Page 1 of 27 CHEMISTRY LESSON NOTE FOR FORM ONE

Chapter1 INTRODUCTION TO CHEMISTRY

Definition: science is a systematic study of nature. Science studies things and happenings around us in an
orderly manner. The word science came from the Latin word ‘scire’ meaning ‘to know’.

A SCIENTIST
A scientist is an expert in science and works in one of the sciences.

SCIENCE SUBJECTS
The main science subjects are; Chemistry, Physics and Biology.
Science subjects can be classified into two main groups.

a) PURE SCIENCES: These include; Astronomy, Biology, Chemistry and Physics. Pure sciences promote our
understanding of the universe, ourselves and other living things.

b) APPLIED SCIENCES: These include; Agriculture, Engineering and Medicine. Applied sciences make use of
the results of pure sciences to achieve some kind of practical or profitable gain.
NOTE: Mathematics is both a pure science and an applied science.

Definition: Chemistry is a science that studies the composition, properties and changes that matter
undergoes.
An expert in chemistry is called a chemist i.e. a scientist specialized in chemistry.

BRANCHES OF CHEMISTRY
Chemistry is divided into five main branches, which are:
1) Physical chemistry
2) Organic chemistry
3) Inorganic chemistry
4) Analytical chemistry
5) Biochemistry.

THE IMPORTANCE OF CHEMISTRY IN THE SOCIETY

Chemistry plays an important role in supplying our basic needs which are:

1) FOOD; the products of chemistry such as fertilizers and pesticides have increased food production
greatly.

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2) CLOTHING; many clothing materials are manufactured from fabrics such as Nylon, Polyester and
Terylene, which are produced by chemists. The dyes used in colouring the fabrics are also made by
chemists.
3) SHELTER; cement, roofing sheets, iron rods, nails, glass, paint etc used for building and construction are
the products of chemistry.
4) MEDICINE; drugs, vaccines, pills and injections used to prevent and to cure diseases are manufactured
using the knowledge of chemistry. Also, anaesthetics used for surgical operations and dentistry, are
made by chemists.
5) FUELS; fuels like petrol, diesel, fuel oil etc used in automobile as well as cooking gas used in the kitchen
are produced using chemical knowledge.
6) SOAPS AND DETERGENTS; these are cleaning agents manufactured using the knowledge of chemistry.

SOME CHEMICAL INDUSTRIES IN CAMEROON

The chemical industries in Cameroon include the following.

CHOCOCAM; which produces chocolate and bonbons.

CICAM; manufactures fabrics used in making clothes.

ALUCAM; Produces aluminium.

CIMENCAM; manufactures cement.

CAME PLAST; manufactures plastics.

SONARA; extracts and refines crude oil.

PILCAM; Manufactures electrical cells. (HELLESENS)

SOME CAREERS RELATED TO CHEMISTRY

After studying chemistry, you can become:
 a medical doctor  a brewer
 a teacher  a nutritionist
 a nurse  a pharmacologist
 a laboratory technician  a surgeon
 a chemical engineer  a dentist

THE CHEMISTRY LABORATORY

The chemistry laboratory is a chemist’s workshop. It is a place where experiments, tests, research and
demonstrations are carried out. Chemicals and equipments are usually stored in the laboratory for use,
when need arises.

SAFETY RULES FOR WORKING IN THE CHEMISTRY LABORATORY

1) Do not run or play.
2) Do not eat or drink.
3) Do not keep long loose hair.
4) Do not take off labels from reagent bottles.
5) Do not play with electrical appliances.

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6) Never taste any chemical because it might be poisonous.
7) Never point a boiling tube at someone or look into it with bare eyes, when heating.
8) Never use unlabelled chemicals.
9) Never smell any gas by bringing the container very close to your nose. To smell a gas, hold the container
a distant away from your nose and wave the gas to your nose with your hand.
10) Never try your own experiments without permission from your teacher or laboratory attendant.
11) Always wear hand gloves and a laboratory coat or apron.
12) Always read labels before using chemicals.
13) Always wear glasses or goggles.
14) Always clean your equipment after use.
15) Always keep your bench clean and dry.
16) Always wash your hands before leaving the laboratory.
17) Wash any part of the body with plenty of cold water if a chemical spills on it.
18) Handle poisonous gases in a fume cupboard. A fume cupboard is a special chamber designed to suck
away fumes of gases in it.

SOME BASIC LABORATORY EQUIPMENTS OR APPARATUS

Most apparatus used in the chemistry laboratory are made out of glassware. Glass is used because it has
the following advantages:
1) It is transparent i.e. we can see through it.
2) It is not easily attacked by chemicals.
3) Glass can be easily moulded into any desired shape when still hot and soft.
However, glass has the following disadvantages:
1) It is fragile (can easily break) and hence difficult to transport and to store.
2) It can break easily when suddenly heated and cooled. However, heating apparatus are made out of a
special glass called Pyrex, which does not crack when suddenly heated and cooled.

APPARATUS DIAGRAM USE

For heating small

Boiling tube quantities of solids or
liquids

For heating liquids or

Round-bottomed flask mixtures of liquids and
solids

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For holding liquids, but

Flat-bottomed flask not for heating

Beaker For holding liquids.

For heating solutions

Evaporating dish to dryness i.e.
evaporation to
dryness.

For holding liquids and

Test tube solids

Conical flask For holding liquids and

for mixing liquids

Filter funnel For transferring liquids

For separating
Separating funnel OR immiscible liquids
(liquids which do not
mix)

Bunsen burner The main heat source

in the laboratory

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For measuring fixed

Measuring cylinder volumes of liquids

Burette For measuring

accurate volumes of
liquids

For measuring
Pipette accurate and fixed
volumes of liquids

For measuring
Thermometer temperature

For measuring
Gas syringe volumes of gases and
liquids

To hold substances
Tripod being heated

Gauze Used on the tripod

when heating

Gas jar For collecting gases

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For collecting small
Spatula amounts of solids

Liebig condenser For condensing

vapours

HAZARDOUS OR SAFETY SYMBOLS

A hazardous symbol or sign is used to indicate danger or hazard in the laboratory. Hazardous or safety
symbols are usually printed on bottles of chemicals and on some laboratory equipment. Below are some
examples of hazardous symbols.

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THE BUNSEN BURNER

The Bunsen burner is the main heat source in the laboratory. It was invented in 1854 by a German chemist
called Wilhelm Bunsen. The diagram below shows the parts of the Bunsen burner.

HOW TO LIGHT A BUNSEN BURNER

1) Attach the burner to the gas supply.
2) Turn the collar to close the air hole of the chimney, so that air supply is cut off.
3) Open the tap from the gas supply to allow gas into the chimney.
4) Quickly strike the match or lighter and ignite the gas at the top of the chimney.
5) Slowly turn the collar to open the air hole of the chimney to obtain a blue flame.
The Bunsen burner can produce two types of flames depending on whether the air hole is open or closed.
These types of flames are:

a) A LUMINOUS FLAME; it has the following characteristics:

1) It produces smoke and soot.

2) It gives out yellow light.
3) It is unsteady and quiet.
4) It is usually not hot enough to be used in the laboratory.
The Bunsen flame is luminous when the air hole of the Bunsen burner is closed.

Note: A burning candle produces a luminous flame, as well as burning wood.

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b) A NON-LUMINOUS FLAME; it has the following characteristics;

1) It does not produce smoke and soot.

2) It is usually blue in colour.
3) It is steady and noisy.
4) It is usually very hot and is the type of flame used in the laboratory.
The Bunsen flame is non-luminous when the air hole of the Bunsen burner is open.

Note: If the air hole of the Bunsen burner is opened too widely, burning will be too rapid and the flame will
‘strike back’ meaning that the flame will enter into the chimney. This is very dangerous.

Chapter2 ACTION OF HEAT ON SUBSTANCES

MATTER
Definition: matter is anything which occupies space and has mass.

THE STATES OF MATTER

Matter exists in three different states which are:
a) SOLID; e.g. stones, wood, sand, salt, sugar etc.
b) LIQUID; e.g. water, kerosene, petrol, spirit, alcohol etc.
c) GAS; e.g. air, oxygen, carbon dioxide, cooking gas etc.

THE STATES OF WATER

Water is a liquid at ordinary temperature. It also exists as a solid called ice and as a gas called water vapour
or steam.
CHANGE OF STATES OF MATTER
Matter can change from one state to another when heated or when cooled.

TERMS USED TO DESCRIBE CHANGE OF STATES

1) MELTING OR FUSION: It is the change from the solid state to the liquid state on heating. Melting
occurs at a particular temperature called melting point. E.g. the melting point of water is 0oc.
2) BOILING AND EVAPORATION: It is the change from the liquid state to gaseous state on heating. Boiling
occurs at a particular temperature called boiling point. The point of water is 100oc. Evaporation occurs
at all temperatures below the boiling point. The change from the liquid to the gaseous state is also
described as vapourisation.

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3) CONDENSATION OR LIQUEFACTION: This refers to the change from the gaseous state to the liquid
state on cooling or on compression. It is the opposite of boiling or evaporation.
4) SOLIDIFICATION OR FREEZING: This refers to the change from the liquid state to the solid on cooling. It
is the opposite of melting or fusion.
5) SUBLIMATION: it is the change from solid directly to gas without passing through the liquid state.
Substances which undergo sublimation are said to sublime. Examples of substances that
Sublime are; iodine, camphor and ammonium chloride.
6) DEPOSITION: it is the change from gas directly to solid without passing through the liquid state.

SIMPLE KINETIC THEORY

The theory states that ‘all matter is made up of tiny particles which are in constant random motion and
which attract and repel each other.’
The tiny particles of which matter is made can either be atoms, molecules or ions; depending on the
substance e.g. the particles in water are molecules. These particles possess a type of energy called kinetic
energy due to their motion.

HOW THE KINETIC THEORY EXPLAINS THE STATES OF MATTER

1) The solid state: The particles in solids are closely packed together and can only vibrate about fixed
positions. This is because the particles are held together by string binding forces i.e. forces of attraction
between them.

Due to the close packing of particles, a solid has a definite shape and a fixed volume.
2) The liquid state: The particles in liquids are further apart and are free to move about slowly and
exchange neighbours. This is because the binding forces between the particles are weak.

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A liquid has a fixed volume but no definite shape. It takes the shape of the container.
3) The gaseous state: The particles in gases are very far apart and move about randomly and at very high
speeds. This is because the binding forces between the particles are very weak i.e. negligible.

A gas has no definite shape and no fixed volume. It always spreads out to occupy the total volume of its
container.

STATE OF MATTER SOLID LIQUID GAS

Arrangement of particles Very close together Further apart Very far apart
Binding forces Very strong weak Very weak(negligible)
Shape Definite Not definite Not definite
volume Fixed Fixed Not fixed

EXPLAINING CHANGE OF STATES OF MATTER USING THE KINETIC THEORY

When a solid is heated, its particles gain more kinetic energy and vibrate more strongly. At the melting
point, the particles separate from each other and start moving about slowly, forming a liquid. As the liquid
is heated further, its particles gain more kinetic energy and begin moving about much faster until some of
the particles escape from the liquid and become a gas.

When a gas is cooled, the speed of its particles reduces and they start to stick together forming a liquid. As
cooling continues, the movement of the particles become even slower, until the solid state is obtained.

CHANGES THAT MATTER UNDERGOES

Matter undergoes two types of changes, especially when heated. These changes are:

a) A PHYSICAL CHANGE OR A NON-PERMANENT CHANGE: it is a change that is easily reversible and in

which no new substances are formed. Examples of physical changes are;
1) The magnetization of iron.
2) Dissolving salt or sugar in water.
3) Powdering or grinding a solid.
4) All cases of change of states i.e. melting, freezing, boiling, condensation, evaporation and
sublimation.
5) Incandescence or glow of a wire heated by electricity.
b) A CHEMICAL CHANGE OR A PERMANENT CHANGE: it is a change which is not easily reversible and
in which new substances are formed. Examples of chemical changes are;
1) Burning of substances e.g. burning wood, paper etc.
2) The rusting of iron.
3) Fermentation e.g. fermentation of palm wine.
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4) Decay or decomposition of organic matter.
5) Photosynthesis in green plants.
Remark: when a candle burns, both a physical and a chemical change occur as follows.
The melting of the wax is a physical change.
The burning of the wick and part of the wax is a chemical change.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHANGES

PHYSICAL CHANGE CHEMICAL CHANGE

1) No new substances are formed. New substances are formed.
2) The change is generally easily The change is generally not easily reversible.
reversible.
3) It usually not accompanied by a It usually accompanied by a great heat change.
great heat change.
4) Produces no change in mass. Produces individual substances whose masses
are different from those of the original individual
substances.

Chapter3 SIMPLE CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER

MIXTURES
A mixture is made up of two or more substances that are not chemically combined together and retain
their individual properties.
The various substances that make up a mixture are called the constituents or components of the mixture.

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HOMOGENOUS AND HETEROGENEOUS MIXTURES
a. Homogenous mixtures: a homogenous mixture is uniform in composition, properties and appearance.

b. Heterogeneous mixtures: a heterogeneous mixture is non-uniform in at least one of the following;

composition, properties and appearance.

TYPES OF MIXTURES
1) Solid/solid mixtures: the constituents are all solids. Examples are; rice and beans, sand and common
salt, sulphur and iron filings, brass (mixture of copper and zinc)

2) Solid/liquid mixtures: they are made up of solid and liquid components. If the solid dissolves in the
liquid, the mixture is called a solution and the solid is said to be soluble in the liquid. A soluble solid is
called a solute and the liquid in which it dissolves is a called a solvent. A solution is a homogenous
mixture. An example of a solution is sugar solution (mixture of sugar and water). A solid that does not
dissolve in a liquid is said to be insoluble in the liquid. A mixture of an insoluble soluble solid in a liquid
is heterogeneous e.g. a mixture of sand and water.

3) Liquid/liquid mixtures: they are made up of only liquid components. Liquids which mix evenly or
uniformly are called miscible liquids e.g. water and ethanol, petrol and kerosene etc. Liquids which do
not mix and instead separate into different layers are called immiscible liquids. E.g. water and
kerosene, water and oil, etc.
4) Liquid /gas mixtures: their constituents are liquids and gases. Examples are fizzy drinks like soda water,
coca-cola, fanta, etc (they are also called carbonated drinks) and cold water.

5) Gas/gas mixtures: they are made up of only liquid components e.g. air.

6) Solid/gas mixtures: their components are solids particles and gases e.g. smoke.

METHODS OF SEPARATION OF MIXTURES

The components of a mixture can be separated by a physical method because they are not chemically
combined together.

METHODS OF SEPARATING SOLID/SOLID MIXTURES

a) Hand picking: This method is used when the particles of at least one of the components of the mixture
are large enough to be picked with the hand .e.g. a mixture of cocoa seeds and sand, groundnuts and
beans etc.

b) Winnowing: it is used when one of the components of a mixture is light enough to be blown off by wind
e.g. a mixture of coffee beans and the husks, roasted groundnuts and the husks etc.

c) Sieving or sifting: this method is used to separate solid particles of different sizes using a sieve or sifter.
The sieve of sifter has a mesh with holes of a particular size. It allows only smaller particles to pass

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through when sifting. E.g. a mixture of corn flour and chaff, gravel and sand etc, can be separated by
this method.

d) Magnetic attraction: this technique is used when one of the components of a mixture can be attracted
by a magnet. E.g. a mixture of iron filings and sulphur. Iron filings are attracted by a magnet and sulphur
is not.

e) Sublimation: this method is used where one of the components of a mixture sublimes on heating. E.g. a
mixture of common salt and iodine can be separated by this method. Iodine sublimes on heating and
solidifies on a cold surface and is called a sublimate.

METHODS OF SEPARATING SOLID/LIQUID MIXTURES

a) Decantation: it is a method of separating an insoluble solid from a liquid. The solid is allowed to settle to
the bottom of the container. This is process is known as sedimentation and the solid which settles is called
sediment. The liquid is then carefully poured off (decanted) into another container, leaving behind the
sediment. E.g. a mixture of sand and water can be separated by this method.

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b) Filtration: this is a method of separating tiny particles of an insoluble solid from a liquid. The mixture is
poured into a filter funnel that is fitted with a filter paper. The liquid passes through the pores on the filter
paper and is collected as a filtrate. The solid is collected on the filter paper as a residue. E.g. a mixture of
mud and water can be separated by this method.

A sieve can be used to filter large solid particles from a liquid e.g. tea leaves can be filtered from tea
solution using a sieve. Also palm wine and the dregs are separated using a sieve.

c) Centrifugation: by this method, the solid/liquid mixture, e.g. blood, muddy water etc, is put into test
tubes and the tubes are placed into an instrument called a centrifuge. The instrument spins at high
speed and the solid sinks to the bottom of each tube. The tube are then taken out and the water is
decanted leaving the solid behind.

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d) Evaporation to dryness: this method is used to separate a soluble solid from a liquid. For this method
to be used, the solid must be that which cannot be destroyed by heat. The mixture is heated in an
evaporating basin until all of the liquid evaporates. In the process, the liquid is lost to surroundings or is
sacrificed. E.g. a mixture of common salt and water (brine or sea water) can be separated by this
method.

e) Simple distillation: it is a method of separating a soluble solid from a liquid, gaining both the solid and
the liquid. E.g. pure water, called distilled water can be separated from dissolved salt in sea water by
this method. The following apparatus is used.

The mixture is heated in a distillation flask to vapourise the liquid. The vapour passes into a water-
cooled Liebig condenser and condenses into a liquid called the distillate, which is collected in the
receiver flask. The salt remains in the distillation flask. The distillate in this case is distilled water.

f) Paper chromatography: this is a method of separating coloured dyes in inks, in pigments and in extracts
from the leaves of plants.
To separate the dyes in black ink, a drop of the ink is placed on a blotting paper or filter paper. A
solvent e.g. ethanol is added to the ink drop at the centre and allowed for some time. The different
dyes will soak into the paper at different speeds forming rings of different colours. The filter paper with
the various dyes is called a chromatogram. The different rings are cut off and dissolved in various
solvents to extract the different dyes

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METHODS OF SEPARATING LIQUID/LIQUID MIXTURES

a) Using a separating funnel: a separating funnel is used to separate immiscible liquids i.e. liquids which
do not mix but separate into different layers e.g. kerosene and water, oil and water, etc.
The mixture is placed in a separating funnel with the tap closed and is allowed to stand for some time.
The denser liquid e.g. water, sinks to the bottom of the funnel, while the less dense liquid e.g. kerosene
floats on it. The tap is then opened to let only the denser liquid run out and is collected in a beaker. The
tap is closed and the less dense liquid remains in the funnel.

b) Fractional distillation: this is a method of separating miscible liquids with different boiling points e.g.
water (boiling point 100oC) and ethanol (boiling point 78oC) can be separated by this method.
Fractional distillation is used in oil refineries, SONARA in LIMBE, to separate crude oil (petroleum) into
various components like; petrol, kerosene, diesel etc.

METHODS OF SEPARATING LIQUID/GAS MIXTURES

a) Carbon dioxide dissolved in carbonated or fizzy drinks (soft drinks) is separated when bottles containing
them are uncorked. When the cork is removed, a hissing sound is heard as the gas escapes.
b) Dissolved air is separated from water by boiling.

SEPARATING GAS/GAS MIXTURES

A gas/gas mixture like air is first liquefied and then the components are separated by fractional distillation.

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PURE SUBSTANCES
A pure substance is a single substance that is not mixed with anything else. The melting points and boiling
points of pure substances are fixed. Pure substances are either elements or compounds.

ELEMENTS AND COMPOUNDS

a) Elements: an element is a simple substance that cannot be further split into simpler by any chemical
means. Examples of elements are; oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, chlorine, sodium, iron, copper,
gold, silver, sulphur, lead, mercury, phosphorus, argon, helium, neon etc.

b) Compounds: a compound is formed when two or more elements are chemically combined together in
fixed proportions by mass. Examples of compounds are;

COMPOUND CONSTITUENT ELEMENTS

Water Hydrogen and oxygen
Carbon dioxide Carbon and oxygen
Common salt Sodium and chlorine
Sugar Carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
Limestone Calcium, carbon and oxygen
Ethanol Carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
kerosene Carbon and hydrogen

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MIXTURES AND COMPOUNDS

MIXTURES COMPOUNDS
1) Their components are not chemically Their components are chemically
combined together. combined together.
2) Their components can be separated by Their components cannot be separated by
a physical method. any physical method.
3) Their components are either elements Their components are always elements
or compounds.
4) Their melting and boiling points are not Their melting and boiling points are usually
fixed fixed.
5) Their properties are those of the Their properties are different from those
constituents elements or compounds of the constituent elements.
6) The Components are usually present in The components are always combined
varying proportions by mass. together in fixed proportions by mass.
7) Heat energy is neither given out nor Heat energy is either given out or
absorbed when a mixture is formed. absorbed when a mixture is formed

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Chapter4 WATER

Water is a compound of hydrogen and oxygen. It is a basic necessity to all living things. Water occupies
about 73% of the earth’s surface

NATURAL WATER
This is water from natural sources. These natural sources include:
a) Rain: rain water is the purest natural water because it is naturally distilled water. The main impurities in
rain water are dissolved gases such as oxygen, carbon dioxide, nitrogen etc. and sometimes dust
particles.
b) Springs: water from springs is second to rain water in purity. The main impurities in spring water are
dissolved gases and dissolved mineral salts. These mineral salts are useful to the body; hence spring
water is good drinking water. Due to the mineral salt content, spring water is referred to as mineral
water. Tangui and supermont for example are mineral water from springs.
c) Streams, rivers and lakes: water from streams, rivers and lakes is very impure and is not good for
drinking. It contains impurities such as:
• Suspended matter, such as leaves, sticks, sewage, debris etc.
• Harmful bacteria or germs, which can cause water-borne diseases such as dysentery, cholera and
typhoid.
• Dissolved mineral salts.
• Dissolved gases.
d) Seas and oceans: water from seas and oceans contains similar impurities to those in streams and river
water, but in greater quantities. Sea and ocean water is saline i.e. it contains dissolved salts mainly
common salt and hence is salty in taste.

THE WATER CYCLE

The water cycle is the circulation of water in nature. The cycle involves the following processes:

a) Evaporation: Water evaporates from the earth surface (from seas, oceans, lakes, rivers, and land)
forming water vapour which rises into the atmosphere.

b) Transpiration: It is the loss of water as water vapour from plants.

c) Respiration: Animals lose water as water vapour during respiration.

d) Condensation: The water vapour in the atmosphere eventually condenses forming the clouds.

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e) Precipitation: The clouds finally form rain, snow or hail, which falls back to the earth surface.

PURIFICATION OF WATER FOR LABORATORY USE

The water used in hospital and school laboratories is distilled water. Distilled water is pure water obtained
by the simple distillation of natural water. It does not contain any dissolved solid impurities but may
contain dissolved gases such as oxygen and nitrogen.
Distilled water is not good drinking water because it lacks mineral salts.

PURIFICATION OF WATER FOR DOMESTIC USE

To purify water for domestic use, the dangerous impurities such as suspended matter and harmful bacteria
or germs must be removed from the water. The following methods are used:
1) Filtration: suspended particles are removed by filtration. A sand filter is often used to filter water for
domestic use. Below is the diagram of a sand filter.

2) Treatment with potash alum: potash alum is added to the filtered water to cause tiny unfiltered
suspended particles to settle to the bottom of the container.
3) Boiling: the water is then boiled at about 100oC to kill bacteria or germs.
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4) Chemical treatment: Chemicals such as chlorine or ozone are then added in small quantities to
disinfect the water.
PURIFICATION OF WATER FOR TOWN SUPPLY
Portable pipe-borne water, also known as tap-water for town or city supply is usually obtained from a
stream or river at a water-treatment plant. Water treatment in Cameroon is carried out mainly by
CAMWATER. The following steps are taken.

QUALITIES OF POTABLE WATER

Good drinking water should have the following qualities:
1. It must be clean and colourless.
2. It should be odourless.
3. It should have a pleasant taste.
4. It should be cold.
THE TEST FOR WATER

Water is identified using anhydrous copper (II) sulphate. This is a white solid that turns blue in the
presence of water. Therefore any colourless and odourless liquid that turns white anhydrous copper (II)
sulphate blue is water.

USES OF WATER
a) DOMESTIC USES: water is used in homes for;
1. Drinking and making of fruit drinks.
2. Cooking.
3. Cleaning i.e. laundry, Bathing, flushing of toilets etc.
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4. Gardening and raring of animals.
5. Building and construction.
b) INDUSTRIAL USES: in the industry, water is used;
1. As a coolant in engines.
2. To generate electricity in Hydroelectric Electric Power stations.
3. As a solvent for dissolving several substances.
4. For bleaching and dyeing, in textile industries.
5. In brewery industries to make beer and soft-drinks.
c) IN LIVING THINGS:
1. Water is useful during digestion.
2. It is necessary for photosynthesis in green plants.
3. It is necessary for seed germination.
4. It is natural habitat to aquatic organisms.
5. It is necessary for respiration and reproduction in animals.
6. It is used to transport nutrients in plants.

WATER POLLUTION

Water pollution is the discharge of harmful substances or heat energy into water, in quantities dangerous
to man, aquatic organisms and the environment.

SOURCES AND EFFECTS OF SOME WATER POLLUTANTS

POLLUTANTS SOURCES EFFECTS

1) Infectious Domestic sewage e.g. feaces, They cause water-borne diseases such as
organisms or urine, and liquid waste from dysentery, cholera and typhoid.
pathogens. kitchens and bathrooms.
2) Chemical They destroy aquatic organisms when
fertilizers and Agricultural activities. washed by rain into oceans, seas, and lakes.
pesticides.
Accidental spills from ships, It is a great danger to aquatic life, birds and
3) Crude oil. oil tankers and pipelines. the environment.
They result in poisoning when taken in by
4) Heavy metals Industrial waste. man, causing brain, liver and kidney
e.g. damage; paralysis and even death. The
Mercury and world’s worst heavy metal poisoning
Lead. occurred in Minamata, Japan in the 1950s.
From industries, oil It causes thermal pollution, which is the rise
5) Hot water. refineries and power in the temperature of water in oceans, seas
stations, after cold water has and lakes. As a result, aquatic animals can
been used to cool engines. suffocate and die due to shortage of
oxygen.

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THE CONTROL OF WATER POLLUTION
Water pollution is a major health hazard and therefore control measures should be taken. Some possible
control measures are:
1) Sewage should be treated in sewage-treatment plants before dumping into water.
2) Chemical fertilizers should be properly used or organic manure should be used instead.
3) Biological methods of the integrated pest management (IPM) should be used to fight pests rather than
the use of chemical pesticides.
4) Modern oil tanker ships are being built with double-skin hulls to reduce the chances of oil spills.

Chapter5 AIR

Air is a mixture of gases which are; nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, water vapour and rare gases. Other
gases and solid particles may be present, but are not considered the normal components of air. The
atmosphere that surrounds the earth’s crust is made up of air.

PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION OF AIR

The percentage composition of air by volume is as follows.
Component of air Percentage by volume

Nitrogen …………………………………. 78%

Oxygen……………………………………. 21%
Carbon dioxide………………………… 0.03%
Rare or noble gases……………………1%
Water vapour……………………………Variable

REASONS WHY AIR IS A MIXTURE AND NOT A COMPOUND

1. The constituents of air are not chemically combined together.
2. The constituents of air can be separated by a physical method.
3. The components of air maintain their individual properties.
4. The composition of air is variable i.e. is not the same everywhere.
ACTIVE AND INACTIVE AIR

Oxygen is the active part of air, because it supports combustion (burning) and takes part in respiration and
rusting.
The inactive part of air is mainly nitrogen, because it does not support combustion and is very uncreative.

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THE IMPORTANCE OF THE GASES OF AIR
Oxygen
• It is used by living things during respiration.
• It is needed for burning of fuels.
• It is used in hospitals.
• It is used by deep-sea divers, astronauts and mountaineers.
Nitrogen
• It is essential for plant growth.
• It is used to manufacture fertilizers.
Carbon dioxide
• It is used by plants to manufacture their food during the process of photosynthesis.
• It is used in fire extinguishers.
• Solid carbon dioxide, called dry ice, is used as a coolant in refrigerators.
• It is compressed in carbonated drinks (soft drinks) to give them their sharp taste.
Noble gases
• Used to fill filament electric bulbs and air ships.
• Used in electric advertisement signs.

RUSTING AND ITS PREVENTION

Rusting is the corrosion of iron in the presence of oxygen and moisture. When rusting occurs, a reddish-
brown substance, called rust is formed on the surface of iron.
Rusting is a destructive process and is prevented by the following methods.
1. Painting iron objects.
2. Oiling or greasing iron objects.
3. Coating the surface of iron with zinc (galvanization).
4. Coating the surface of iron with another metal that does not rust (electroplating).
5. Mixing iron with nickel and chromium to produce stainless steel which does not rust.

AIR POLLUTION
Air or atmospheric pollution is the release of harmful substances into the air, in quantities dangerous to
man, aquatic organisms and the environment.

AIR POLLUTANTS
These are harmful substances released into the air due to human activities or natural disasters. Air
pollutants are of two types; gases and tiny solid particles (particulates).
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Page 24 of 27 CHEMISTRY LESSON NOTE FOR FORM ONE
SOURCES AND EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTANTS

POLLUTANTS SOURCES EFFECTS

1) Carbon monoxide  Car exhaust fumes.  It causes headaches,
 Cigarette smoke. nausea, dizziness and
fatigue.
 It is poisonous and can kill,
if present in a large
amount.
2) Sulphur dioxide.  Industries.  It causes acid rain.
 Power stations.  It causes irritation of the
 Volcanic eruptions e.g. eyes and respiratory tract.
mount Cameroon eruption
of 1999.
3) Nitrogen dioxide.  Car exhaust fumes.  It causes acid rain.
 Industries.  Breathing difficulties.

4) Excess carbon  Too much burning of fuels.  It contributes to global

dioxide in the air.  Bush fires. warming (greenhouse gas).
 Gas disasters e.g. the lake  It can suffocate and kill
Nyos disaster of animals. It suffocated and
29th August 1986, in killed about 1200 villagers
Cameroon. during the lake Nyos
disaster.
5) Dust particles  Dust storms.  Eye diseases.
 Unpaved roads.  Chronic bronchitis.
6) Soot and smoke  Cigarette smoking.  Can cause cancer of the
particles.  Burning of wood and coal. lungs.
 Bush fires.
 Industries.
7) Lead compounds  Exhaust fumes of vehicles.  Learning difficulties in
children.
8) Photochemical  Heavy automobile traffic.  It reduces natural visibility.
smog  Industries.  It irritates the eyes and the
respiratory tract.
9) Chlorofluorocarbons  Refrigerators.  Contribute to global
 Aerosol spray cans. warming (greenhouse
 Air conditioners. gases).
 They cause the depletion
(destruction) of the ozone
layer.

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EFFECTS OF THE DEPLETION OF THE OZONE LAYER
The ozone layer is found in the stratosphere and prevents too much radiation from the sun from reaching
the earth surface. The depletion of this layer (mainly by the chlorofluorocarbons), has the following effects.

Skin cancer.

Headaches.

Sunburns.

Eye cataracts and even blindness.

Damage to crops and micro organisms in the soil.

THE CONTROL OF AIR POLLUTION

Air pollution is a great danger to man and the environment. Control measures are being taken, which
include;
1) The use of the chlorofluorocarbons in refrigerators and air conditioners has been banned in many
countries including Cameroon.
2) Most cars are now equipped with devices called catalytic converters, which remove many pollutants
from the exhaust fumes.
3) Some cars nowadays have efficient engines that produce less carbon monoxide and no lead
compounds.

Chapter6 ACIDS AND BASES

ACIDS
Acids have a characteristic sour taste. Several substances that we encounter in everyday life contain acids,
e.g. vinegar, unripe fruits, car batteries, aspirin etc.

CLASSIFICATION OF ACIDS
Depending on their sources, acids are classified as organic acids or inorganic (mineral) acids.
a. ORGANIC ACIDS: they occur as natural products in organic matter (plant and animal materials). Some
organic acids and their sources are given below.

Organic acid Source

1. Acetic or ethanoic acid…………………vinegar.
2. Citric acid…………………………………....citrus fruits e.g. limes and lemon.
3. Lactic acid…………………………………...sour milk.
4. Tartaric acid…………………………………grape fruits.
5. Methanoic acid…………………………….ant stings.
6. Ascorbic acid (vitamin c)……………….oranges.
7. Palmitic acid…………………………………palm oil.
8. Amino acids………………………………….proteins.
9. Fatty acids…………………………………...fats and oils.

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b. INORGANIC OR MINERAL ACIDS: they are prepared from inorganic matter i.e. from mineral elements.
Examples of inorganic acids are;
1. Hydrochloric acid.
2. Sulphuric acid.
3. Nitric acid.
4. Carbonic acid.
5. Phosphoric acid.
CHARACTERISTICS OF ACIDS
1. Acids are sour in taste.
2. Strong acids are corrosive i.e. they can cause burns to the skin, eat away paper, wood, clothing etc.
3. Acid turn blue litmus red.
4. They are electrical conductors.
USES OF SOME ACIDS
1. Vinegar is used in the food industry.
2. Sulphuric acid is used in car batteries, and to make paints, fertilizers, detergents and other chemicals.

BASES
A base is a substance that reacts with an acid to give a salt and water only. In everyday life, we encounter
bases in substances like; baking soda, wood ash, toothpaste, ‘kanwa’ antacids e.g. milk of magnesia.

ALKALIS
An alkali is a base that is soluble in water. When alkalis dissolve in water, alkaline solutions are formed.
Examples of alkalis are;
1. Sodium hydroxide (caustic soda).
2. Potassium hydroxide (caustic potash).
3. Calcium hydroxide (slaked lime).
4. Ammonium hydroxide (aqueous ammonia).

CHARACTERISTICS OF ALKALIS
1. Alkalis are bitter in taste.
2. The caustic alkalis (Sodium hydroxide and potassium hydroxide) are corrosive.
3. Alkalis feel soapy to touch.
4. Alkalis turn red litmus blue.
5. They are good electrical conductors.

USES OF SOME BASES

1. Caustic soda is used to manufacture of soap and paper.
2. Slaked lime is often used by farmers and gardeners to reduce soil acidity.
3. Magnesium hydroxide in milk of magnesia is used to treat constipation and heartburn.
4. The bases in toothpaste help to prevent tooth decay.

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INDICATORS
An indicator is a substance which changes colour when added to acidic or alkaline solutions. The three
common acid-base indicators and their colours in acidic, alkaline and neutral solutions are given in the table
below. A neutral solution is neither acidic nor alkaline e.g. pure water.

COLOUR CHANGES
INDICATOR
ACIDIC SOLUTION NEUTRAL SOLUTION ALKALINE SOLUTION
Methyl orange Pink or red Orange Yellow
Litmus Red Purple Blue
phenolphthalein Colourless Colourless Pink

THE EXTRACTION OF INDICATORS

Many indicators are extracted from plants such as red cabbage and black berries. Litmus is extracted from
lichens.
To extract an indicator from red cabbage, a few leaves of the cabbage are crushed on a mortar with a
pestle. Water is added and the mixture is filtered. The indicator is collected as a coloured filtrate.
The coloured extract from red cabbage is yellow in acidic solutions and blue in alkaline solutions.

THE PH SCALE
This is a series of numbers ranging from 0 to 14 that indicate whether a substance is acidic, neutral or basic.

1. Acids have pH values less than 7. The smaller the pH value, the stronger the acid.
2. Alkalis or bases have pH values greater than 7. The larger the pH, the stronger the acid.
3. Neutral substances have a pH value of 7.

THE PH VALUES OF SOME COMMON SUBSTANCES

SUBSTANCE pH SUBSTANCE pH
1) Hydrochloric acid 0.0 10) Blood 7.4
2) Gastric juices 1.0 11) Saliva 7.4
3) Lemon juices 2.3 12) Baking soda 8.4
4) Vinegar 2.9 13) Toothpaste 9.9
5) Wine 3.5 14) Milk of magnesia 10.5
6) Tomato juice 4.1 15) House hold ammonia 11.9
7) Acid rain 5.6 16) Sodium hydroxide 14.0
8) Urine 6.0 17) Milk 6.6
9) Rainwater 6.5 18) Pure water 7.0

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