as a simple whole-number ratio, if possible.
4. Exchange the valencies and write them as sub-scripts to the symbols of elements or formulae of
radicals.
5. If more than one unit of a radical is present, write the formula of the radical in brackets and indicate the
number of units present as a sub-script to the brackets.
ASSIGNMENT
Derive the formulas of the following compounds:
1) Sodium chloride 5) Aluminium oxide

2) Magnesium oxide 6) Potassium carbonate
3) Calcium chloride 7) Magnesium hydroxide
4) Lithium nitrate 8) Sodium sulphate

CHEMICAL NOMENCLATURE
This is a system of naming chemical compounds such that the chemical composition of a compound is
known directly from its name.
The international union of pure and applied chemistry (IUPAC) recently drew up a set of rules for naming
chemical compounds. However, the old system of nomenclature is still in use for some compounds.
a) NOMENCLATURE OF BINARY COMPOUNDS: a binary compound is one which contains only two
elements. Their names end with the suffix” –ide”. The rules below are followed when naming binary
compound ;
1. When a metal is present, write the name of the metal first. If the metal has variable valencies, its
valency in the compound is indicated by a roman numeral in parentheses after name of the metal
(IUPAC RULE).
Examples:
#! = Sodium chloride "! = Iron (II) chloride
'( = Magnesium oxide "! = Iron (III) chloride
* = Lithium hydride ! = Copper (I) oxide
&
= Zinc sulphide ! = Copper (II) oxide
'( # = Magnesium nitride " = Iron (III) oxide
2. When only non-metal are presents, the name of the non-metal on the left of the binary compound is
written first, followed by its valency in the compound in parentheses, if it has variable valencies (IUPAC
RULE).
Examples:
= Hydrogen sulphide = Sulphur (VI) oxide
! = Hydrogen chloride = Sulphur (IV) oxide
! = Carbon (IV) oxide ! = Phosphorus (III) chloride
! = Carbon (II) oxide !+ = Phosphorus (V) chloride
3. Prefixes such as; Mon, di, tri, tetra, penta for 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 respectively, are sometimes used to indicate
the number of atoms of elements present (not a rule of IUPAC).
Examples:
! = Carbon monoxide # = Dinitrogen tetraoxide
! = Carbon dioxide ! = Phosphorus trichloride
# = Nitrogen dioxide !+ = Phosphorus pentachloride
# = Nitrogen monoxide = Sulphur dioxide
# = Dinitrogen oxide = Sulphur trioxide

REMARK: The common names of the following binary compounds are often preferred:
= Water
# = Ammonia
= Phosphine
The main exceptions to the rules of naming binary compounds are hydroxide and cyanides whose are
names have the “–ide” ending but they are not binary compounds.
b) NOMENCLATURE OF COMPOUNDS WITH THREE OF MORE ELEMENTS: the rules given below are not
those of the IUPAC system.
1. If the compound contains any of the radicals: # ,!, , , ! , , , ! , '
,
!, -,its name ends with the suffix “-ate”.
Examples:
# = Sodium sulphate #! = Sodium hydrogen carbonate
.# = Potassium nitrate # = Sodium hydrogen sulphate
!! = Calcium carbonate .! = Potassium chlorate
* = Lithium phosphate .'
= Potassium permanganate
2. If the compound contains any of the radicals:# , , , its name ends with the suffix “-ite”.
Examples:
# = Sodium sulphite
.# = Potassium nitrite
# = Sodium hydrogen sulphite
3. If the compound contains the ammonium radical (# ), the name of the radical is written first.
Examples:
# ! = Ammonium chloride
# # = Ammonium nitrate
# = Ammonium sulphate
4. If the compound contains the hydroxide radical (OH), its name ends in “-ide”.
Examples:
# = Sodium hydroxide
! = Calcium hydroxide
. = Potassium hydroxide
! = Copper (II) hydroxide

c) NOMENCLATURE OF ACIDS: the rules given below are not those of the IUPAC system.
1. In naming an oxoacid i.e. an acid containing oxygen, hydrogen and a third element, the name of the
third element ends in “-ic” followed by the word “acid”.
Examples:
= Sulphuric acid
# = Nitric acid
! = Carbonic acid
=Phosphoric acid
NOTE: The name of the acid ! ends as those of oxoacids but it is not an oxoacids i.e.
! = Hydrochloric acid.
2. The names of oxoacids with the same element as those above but with one oxygen atom less, end in “-
ous” followed by the word “acid”.
Examples:
= Sulphurous acid
# = Nitrous acid
= Phosphorous acid
EXERCISES
1) Name each of the following compounds:
a) /(# d) 0
b) '( e) !#
c) "
2) Derive the formulae of the following compounds:

a) Lead (II) oxide c) Copper (II) sulphate e) Ammonium carbonate
b) Iron (III) hydroxide d) Aluminium hydroxide f) Potassium dichromate
ASSIGNMENT
1) Name each of the following compounds. Give two different names each for compounds (a) and (b)
a) ! e) !! i) #
b) f) " j) !
c) 1 g) "
d) &
! h) '(#

2) Derive the formulae of the following compounds:
a) Iron (III) oxide d) Aluminium hydroxide
b) Copper (II) carbonate e) Lithium nitride
c) Sodium oxide
CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS
A. CHEMICAL REACTIONS: a chemical reaction is a change in which new substances are formed. It is
actually a chemical change which is not easily reversible. Energy of often given out to the surroundings or
absorbed when a chemical reaction occurs.
REACTANTS AND PRODUCTS
In a chemical reaction, the substance or substances that react are called reactants while the new substance
or substances formed are called products.
In the chemical reaction between hydrogen and oxygen to give water, hydrogen and oxygen are the
reactants while water is the product.
23,(
2(
?,
455555565555557 45657
89:;<:=<> @ABCD;<
TYPES OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS
Several types of chemical reactions exist. These include among others, the following:
1. Direct combination reactions or Synthesis: a direct combination reaction is one in which two or more
substances combine together chemically to give a single product. Examples are;
!,0
2(
!,0
33
3 !E,
3 FE,3
2. Decomposition reactions: a decomposition reaction is one in which a single substance breaks down
into two or more simpler substances. Decomposition brought about by heating is called thermal
decomposition. The application of heat is usually shown by the symbol below the arrow pointing
from the reactants to products i.e. HIIIJ
∆
Examples of decomposition reactions are;
!F F,0
HIIIIJ !F 3 !,0
33
∆
FE, HIIIIJ FE,3 2(

B. CHEMICAL EQUATIONS: a chemical equation is a short form of representing a chemical reaction by

means of symbols and formulae.
RULES FOR WRITING CHEMICAL EQUATIONS
1) A word equation is first written with reactants on the left hand side (L.H.S) and products on the right
hand side (R.H.S). The reactants are separated from each other by a plus sign (+) and the same applies
for the products.
2) The names of the reactants and products are then replaced by their correct formulae (or symbols for
monatomic elements).
3) State symbols which are; K for solid, L for liquid, M for gas and NO for aqueous solution, are used to
show the state of the reactants and products in the reaction. A state symbol is usually written as a sub-
script in brackets to the formula or symbol of a reactant or product.
4) Sometimes an arrow pointing upwards (↑) showing that a gas is released or pointing downwards (↓)
showing that a solid is deposited, is used in a chemical equation.
5) The equation must be balanced. An equation is balanced when the total number of atoms of each
element on the L.H.S is equal to the number on the R.H.S.
NOTE: Chemical equations are only written for possible chemical reactions.
BALANCING A CHEMICAL EQUATION
A chemical equation is balanced by the trial and error method, whereby numbers are written as
coefficients to the formulae and symbols of reactants and products so that the total number of atoms of
each kind of element on the L.H.S is equal to the total number on the R.H.S.
NOTE: you must NEVER balance an equation by altering the formula of an element or compound.
EXAMPLES ON WRITING AND BALANCING CHEMICAL EQUATIONS
1. Write balanced equations in symbol and formulae for the following reactions:
a) !,0
2(
!,0
33
b) 23,(
2(
?,
c) 3 ?, 3 E23,3 23,(
d) 3 E23,3 PE,F F3 3 PE ?,

e) !F F,0
23,FE,F F3 !F FE,3 !,0
33 ?,
2. Balance the following equations:
a) ( ( (
b) (
c) ! ( ( ! (

ASSIGNMENT
1. Write balanced equations in symbol and formulae for the following reactions:
a) 23,(
!E,
23,(
FE,3
b) #,(
23,(
/

c) '(
FE,
'(
FE,3
d) !PP, 11 3 23,(
!PP, ?,
2. Balance the following equations:

a) .Q,R ! ( .!R Q,
b) &
!R &
! R (
c) .! .! (
d) " !( " ! (
e) !# ! # ( (
f) ! ( ( ! (
Answer to (f) =2! ( 13 ( 8! ( 10
THE LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MASS
The law states that “the total mass of the reactants in a chemical reaction is always equal to the total mass
of the products”.
According to the law, atoms of elements are neither created nor destroyed when a chemical reaction
occurs. They are also not changed into atoms of other elements. What changes is the arrangement of the
atoms, which produces new substances.
An unbalanced equation shows that atoms are created and destroyed, which is impossible. Therefore,
chemical equations must always be balanced.
REVERSIBLE REACTIONS
A reversible reaction is one in which reactants change into products, and the products change back into to
the reactants depending on the conditions of the reaction. A reversible reaction is usually represented by
the sign ⇌ or ⇄ between reactants and products. i.e. / 467
Q ⇌ ! 467
X
89:;<:=<> @ABCD;<>
EXAMPLES OF REVERSIBLE REACTIONS
# ! ⇌ # ( !(
! · 5 ⇌ !

ACTION OF HEAT ON MATERIALS

Materials behave differently when heated; some undergo physical or non-permanent changes while others
undergo chemical or permanent changes.
A. PHYSICAL OR NON-PERMANENT CHANGES: a physical or non-permanent change is one in which no

new substance is formed and is easily reversible. It is sometimes accompanied by a temporary colour
change.
Below are some examples of physical changes brought about by the action of heat on materials.
1. Expansion: materials increase in size or volume when heated.

2. Melting: a solid may turn into a liquid when heated, e.g. ice and candle wax melt easily when heated.
3. Boiling and evaporation: a liquid turns into a gas when heated to its boiling point. When this happens
below the boiling point, the process is called evaporation, e.g. water boils at 100Z and evaporates at
temperatures below100Z.
4. Sublimation: some solids change directly from the solid state to the gaseous state without passing
through the liquid state, when heated, e.g. iodine, camphor and ammonium chloride sublime when
heated.
5. Temporary colour change: the colours of some substances change temporarily when heated, zinc oxide
is yellow when hot and white when cold.
When the heated substances are allowed to cool down, the reverse processes occur as shown in the
table below.
HEATING COOLING
1) Expansion; increase in size or Contraction; decrease in size or
volume. volume
2) Boiling and evaporation Condensation or liquefaction
*R3 [ [ *R3
3) Melting or fusion Solidification or freezing
3 *R3 *R3 3
4) Sublimation Sublimation
3 [ [ 3
5) Temporary colour change Original colour reappears
B. CHEMICAL OR PERMANENT CHANGES: a chemical or permanent change is one in which new

substances are formed and is not easily reversible. It may be accompanied by a permanent colour
change.
Below are some chemical changes undergone by some materials when heated.
1. Action of heat on lead (IV) oxide: lead (IV) oxide which is a dark-brown solid undergoes thermal
decomposition on heating to give lead (II) oxide, a yellow solid and oxygen gas.

20
45565 HIIIJ
57 20
45
56557 (
∆
\]N^ _àbc^] \]N^ __abc^]
dNefgheaij k]LLai
2. Action of heat on mercury (II) oxide: mercury (II) oxide which is a red solid decomposes thermally to
mercury, a black liquid and oxygen gas is released.
2(
45 56557 HIIIJ 2( 45657 (
∆
l9ADAm nnBopC9 l9A;DAm
89C qr:;s
3. Action of heat on metallic carbonates: all common metallic carbonates except those of sodium and
potassium, decompose on heating to give the oxides of the metals and carbon dioxide.
i.e. t]uNL vNehajNu] HIIIJ t]uNL abc^] wNehaj ^cabc^]
∆
Examples:
!!
45565
57 HIIIJ !
45657 ! (
∆
x:r;pDy ;:AzB=:<9 x:r;pDy BopC9
{|p<9 {|p<9
0!
45565
57 HIIIJ 0
45657 ! (
∆
}9:C nn;:AzB=:<9 }9:C nnBopC9
{|p<9 ~9rrB
!!
45 565
57 HIIIJ !
45657 ! (
∆
xB9A nn;:AzB=:<9 xB9A nnBopC9
qrDp>|gA99= qr:;s
4. Action of heat on hydrated salts: hydrated salts are dehydrated by heat i.e. they lose their water of
crystallization and become anhydrous. E.g. blue hydrated copper (II) sulphate crystals lose their water
of crystallization and crumble into white anhydrous copper sulphate, when heated. In this case, both a
chemical and a physical change occur. The loss of water of crystallization is a chemical change and the
colour change is a physical change.
! · 5
45555655557 HIIIJ !
45 56557
5 (
∆
qrD9 |mCA:<9C {|p<9 :=|mCABD>
xB9A nn>Dr|:<9 9=<:|mCA:<9 xB9A nn>Dr|:<9
5. Action of heat on sugar: when heated, sugar which is a white solid; melts, turns yellow and then brown
i.e. it caramelizes. When heated further, it decomposes to sugar charcoal which is a black solid and
steam is given off.
!
45 565
5
557 HIIIJ 12!
45657 11 45565 (
57
∆
D:A D:A ;|:A;B:r <9:y
{|p<9 qr:;s
ASSIGNMENT
Copy and complete the following equations
a) '(! HIIIJ
∆
b) . ! HIIIJ
∆
c) !! · 6 HIIIJ
∆

REACTIONS WITH OXYGEN OF THE AIR
Air is a mixture of gases, with the following composition by volume.
GAS PERCENTAGE BY VOLUME

Nitrogen 78
Oxygen 21
Carbon dioxide 0.03
Rare or noble gases 1
Water vapour Variable
FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION OF LIQUID AIR
The components of air can be separated by Fractional distillation. The process involves two stages:
1. First, the air is cooled and compressed until it turns into a liquid at a temperature of200Z. At this low
temperature, water vapour and carbon dioxide had solidified and removed by filtration.
2. Then the liquid air is allowed to warm up in a fractionating column. The various gases boil off at
different temperatures.
ACTIVE AND INACTIVE AIR
The active part of air is oxygen because it supports combustion and takes part in respiration and the
corrosion of metals.
The inactive part of air is mainly nitrogen because it does not support combustion and is unreactive.
REACTIONS WITH OXYGEN OF THE AIR
A. COMBUSTION: it is a reaction in which oxygen combines with a substance. Combustion where a flame
is produced is known as burning.
1. Combustion of metals: when heated, metals burn in air and combine with oxygen to form metallic
oxides, which are called basic oxides.

c. ]. t]uNL bM]j NKcv abc^]

Examples:
2'( ( 45
2'(
56557
l:=9>pDy BopC9
4# ( 45
2#
565 57
BCpDy BopC9
2. Combustion of Non-metals: Non-metals burn in air and combine with oxygen, when heated to form
oxides called acidic oxides.
. . #
2(
/F3F 3
Examples:
• Carbon burns in a plentiful supply of air to form carbon dioxide.
! ( ! (
NOTE: In a limited supply of air, carbon burns to form carbon monoxide instead.
2! ( 2!(
467
}pyp<9C
• Sulphur burns in air when heated to form sulphur dioxide.
( (
3. Combustion of compounds: some compounds for example fuels burn in oxygen of the air when heated.
Below are some examples on the combustion of fuels.
• Methane (present in natural gas ) burns in air as follows:
!
456 57 2 ( ! ( 2 (
(
l9<|:=9
• Butane (found in cooking gas) burns in air as shown by the equation below:
2!565
45 ( 13 ( 8! ( 10 (
57
qD<:=9
B. THE CORROSION OF METALS: some metals corrode in air by combining with oxygen in the presence of
water vapour or moisture to form a layer of oxide on their surfaces.
t]uNL bM]j tacKue] t]uNL abc^]
The rate of corrosion is usually increased by the presence pollutants such as sulphur dioxide and
nitrogen dioxide in the air.
RUSTING
It is the corrosion of iron in the presence of oxygen and water (moisture).

When rusting occurs, a reddish-brown powdery substance called rust is formed on the surface of iron. This
rust is hydrated iron (III) oxide (" · ).
CONDITIONS NECESSARY RUSTING
For rusting to occur, the followings must be present:
1. Oxygen
2. Water or moisture
The rate of rusting increases when pollutants (e.g. sulphur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide) are present in air
and when there are dissolved salts (e.g. common salt) in water.
METHODS OF PREVENTION OF RUSTING
Rusting is a serious economic problem because it is destructive iron articles. It can be prevented by the
following methods:
1. Painting: the surface of iron should be painted e.g. aluminium paint could be used.
2. Galvanization: it is the coating of iron with zinc.
3. Oiling or greasing: oil or grease is applied to the surface of iron.
4. Electroplating: it is the coating of iron with a corrosion-resistant metal such as copper, tin silver etc, by
electrical method.
5. Alloying: iron is mixed with chromium, nickel and carbon to produce stainless steel which is resistant to
rusting.
ASSIGNMENT
A student experimenting on rusting placed new iron nails in a test tube and labeled it A. He equally added
anhydrous calcium chloride to the tube to absorb moisture and then corked it. In test tube B, he placed
new iron nails in boiled water, added a layer of olive oil above the water and corked it. Finally, he placed
new iron nails in test tube C containing cold water and left it opened to the atmosphere. He allowed the
setup for two weeks.
a) State whether after two weeks the nails in:

i. Test tube A got rusted. Explain your answer. (2 marks)
ii. Test tube C got rusted. Explain your answer. (2 marks)
b) The nails in test tube B did not get rusted after two weeks because a component of air was absent:
iii. Name this component of air. (1 mark)
iv. Explain why it was absent. (2 marks)
c) State THREE methods of preventing rusting. (3 marks)

THE ATOM
The atom is the smallest particle of an element that can take part in a chemical reaction.
THE STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM
The atom is made up of three smaller particles known as the sub-atomic particles. These are: electrons,
protons and neutrons.
The atom consists of two main parts which are:

a) The nucleus: it is central, tiny and massive. Protons and neutrons are located in the nucleus.
b) The electron cloud: this consists of electrons spinning round the nucleus in imaginary paths called shells
or electron orbits.
Below is a diagram of the generalized structure o f the atom.
NOTE: all atoms contain electrons and protons. All atoms contain neutrons except hydrogen atoms
THE CHARACTERISTICS OF SUB-ATOMIC PARTICLES

1. Electrons: the electron carries a negative electric charge and has a mass of . . , which is
negligible. Electrons were discovered by J.J. Thomson in 1897.
2. Protons: the proton carries a positive electric charge and has a mass of1 . . . The existence of
protons was demonstrated by Ernest Rutherford in 1920.
3. Neutrons: the neutron carries no electric charge i.e. it is neutral and has a mass of1 . . . Neutrons
were discovered by James Chadwick in 1932
SUB-ATOMIC RELATIVE RELATIVE MASS LOCATION IN THE

PARTICLE CHARGE ATOM
Electron -1 1 Shells or orbits
1840
Proton +1 1 Nucleus
Neutron 0 (neutral) 1 Nucleus

REMARKS
1) The attractive force between the protons in the nucleus and the electrons holds the electrons in their
orbits round the nucleus.
2) The Mass of the atom is all concentrated at its centre where the massive sub-atomic particles namely
protons and neutrons are located. The mass of the electron is so small compared to the other particles
and can be ignored.
3) The atoms is electrically neutral because the number of protons is equal to the number of electrons,
hence the positive charge of the protons cancels the negative charge of the electrons, leaving the atom
with no net charge.
ATOMIC AND MASS NUMBERS
1. Atomic number (&): the atomic number of an element is the number of protons in one atom of that
element. It is usually denoted by&.
2. Mass number (/): the mass number of an element is the sum total of protons and neutrons in one
atom of that element. It is also referred to as nucleon number. It is usually denoted by A.
REMARKS:
• Protons and neutrons are generally referred to as nucleons.
• In an atom, atomic number also represents the number of electrons.
HOW TO CALCULATE THE NUMBER OF NEUTRONS
The number of neutrons in an atom is calculated as follows:
#0,
,
'
0, /F
0,
=> #0,
,
/ &
CONVENTIONAL REPRESENTATION OF THE ATOM
Conventionally the atom is represented as follows:
EXERCISE

N, represents the sodium atom. Calculate the number in the atom of:
a) Protons
b) Neutrons
c) Electrons

ISOTOPY
It is the existence of an element with two or more atoms, having the same atomic number but different
mass numbers, due to different numbers of neutrons.
Atoms of the same element having the same atomic numbers but different mass numbers due to different
number s of neutrons are called isotopes. For example, the isotopes of chlorine are:
+ -
-!
3 -! with 18 and 20 neutrons respectively
THE MODIFICATIONS OF DALTON’S ATOMIC THEORY
Modern scientific discoveries have led to the modifications of Dalton’s atomic theory as follows:
1. The fact that atoms are the smallest indivisible particles of an element is not true. This is because sub-
atomic particles which are smaller than atoms have been discovered and also atoms break down (i.e.
are divided) during the process of radioactivity.
2. The fact that atoms can neither be created nor destroyed is still acceptable only in chemical reactions.
Atoms of some elements are usually created and destroyed during the process of radioactivity.
3. The idea that atoms of the same4 element are alike i.e. the same in all aspects, is no longer accepted
due to the existence of isotopes, discovered with the mass spectrometer.
4. The idea that when atoms combine to form molecules they do so in small whole numbers is not true for
some organic molecules which usually contain large numbers of atoms of various elements present.
THE PERIODIC TABLE
It is a rectangular arrangement of elements into horizontal rows called periods and vertical columns called
groups.
THE IMPORTANCE OF THE CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS
Elements are classified in a periodic table in order to:

1. Ease the study of the elements.
2. Ease the identification of the elements.
3. Ease the understanding of the properties of the elements.
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
The development of the periodic table has a long historical background.
d_ _d
Early in the 19th century, J. W Do bereiner , a German chemist arranged many of the known elements in
groups of three similar elements. He called these groups of three elements triads. Some examples of
Do bereiner s triads were:
\d w`
In 1865, John Newlands, an English chemist, arranged the known elements in order of their atomic masses
and found that any one element had properties similar to those of the elements eighty places in front of it
and eight places behind it, in the list. Newlands called this the law of octaves. Three of Newlands’ octaves
were:
Newlands assumed that all elements had been discovered, and when new elements were later discovered,
they could not fit into the octave structure.
\ tk w `
Early in 1869, Lothar Meyer, a German chemist plotted graphs (curves) of various physical properties such
as melting point, boiling point and density of the known elements against their atomic masses. He found
that elements with similar properties occurred at similar points on the curves.
td\` ¡_d_w \
Later in 1869, Dmitri Mendeleev, a Russian chemist, arranged the known elements in order of increasing
atomic mass and found that elements with similar properties recurred at regular intervals.
The Mendeleev’s periodic table was more successful than the one proposed by Newlands because of the
following reasons.
• Mendeleev left gaps in his table for possible elements yet to be discovered.
• He predicted the properties of some of these yet undiscovered elements.
Two of these undiscovered elements namely gallium and germanium were discovered within Mendeleev’s
lifetime and their properties were similar to those earlier predicted by Mendeleev.
Mendeleev is known as the father of the modern periodic table because it is base on his table.
THE MODERN PERIODIC TABLE
The Mendeleev’s periodic law stated that “the properties of elements are a periodic function of their
atomic masses.’’
However, Moseley’s work on x-rays led to the modern periodic law which states that “the properties of
elements are a periodic function of their atomic numbers.”

In the modern periodic tables, all the elements are arranged in increasing order of their atomic numbers.
Below is a portion of the modern periodic table for the first 20 elements.
GROUPS AND PERIODS
1. GROUPS: these are vertical columns of elements with similar chemical properties. There are eight
groups in the periodic table which run from left to right, numbered in roman numerals as:
I, II, III… VIII or O.
2. PERIODS: these are horizontal rows of elements. there are seven periods in the periods table which run
from top to bottom, numbered in Arabic numerals as 1, 2, 3,… 7. Period 1 is the shortest period of the
periodic table containing only two elements namely hydrogen and helium.
THE POSITIONS OF METALS AND NON-METALS
Metals are found on the left of the periodic table while non-metals are found on the right, separated by a
stepped line in the table as shown above. The elements close to the line such as Boron, Silicon etc have
both metallic and non-metallic properties and are called metalloids or semi-metals.
GROUP I ELEMENTS
The group I elements of the periodic table are called alkali metals, because they react with water to form
alkaline solutions i.e. solutions which turn red litmus paper blue. Examples of group I elements are Lithium
(Li), Sodium (Na), Potassium (K), etc.
PROPERTIES OF GROUP I ELEMENTS
A. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
1) They are less dense than water and so float on water.
2) They are soft enough to be cut with a knife.
3) They are shiny when freshly cut but become dull outside after some time of exposure to the air.
4) They have low melting points and boiling points as compared to other metals.
5) They are good conductor of heat and electricity.

B. CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
1) Reaction with water: alkali metals react vigorously with water to produce alkaline solutions and
hydrogen e.g.
2# 2 45

2#R
5565557 (
a^c¢ £êabc^]
2. 2 2.R

4556557 (
¡auNKKc¢ £êabc^]
2) Reaction with oxygen: group elements react with oxygen when exposed to the air forming a layer of
oxide on their surfaces e.g. 4# ( 2#
The oxide layer causes any alkali metal to lose its shiny appearance and becomes dull when exposed to air.
When this happens, the metals are said to tarnish in air. To prevent the alkali metals from tarnishing in air,
they are stored under oil or liquid paraffin like petrol, kerosene etc.
GROUP II ELEMENTS
Group II elements of the periodic table are called alkaline earth metals, because they are usually extracted
from compounds which occur in the earth’s crust. Examples of group II elements are Beryllium (Be),
Magnesium (Mg), Calcium (Ca) etc.
PROPERTIES OF GROUP II ELEMENTS
a) PHYSICAL PROPERTIES:
1) They are denser than group I elements and so sink in water.
2) They are harder than group I elements and cannot be cut easily with a knife.
3) They are silvery white in appearance.
4) Their melting and boiling points are higher than those of the alkali metals.
5) They are good conductors of heat and electricity.
b) CHEMICAL PROPERTIES: group II elements are generally less reactive than group I elements.
1) Reaction with water: group II elements react with water to form hydroxides of oxides.
Calcium reacts very slowly with cold water and faster with hot water to form calcium hydroxide and
hydrogen. ! 2 455565557
! R (
;:r;pDy |mCABopC9
Magnesium only reacts with water in the form of steam to form magnesium oxide and hydrogen.
'( (
4565 7 45657'( (
<9:y l:=>pDy BopC9
2) Reaction with oxygen: alkaline earth metals react with oxygen to form oxides layers on their surfaces,
when exposed to air. The oxide layers give them a dull appearance. magnesium burns in oxygen as
follows: '( ( 2'(

3) Reaction with acids: any alkaline metal reacts with a dilute acid to give a salt and hydrogen e.g.
'( 2!R 4556557'(! R (
l:=9>pDy ;|rBApC9
! R !565
45
57 (
x:r;pDy >Dr|:<9
GROUP VII ELEMENTS
Group VII elements of the periodic table are called the Halogens because they react with metals to form
salts. The word Halogen means “salt former”. Examples of group VII elements are; Fluorine (F), Chlorine
(Cl), Bromine (Br), Iodine (I), Astatine (At)
The Halogens exist as diatomic molecules at room temperature and pressure (r.t.p)
PROPERTIES OF GROUP VII ELEMENTS OF THE PERIODIC TABLE
a) PHYSICAL PROPERTIES: Their physical properties at r.t.p are summarized in the table below.
HALOGEN MOLECULE STATE COLOUR

Fluorine " Gas Pale-yellow
Chlorine ! Gas Greenish-yellow
Bromine Q, Liquid Reddish-brown
Iodine 1 Solid Shiny black
b) CHEMICAL PROPERTIES: The Halogens are chemically very reactive.

1) Reaction with metals: they react with metals especially when heated to form salts e.g.
2# ! ( 2#!
4556557
BCpDy ;|rBApC9
;ByyB= >:r<
2) Reaction with non-metals: they combine directly with some non-metals e.g. hydrogen combines
explosively with chlorine in bright light to form hydrogen chloride
}p|<
( ! ( HIIJ 2!(
3) As bleaching agents: The solutions of halogens except iodine and astatine in water are bleaching
agents which can remove colours from materials e.g. when the solution of chlorine in water (called
chlorine water) is applied to cotton, its natural yellow colour changes to white.
GROUP VIII OR O ELEMENTS
The group VIII elements of the periodic table are called noble or rare gases. Examples of these elements
are: Helium (He), Argon (Ar), Neon (Ne) etc. the elements are all colourless monatomic gases at room
temperature and atmospheric pressure. The noble gases are so unreactive and stable under normal
conditions.

FAMILY NAMES
Below is a summary of some groups and their family names
GROUP FAMILY NAME

I Alkali metals
II Alkaline earth metals
VII Halogens
VIII or O Noble or rare gases
TRENDS ACROSS A PERIOD
1. Atomic numbers of elements increase progressively across the period from left to right.
2. Atomic size decreases across the period from left to right.
3. The elements change from metallic to metalloids and then to non –metals across the periods from left
to right.
4. In metallic groups (groups I, II and III) chemical reactivity decreases across the periods from left to right.
Group I elements are therefore the most reactive metals.
5. In non-metallic groups (groups V, VI, and VII) chemical reactivity increases across the periods from left
to right, therefore group VII elements are the most reactive non-metals.
GROUP TRENDS
1. Atomic size increases down the group from top to bottom.

2. In metallic groups, chemical reactivity increases down the group. Francium (Fr) at the bottom of group I
is the most reactive metal.
3. In non-metallic groups, chemical reactivity decreases down the group, hence fluorine (F) at the bottom
of group VII is the most reactive non-metal.
THE POSITION OF HYDROGEN IN THE PERIODIC TABLE
In some versions of the periodic table, hydrogen is placed either above group I or above group VII. More
often in recent periodic tables it is left by itself. This is because hydrogen with the smallest atoms of all has
distinctive and unique properties and does not fit easily into the trends shown in any one group.
THE PERIODICITY OF VALENCIES OF ELEMENTS

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Page 1 of 35 CHEMISTRY FORM TWO

WATER AND SOLUTION

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF WATER

• Pure water is colourless, odourless and tasteless.

A solution is a uniform or homogeneous mixture of a solute and a solvent.   

DEFINITION OF RELATED TERMS

WATER AS A UNIVERSAL SOLVENT

1. A concentrated solution: It is a solution which contains a large proportion of a solute dissolved in a

AN EXPERIMENT TO PREPARE A SATURATED SOLUTION OF COMMON SALT (SODIUM CHLORIDE) IN

SOLUBLE AND INSOLUBLE SUBSTANCES

FACTORS AFFECTING THE SOLUBILITY OF SUBSTANCES

HOW TO MEASURE THE SOLUBILITY OF A SUBSTANCE

AN EXPERIMENT TO DETERMINE THE SOLUBILITY OF SODIUM CHLORIDE (COMMON SALT) IN WATER AT

A saturated solution of sodium chloride at 25oc is prepared.

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SOLVED EXAMPLES ON SOLUBILITY

SOLUBILITY IN NON-AQUEOUS SOLVENTS

a. Alcohols e.g. ethanol

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THE SHAPES OF SOME CRYSTALS

WHY CRYSTALS FORM WHEN A HOT SATURATED SOLUTION OF A SUBSTANCE IS COOLED

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CRYSTALLIZATION AS A METHOD OF PURIFYING CRYSTALLINE SOLIDS

THE TEST FOR WATER

Water is identified in the laboratory by any one of the following methods:

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PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION BY MASS OF ELEMENTS IN THE EARTH’S CRUST

HOW SYMBOLS OF ELEMENTS ARE DERIVED

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THE NAMES OF ELEMENTS

Some elements are named:

METALS AND NON-METALS

2) APPEARANCE: metals are generally lustrous or shiny.

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USES OF SOME METALS AND THEIR ALLOYS

1) Sodium: it is used in;

DALTON’S ATOMIC THEORY

John Dalton in his theory suggested that:

1. All matter is made up of tiny indivisible particles called atoms.

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Compound Constituent elements

ELEMENT MOLECULE ATOMICITY

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Depending on the atomicity of a molecule, it is described as:

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CHEMICAL FORMULAE OR FORMULAS

A chemical formula is a shorthand method of representing an element or a compound, using symbols.

CHEMICAL FORMULAE OF ELEMENTS

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CHEMICAL FORMULAE OF COMPOUNDS

THE USE OF BRACKETS IN CHEMICAL FORMULAE

A NUMBER BEFORE THE FORMULA OF AN ELEMENT OR COMPOUND

1) 3 Represents three molecules of oxygen with a total of six O atoms.

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THE USE OF VALENCIES IN WRITING CHEMICAL FORMULAS

The rules below are followed:

Derive the formulas of the following compounds:

1) Sodium chloride 5) Aluminium oxide

A solution is a uniform or homogeneous mixture of a solute and a solvent.

1) 3 Represents three molecules of oxygen with a total of six O atoms.

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