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CIVIL ENGINEERING (CE) : HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION CIVIL

ENGINEERING (CE) NOTES | EDUREV

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Chapter 6

HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION

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TYPES OF HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION

The highway types are classified as below : (i) Earth road and gravel roads
(ii) Soil stabilized roads (iii) Water Bound Macadam (WBM) raod (iv)
Bituminous or black-top roads (v) Cement concrete roads PAVEMENT
TYPES
The selection of base course and the surface course depends upon the
following factors : (i) Type and intensity of traffic, (ii) Funds available for the
construction project and for the subsequent maintenance. (iii) Subgrade soil
and drainage conditions. (iv) Availability of construction materials at site. (v)
Climatic condition. (vi) Plants and equipment available. (vii) Time available for
completing the project. (viii) Altitude at which construction has to be done.
The low cost roads can successfully function with the traffic intensity of 30
tonnes to 200 tonnes per day. WBM roads may for over 500 tonnes per day.
The bituminous pavements and cement concrete roads are considered
suitable for heavier traffic in density. In highw ay cons tr u ct ion us u ally
stage construction technique is adopted.
Earthwork : Equipment 1. Bull dozer : may be used for clearing site, opening
up pilot roads, moving earth for short haul distances of about 100 m and also
in several other jobs. 2. Scraper : is considered as one of the useful earth
moving equipment as it self operating-it can dig, haul and discharge the
material in uniformly thick layers. However scrapers are not capable of
digging very stiff material.
3. Power shovel : is used primarily to excavate earth of all classes except

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rock and to load it into wagons. Power shovels may be mounted on crawler
tracks and so they can move at low speeds.
Do you know ?
The power shovel can effectively operate to excavate earth from a lower level
where it stands and when the depth of the face to be excavated is not too
shallow. 4. Dragline : is used to excavate soft earth and to deposit in nearly
banks or to load into wagons. It can operate on natural ground while
excavating from a pit with the bucket; thus it is not necessary for the dragline
to go into the pit in order to excavate. 5. Clam shell : is useful for excavation
of soft to medium materials and loose material at or below existing ground
surface. 6. Hoe : is meant to excavate below the natural surface where the
machine is stationed and is capable of having precise control of depth of
excavation at close range work. Hoe can excavate stiff material which
normally can not be excavated by dragline.
EMBAKMENT
When it is required to raise the grade line of a highway above the existing
ground level it becomes necessary to construct embankments.
The grade line may be raised due to any of the following reasons: 1. to keep
the subgrade above the high ground water table. 2. to prevent damage to
pavement due to surface water and capillary water. 3. to maintain the design
standards of the highway with respect to the vertical alignment.

TYPES OF HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION

The highway types are classified as below : (i) Earth road and gravel roads

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(ii) Soil stabilized roads (iii) Water Bound Macadam (WBM) raod (iv)
Bituminous or black-top roads (v) Cement concrete roads PAVEMENT
TYPES
The selection of base course and the surface course depends upon the
following factors : (i) Type and intensity of traffic, (ii) Funds available for the
construction project and for the subsequent maintenance. (iii) Subgrade soil
and drainage conditions. (iv) Availability of construction materials at site. (v)
Climatic condition. (vi) Plants and equipment available. (vii) Time available for
completing the project. (viii) Altitude at which construction has to be done.
The low cost roads can successfully function with the traffic intensity of 30
tonnes to 200 tonnes per day. WBM roads may for over 500 tonnes per day.
The bituminous pavements and cement concrete roads are considered
suitable for heavier traffic in density. In highw ay cons tr u ct ion us u ally
stage construction technique is adopted.
Earthwork : Equipment 1. Bull dozer : may be used for clearing site, opening
up pilot roads, moving earth for short haul distances of about 100 m and also
in several other jobs. 2. Scraper : is considered as one of the useful earth
moving equipment as it self operating-it can dig, haul and discharge the
material in uniformly thick layers. However scrapers are not capable of
digging very stiff material.
3. Power shovel : is used primarily to excavate earth of all classes except
rock and to load it into wagons. Power shovels may be mounted on crawler
tracks and so they can move at low speeds.
Do you know ?
The power shovel can effectively operate to excavate earth from a lower level

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where it stands and when the depth of the face to be excavated is not too
shallow. 4. Dragline : is used to excavate soft earth and to deposit in nearly
banks or to load into wagons. It can operate on natural ground while
excavating from a pit with the bucket; thus it is not necessary for the dragline
to go into the pit in order to excavate. 5. Clam shell : is useful for excavation
of soft to medium materials and loose material at or below existing ground
surface. 6. Hoe : is meant to excavate below the natural surface where the
machine is stationed and is capable of having precise control of depth of
excavation at close range work. Hoe can excavate stiff material which
normally can not be excavated by dragline.
EMBAKMENT
When it is required to raise the grade line of a highway above the existing
ground level it becomes necessary to construct embankments.
The grade line may be raised due to any of the following reasons: 1. to keep
the subgrade above the high ground water table. 2. to prevent damage to
pavement due to surface water and capillary water. 3. to maintain the design
standards of the highway with respect to the vertical alignment.

The design elements in highway embankments are.

(i) Height
(ii) Fill material
(iii) Settlement
(iv) Stability of foundation, and
(v) Stability of slopes

Height : The height of the embankment depends on the desired grade line

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of the highway and the soil profile or topography. Also the height of the fill
is some times governed by stability of foundation, particularly when the
foundation soil is weak.
Fill material :Granular soil is generally preferred as highway embankment
material. Silts, and clays are considered less desirable. Organic soils,
particularly peat are unsuitable. The best of the soils available locally is
often selected with a view to keep the lead and lift as low as possible. At
times light-weight fill material like cinder may be used to reduce the
weight when foundation soil is weak.

Settlement : To accelerate the rate of consolidation of saturated

foundation clay, vertical sand drains are sometimes constructed. These
are vertical columns of sand installed in the compressible foundation like
marshy soils in order to decrease drainage path and thus accelerate the
rate of consolidation. The vertical sand columns may be of 30 to 60
diameter and 2.5 to 6 meter spacing, arranged in a hexagonal pattern. A
horizontal sand blanket, 40 to 60 cm thick is placed at the top of the
drains extending across the entire width of embankment at its bottom.

Stability of foundation : When the embankment foundation consists of

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weak soil just beneath or at a certain depth below in the form of a weak
stratum, it is essential to consider the stability of the foundation against a
failure. This is all the more essential in the case of high embankments.
Stability of slopes : The embankment slopes should be stable enough
to eliminate the possibility of a failure under adverse moisture and other
conditions. Hence the stability of the slope should be checked or the
slope should be designed providing minimum factor of safety of 1.5.

CONSTRUCTION OF EMBANKMENTS

The embankment may be constructed either by rolling in relatively thin

layers or by hydraulic fills. The former is called rolled earth method and is
preferred in highway embankments.
Compaction is carried out at optimum moisture content so as to take
advantages of maximum dry density using a specified compacting effort
and equipment. Preparation of Subgrade
The preparation of subgrade includes all operations before the pavement
structure could be laid over compacted. Thus the preparation of subgrade
would include site clearance, grading (embankment or cut section) and
compaction.

COMPACTING EQUIPMENT
Soil compaction is achieved in the field either by rolling, ramming or by
vibration. Hence the compacting equipment may also be classified as rollers,
rammers and vibrators. Compaction of sands are also chieved by watering
ponding and jetting.

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ROLLERS

The principle of rollers is the application of pressure, which is slowly

increased and then decreased. The various type of rollers which are used
for compaction are :

1. Smooth Wheeled Rollers

These are suitable to roll a wide range of soils, preferably granular soils.
These are particularly found to be useful in compacting soils and other
materials where a crushing action is advantageous.

2. Pneumatic Tyred Roller

Suitable to compact nonplastic silts and fine sands. In addition to direct

pressure due to rolling, there is also a slight kneading action.

3. Sheepsfoot Roller

Suitable to compact clayed soils.

The efficiency of the sheepsfoot rollers depends on the weight of the
roller and the number of feet in contact with the ground at a time.

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4. Rammers

Rammers are useful to compact relatively small areas and where the
rollers can not operate such as compaction of trenches, foundation and
slopes.

Do you know ?
The output of rammer is much lower than that of roller

5. Vibrators

Vibrators are most suited for compacting dry cohesionless granular

material.
These are also vibrator mounted roller to give the combined effects of
rolling and vibration.

6. Watering

Watering (Jetting and ponding) is considered to be an efficient method of

compacting cohesionless sands.

Field Control for Compaction

For adequate quality control in construction, it is essential to have proper

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field control in compaction. The two field control tests needed are :
(i) Measurement of moisture content
(ii) Measurement of dry density
The moisture content of the soil may be found before compaction by any
one of the rapid methods suitable at the site. If the moisture is controlled
at the OMC, then the next control needed is the dry density, the desired
value of which may be achieved by increasing the number of passes for
the selected equipment and the thickness of each layer. Dry density may
be found by any suitable method; the sand replacement method is
considered quite satisfactory.

CONSTRUCTION EARTH ROADS

The max imum cr oss s lopes of 1 in 20 is recommended to avoid erosion

due to rain waters and formation of cross ruts.
The steep cross slope (ranges between 1 in 20 to 1 in 33) helps to keep
the pavement surface free of standing water, otherwise the soil being
pervious the water would damage the pavement section by softening it.
The construction of earth road may be divided into following steps :

1. Material

Soils of the following properties are considered satisfactory for earthen

roads :

Base course Wearing course

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Clay content < 5% 10 to 18%

Silt content 9 to 32% 5 to 15%

Sand content 60 to 80% 65 to 80%

Liquid limit < 35% < 35%

Plasticity index <6% 4 to 10%

The pavement section is totally made out of the soil available at site and
at near-by borrow pits.

2. Location

The centre line and road edges are marked on the ground along the
alignment, by driving wooden pegs.

3. Preparation of Subgrade

The various operations involved are as follows :

(a) Clearing site

(b) Excavating and construction of fills to bring the road to a desired grade

(c) Shaping of subgrade

4. Pavement Construction

The soil is mixed, spread and rolled in layers such that the compacted
thickness of each layer does not exceed 10 cm. At least 95% of dry

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density of I.S. light compaction is considered desirable.

5. Opening to Traffic

The compacted earth road is allowed to dry out for a few days before
opening to traffic.

CONSTRUCTION OF GRAVEL ROADS

This type of road can cater for about 100 tonnes of pneumatic tyred
vehicle or 60 tonnes of iron tyred vehicles per day per lane.

Two types of construction methods are followed : 1. Feather edge type 2.

Trench type

The feather edge type is constructed over the subgrade with varying
thickness, so as to obtain the desired cross slope for the pavement
surface.
In the trench type, the subgrade is prepared by excavating a shallow
trench.
Since there is better confinement for the gravel, the trench type is
preferred.

CONSTRUCTION STEPS
1. Material

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Hard variety of crushed stone or gravel of specified gradation is used.

Material Gravel to be used for the construction is stacked along the sides
of the proposed road.

2. Location

3. Preparation of Subgrade

The width of the trench is made equal to that of the carriageway.

4. Pavement Construction

The layer is rolled using smooth wheel rollers starting from the edges and
proceeding towards the centre with an overlap of at least half the width of
roller in the longitudial direction.

5. Opening of Traffic A few days after the final rolling and drying out, the
road is opened to traffic.

CONSTRUCTION OF WATER BOUND MACADAM ROADS

The WBM may be used as a sub base, base course or surfacing course.
The term macadam generally used for pavement base course made of
crushed or broken aggregate mechanically interlocked by rolling and the
voids filled with screening and binding material with the assistance of
water.

SPECIFICATIONS OF MATERIALS FOR WBM PAVEMENT

Type of Coarse Aggregate : Hard varieties of crushed aggregates or

broken stones are used.

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However, soft aggregates like over burnt bricks, Kankar or laterite may be
used. Blast furnace may also be used.

Property (max. Requirements for pavement

value, %) lawyer

Sub- Base co Surface c

Base urse ourse

1. Los Angeles
60 50 40
abrasion value

2. Aggregate
50 40 30
impact value

3. Flakiness index - 15 15

Size and Grading Requirements of Coarse Aggregates

1. Grading No. 1 consists of coarse aggregates of size range 90 to 40 mm

and is more suitable for sub base course. Thickness of compacted layer is
usually 100 mm.

2. Grading No. 2 consists of aggregates of size range 63 to 40 mm.

3. Grading No. 3 consists of range 50 to 20 mm and compacted thickness of

each layer is normally 75 mm.

Screening :
The screenings are used to fill up the voids in the compacted layer of

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coarse aggregates.
The IRC has suggested that from economic considerations,
predominantly non-plastic materials such as Kankar nodules, morum or
gravel may be utilized as screening material provided the wL < 20%, IP <
6% and proportion of fines passing 0.075 mm sieve is less than 10%.
B inding Material : Binding material consisting of fine grained material is
used to prevent ravelling of the stones. Kankar nodules or lime stone dust
may also be utilized.
IP range between 4 to 9% for WBM surface course and < 6% for WBM
base or sub base course binding material with bituminous surfacing

Do you know ?

Binding material is not required if crushable type screening is used, unless

the plasticity index value is low.

CONSTRUCTION STEP
1. Preparation of foundation for Receiving the WBM Course

The foundation layer i.e. subgrade, subbase or base course is prepared

to required grade and camber and the dust and either loose materials are
cleaned.
On existing road surfaces, the depressions and pot holes are filled and
corrugations are removed by scarifying and reshaping the surface to the
required grade and camber.

2. Provision of Lateral Confinement

Provision of Lateral Confinement may be done by constructing the

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shoulders to advance, to a thickness equal to that of the compacted WBM

layer.

3. Spreading of Coarse Aggregates

4. Rolling

Rolling is started from the edges and then gradually shifted towards the
centre line of the road.

5. Application of Screenings

After the coars e agg reg ates are rolled adequately, the dry screenings
are applied gradually over the surface to fill the interstices in three or
more applications. Dry rolling is continued as the screenings are being
spread and brooming carried out.

6. Sprinkling and Grouting

After the application of screenings, the surface is sprinkled with water,

swept and rolled. Wet screenings are swept into the voids using hand
brooms.

7. Application of Binding Material

After the application of screening and rolling, binding material is applied

at a uniform and slow rate at two or more successive thin layers. After
each application of binding material, the surface is copiously sprinkled
with water and wet slurry swept with brooms to fill the voids.

Do you know ?

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When crushable type screenings like moorum or gravel are used, there is no
need to apply binding materials, except in the surfacing course.

8. Setting and Drying

After final compaction, the WBM course is allowed to set over-night. On

the next day the ‘hungry’ spots are located and are filled with screenings
or binding material, lightly sprinkled with water if necessary and rolled. No
traffic is allowed till the WBM layer sets and dries out.

CHECKING OF SURFACE EVENNESS AND RECTIFICATION OF DEFECTS

The surface evennes of longitudinal direction is checked by 3.0 m straight

edge.
The number of undulations exceeding 12 mm in the case of WBM layer of
grading No. 1 and 10 mm in the case of grading nos. 2 and 3 are
recorded in each completed length of 300 m; the maximum number of
undulations permitted in each case is 30.
The spots with 15 mm undulations are marked for rectification of defects.
The cross profile is checked using camber template.
The maximum variation from special profile should not exceed 12 mm in
the case of aggregate grading no. 1 and 8 mm in the case of gradings 2
and 3.

CONSTRUCTION OF BITUMINOUS PAVEMENTS

The following construction techniques are in use :

1. Interface treatments (a) prime coat (b) tack coat

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2. Surface dressing and seal coat

3. Grouted or penetration type constructions (a) Penetration Macadam (b)

Built-up Spary Grout

4. Premix which may be any of the following : (a) Bituminous bound

macadam (b) Carpet (c) Bituminous concrete (d) Sheet asphalt or rolled
asphalt (e) Mastic asphalt

1. Interface Treatment

The surface of the existing pavement layer is to be cleaned to remove

dust and dirt and a thin layer of bituminous binder is to be sprayed before
the construction of any type of bituminous layer over this surface. This
treatment is necessary to provide the necessary bond between the old
and the new layers.

(a) Prime Coat

Bituminous prime coat is the first application of a low viscosity liquid

bituminous material over an existing porous or absorbent pavement
surface like the WBM base course.
The main object of priming is to plug in the capillary voids of the prous
surface and to bond the loose mineral particles on the existing surface
using a binder of low viscosity which can penetrate into the voids. Usually
MC or SC cutback of suitable grade or viscosity is chosen depending on
the porosity of the surface to be treated.

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The primed surface is allowed to cure for at least 24 hours, during which
period no traffic is allowed.

Do you know :

The bituminous primer is sprayed uniformly using a mechanical sprayer at a

rate of 7.3 to 14.6 kg per 10 m2 area, depending on the porosity of the
surface.

(b) Tack Coat

Bituminous tack coat is the application of bituminous material over an

existing pavement surface which is relatively impervious like an existing
bituminous surface or cement concrete pavement or a pervious surface
like the WBM which has already been treated by a prime coat.
Bituminous material of higher viscosity like hot bitumen is used and in
cold state, bituminous emulsion may also be applied.

Do you know ?
Tack coat is usually applied by spraying bituminous material of higher
viscosity like the hot bitumen at the rate of 4.9 to 9.8 kg per 10 m2 area
depending in the type of the surface.

2. Bituminous Surface Dressing (BSD)

Bituminous surface dressing is provided over an existing pavement to

serve as thin wearing coat.
The single coat surface dressing consists of a single application of
bituminous binder material following by spreading of aggregate cover and

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rolling.

The main function of BSD are :

(a) to serve as a thin wearing course of pavement and to protect the base
course

(b) to water proof the pavement surface and to prevent infiltration of surface
water

(c) to provide dust-free pavement surface in dry weather and mud-free

pavement in wet weather.

Seal Coat

Seal coat is usually recoomended as a top coat over certain bituminous

pavements which are not impervious, such as open graded bituminous
constructions like premixed carpet and grouted Macadam.
Seal coat is also provided over an existing bituminous pavements which
is worn out.
A premixed sand bitumen seal coat is also commonly used over the
premixed carpet.

The main functions of seal coat are :

(a) to seal the surfacing against the ingress of water

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(b) to develop skid resistant texture

(c) to enliven an existing dry or weathered bituminous surface.

3. Grouted or Penetration Type Constructions

(a) Penetration Macadam

Bituminous Penetration Macadam or Grouted Macadam is used as a base

or binder course.
The coarse aggregates are first spread and compacted well in dry state
and after that hot bituminous binder of relatively high viscosity is sprayed
in fairly large quantity at the top.
The bitumen penetrates into the voids from the surface of the compacted
aggregates, thus filling up a part of the voids and binding some stone
aggregates together.

Full grout is adopted in regions of heavy rainfall and semigrout is adopted

in regions of moderate rainfall and traffic.

(b) Built-up Spray Grout (BSG)

Built-up Spray Grout (BSG) consists of two-layer composite construction

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of compacted crushed aggregates with application of bituminous binder

after each layer for bonding and finished with key aggregates at the top to
provide a total compacted thickness of 75 mm.
This method is commonly used for strengthening of existing bituminous
pavements. A suitable wearing course is invariably provided over this
layer before opening to traffic.

4. Premix Methods

In this group of methods the aggregates and the bituminous binder are
mixed thoroughly before spreading and compacting. The common types
of premixed bituminous constructions are bituminous macadam,
bituminous carpet, and bituminous concrete. Other types of premixed
constructions include sheet asphalt and mastic asphalt.

(a) Bituminous Macadam (BM) or Bituminous bond Macadam

Is a base course or binder course, should be covered by a suitable

surface course before exposing to traffic.
B.M. base course is considered to be much superior than other types of
base course materials such as WBM w.r.t. load dispersion characteristics
and durability.

(b) Bituminous Premixed Carpet

Premixed Carpet (PC) consists of coarse aggregates of 12.5 and 10.0

mm sizes, premixed with bitumen or tar binder are compacted to a
thickness of 20 mm to serve as a surface course of the pavement.

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Open graded, should be covered by suitable seal coat.

The PC consists of all aggregates passing 20 mm and retained 6.3 mm
sieve.

(c) Bituminous Concrete or Asphalt Concrete (AC)

Is a dense graded premixed bituminous mix which is well compacted to

form a high quality pavement surface course.
The AC consists of a carefully proprotioned mixture of course aggregates,
fine Aggregates, mineral filler and bitumen and mix is designed by an
appropriate method (Marshal Method).
The IRC has provided specification for 40 mm thick AC surface course for
highway pavements.
The thickness of bituminous concrete surface course layer usually ranges
from 40 to 75 mm.

(d) Sheet Asphalt

Sheet asphalt or rolled asphalt is a dense sandbitumen premix of

compacted thickness 25 mm, used as wearing course. This is usually
laid over cement concrete pavement to provide an excellent riding
surface.

Do you know ?
The sheet asphalt also protects the joints in cement concrete pavements and
could cause a reduction in warping stresses due to a decrease in the
temperature variations between top and bottom of the concrete slab.

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(e) mastic Asphalt

Mastic asphalt is a mixture of bitumen, fine aggregates and filler in

suitabhle proportions which yields a voidless and impermeable mass.
Mastic asphalt can absorb vibrations and has a property of self-healing of
cracks without bleeding.
It is a suitable surfacing material for bridge deck slabs.
The mastic asphalt should be spread at a temperature of about 200°C to
a thickness between 2.5 to 5.0 cm. No Rolling is required.

BITUMINOUS CONSTRUCTION PROCEDURES

Following types of bituminous construction have been presented.

1. Surface Dressing

The surface dressing work is done only in dry and clear weather when the
atmospheric temperature is above 16°C.

Specification of Materials

Bitumen grades between 80/100 and 180/ 200 are generally used. Tar or
cutback may also be used.
Ag greg ate type should conform to the following requirements :
Los Angles abrasion value 35% max.

Aggregate impact value 30% max.

Flakiness index 25% max.
Water absorption 1% max.
Stripping at 40°C after 24 hrs immersion (CRRI test) 25% max.

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Construction Steps

1. Preparation of existing surface

2. Application of binder
3. Application of stone chippings
4. Rolling of first or final coat
5. Application of binder and stone chippings for second coat
6. Rolling of second coat
7. Finishing and opening to traffic

2. Penetration (Grouted) Macadam

The construction of penetration macadam is recommended for thickness

of 50 and 75 mm.

Specification of Materials

Bitumen 80/100, 60/70 and 30/40 are generally used. Road tars RT-4 and
RT-5 could also be used.
The physical requirements of stone aggregates are specified by the
following test values : Los Angles abrasion value 40% max.

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Aggregate impact value 30% max.

Flakiness index 25% max.
Stripping at 40°C after 24 hrs. Immersion (CRRI test) 25% max.
Loss with sodium sulphate, 5 cycles 12% max.
Do you know ?
3
The coarse aggregates required for 50 mm compacted thickness is 0.06 m
2 3 2
per 10 m area and for 75 mm compacted thickness is 0.90 m per 10 m .

Construction Steps

1. Preparation of existing surface

2. Spreading the coarse aggregates
3. Rolling
4. Bitumen application
5. Spreading of Flakey aggregates
6. Seal coat
7. Finishing
8. Opening to traffic; after a minimum period of 24 hours

3. Construction of Bituminous Macadam

The Bituminous Macadam is a premix laid immediately after mixing and

then compacted.
It is an open graded construction suitable only as a base or binder
course.

Specification of Materials

The grades of bitumen used are 30/40, 60/ 70 and 80/100 penetration.

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Road tar RT-4, cut back and emulsion can also be used in cold mix
construction.
Aggregates used are of low porosity fulfilling the following requirements
for the base course:

Los Angles abrasion value 50% max.

Aggregate impact value 35% max.
Flakiness index 15% max.
Stripping at 40°C after 24 hrs immersion (CRRI test) 25% max.
Loss with sodium sulphate, 5 cycles 12% max.

For binder course the specified max. abrasion and impact values are 40
and 30% respectively.
The quantity of aggregates required for 10 m2 of bitumen bound
macadam are 0.60 to 0.75 m3 and 0.90 to 1.0 m3 respectively for 50 and
75 mm compacted thickness.

Construction Steps

1. Preparation of existing layer

2. Tack coat or prime coat application
3. Premix preparation
4. Placement
5. Rolling and finishing the paving mix

4. Construction of Pre-m ixed Bitum inous Carpet Specification of

Materials

The bitumen binder of 80/100 grade or road tar of grade RT-3 is used.

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The quantity of binder required for 2 cm thick carpet is as under.

(i) Prime coat on a WBM surface 7.3 to 9.8 kg bitumen or 12.20 to 14.64
kg road tar per 10 m2.
(ii) Tack coat on an existing black top surface 4.9 to 7.3 kg bitumen or 7.3
to 9.8 kg road tar per 10 m2.
The aggregates fulfilling the following requirements may be selected.

Los Angeles abrasion value = 35% max.

Aggregate impact value = 30% max.
Flakiness index = 30% max.
Stripping value = 25% max.
Water absorption = 2.0% max.

Construction Steps

1. Preparation of the existing surface

2. Application of fack coat
3. Preparation and placing of premix
4. Rolling and finishing
5. Application of seal coat
6. Surface finish
7. Opening to traffic

5. Construction of Bituminous Concrete Roads

The thickness of the bituminous concrete layer depends upon the traffic
and quality of base course.

Specification of Materials

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(a) Binder

Bitumen of grade 30/40. 60/70 or 80/100 may be chosen depending upon

the climatic condition of the locality.

(b) Aggregates and filler maximum% Aggregate impact value 30% Loss
Angeles abrasion value 40% Flakiness index 25% Tripping at 40°C after 24
hours, 25% Soundness Loss with sodium sulphate in 5 cycles 12% Loss with
magnesium sulphate in 5 cylces 18%

(c) Bituminous Concrete Mix Marshall Stability Test-number of blows to be

applied on either side of Specimen: 50 Marshal Stability value, min. kg: 340
Marshall Flow value; 0.25 mm units : 8 to 16 Voids in mix, percent : 3 to 5
Voids filled with bitumen, percent : 75 to 85

Construction Steps

1. Preparation of the existing base course layer

2. Application of Tack coat
3. Preparation and placing of premix
4. Rolling
5. Quality Control of bituminous Concrete Construction
6. Finished surface

6. Construction of Cem ent Concrete Pavements

The cement concrete pavement maintains a very high recognition among

the engineer and the road users alike. Due to the excellent riding surface
and pleasing appearance, the cement concrete roads are very much

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preferred.

Further the engineers have inherent confidence in the cement concrete

materials for its use in any construction project. It is also true that the life of a
cement concrete road is much more than any other type of construction.

The cement concrete pavements are constructed with or without the sub-
base courses. This decision is made depending upon the soil type, design
load and economic consideration.

Purpose of Providing Sub-base Course

1. to provide a strong supporting layer.

2. to provide a capillary cut-off preventing the damages due to mud pumping.

3. to reduce thickness requirements of cement concrete slab and lower the

cost of construction.
WBM is the most popular type of underlying layer generally adopted in India.
Soil stabilized layers can also be used with advantage.

4. to increase the service life of the CC pavement.

The construction of cement concrete pavement is dealt under the following
groups.

1. Construction of Pavement Slabs 2. Construction of joints.

Construction of Cement Concrete Pavement Slab

Various specifications for construction of cement concrete pavements are

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listed below :

Cement grouted layer

Rolled concrete layer
Cement concrete slab
In cement grouted layer, open graded aggregate mix with minimum size
of aggregates as 18 to 25 mm is laid on the prepared subgrade and the
aggregates are dry rolled. The loose thickness is compacted to provide
80 percent of rolled thickness. The grout made of coarse sand, cement
and water is prepared. The proportion of cement of sand is taken as 1 :
1½ to 1 : 2½.
In rolled concrete layer, lean mix concrete is used. Lean mix of
aggregate, sand, cement and water is prepared and laid on the prepared,
subgrade or sub-base course. This rolling is done similar to WBM
construction.
Cement grouted and rolled concrete are suitable for base course only.
There are two modes of construction of cement concrete slab
(i) Alternate bay method
(ii) Continuous bay method
Alternate bay method of construction means constructing a bay or one
slab in alternate succession leaving the next or intermediate bay to follow
up after a gap of one week or so.
As in figure, in alternate bay construction the slabs constructed are in
sequence of X, Y, Z etc., leaving gaps of bay X', Y', Z', etc. This technique
provides additional working convenience for laying of slabs.

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Transverse Joint Construction Method of Cement Concrete Road But it has

many drawbacks as follows :

1. Large number of transverse joints are to be provided. This increases the

construction cost and reduces the smooth riding quality of the surface.

2. During rains, the surface water collects on the subgrade between the
finished bays.

3. The construction is spread over the full width of road and the traffic will
have to be completely diverted.

In continuous (bay) method all the slabs or bays are laid in sequence i.e., X',
Y, Z', etc. or X, Y', Z etc.
Construction joints are nowever provided at the end of the day’s job. In
general the later method is preferred mainly because of the advantage that
construction of half the pavement width can be taken at a time while
essential traffic could be diverted on the other half of the road.

Plants and Equipment

1. Wheel Borrow : are used to transport concrete for short distances from the
mixer.

2. Float : used for smoothing the concrete

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3. Straight Edge : used to check the finished pavement surface in longitudinal

direction.

4. Belt : Canvas belts are used for finishing the pavements surface before the
concrete hardens.

5. Fibre Brush : is used to make broom marks across the pavement surface
and to make it skid resistant.

6. Edging Tool : is used for rounding the transverse edges at expansion joints
and the longitudinal edges.

Specification of Materials Aggregates : The max size of coarse aggregates

should not exceed one fourth the slab thickness.

Properties Max Limit

Aggregate crushing value 30%

Aggregate impact value 30%

Los Angeles abrasion value 30% as per ISI and

Soundness, average loss in 35% as per IRC

weight after 10 cycles 12% in sodium

sulphate 18% max.

in magnesium
sulphate

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Proportioning of Concrete : The concrete may be proportioned so as to

2
obtain a minimum modulus of rupture of 40 kg/cm on held specimens
after 28 days curing or to develop a minimum compressive strength of
2
280 kg/cm at 28 days, or higher value as desired in the design.

Construction Steps 1. Preparation of Subgrade and Sub base

The minimum modulus of subgrade reaction obtained with a plate bearing

2
test should be 5.54 kg/cm .
The subgrade is prepared and checked at least two days in advance of
concreting.
The subgrade or sub base should be saturated with water for 6 to 20
hours in advance of placing concrete.

Placing of Forms

3. Batching of Material and Mixing

The coarse aggregates and fine aggregates are proportioned by weight in

a weigh-batching plant and placed into hopper along with necessary
quantity of cement. Cement is measured by the bag.

Do you know ?
All batching of material is done on the basis of one or more whole bags of
cement, the weight of one bag is taken as 50 kg or the unit weight of cement
is taken as 1440 kg/m3.

4. Transporting and Placing of concrete

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5. Compaction and finishing

6. Floating and straight edging

7. Belting, Brooming and Edging

Just before the concrete becomes hard, the surface is belted with a two
ply canvas belt.
After belting, the pavement is given a broom finish with fibre broom brush.

8. Curing of cement concrete

(i) Initial Curing : The surface of the pavement is entirely covered with cotton
or jute mats. The mats are thoroughly saturated with water.

(ii) Final Curing

1. Curing with west soil : The soil is thoroughly kept saturated with water for
14 days.

2. Impervious membrane Method : Liquid is applied under pressure with

spray nozzle to cover entire surface with a uniform film. It hardens with 30
min after its application.
When the concrete attains the required strength or after 28 days of curing the
concrete road is opened to the traffic.

CONSTRUCTION OF JOINTS IN CEMENT CONCRETE PAVEMENTS

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Joints are provided in cement concrete roads for expansion, contraction

and warping of the slabs due to the variation in the temperature of slabs.
During the mid-day the top of the pavement slab has higher temperature
than the bottom of the slab.

This causes the top fibres of the slab to expand more than the bottom fibres,
and the slab curls at the edges as shown in fig. (b). This phenomenon is
known as warping down of the slab.

By about the mid night the temperature of the bottom of the slab is higher
than the temperature of the slab top. The slab warps up during this time
as shown in fig. (c).

Do you know ?
In reality, the weight of the pavement slab prevents the slab to take a warped
shape thereby developing stress in the slab which are known as warping
stresses. The magnitude of warping stresses are maximum at the interior
region and are minimum at the corner region.
JOINTS
These are further classified as :

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(a) Expansion joint

(b) Contraction joint
(c) Warping joint
(d) Construction joint

Tranverse Joints Expansion Joints

Expasion joints in India are provided at interval of 50 to 60 metre for

smooth interface laid in winter and 90 to 120 metre for smooth interface
laid in summer.
For rough interface the spacing between expansion joints may be 140 m.
The approximate gap width for this type of joints is from 20 to 25 mm.
The stresses induced due to the wheel loads at such joints are of very
high order at the edge and corner regions.
The load transference across the transverse joint is carried out through a
system of reinforcement provided at suitable intervals projecting in the
concrete in longitudinal direction upto 60 cm length. Such a device is
named as dowel bar.
In the des ign, 40 percent of wheel load is expected to be taken up by the
group of dowel bars and transferred to the adjoining slab. It ranges
between 20 to 30 mm. The total length of dowel bar varies between 40
cm to 73 cm depending upon the dowel diameter.

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Spacing between the dowel bars is generally adopted as 30 cm.

Contraction Joints

These joints are spaced closer than expansion joints. Load transference
at the joints is provided through the physical interlocking by the
aggregates projecting out at the joint faces.
The maximum spacing of contraction joints in unreinforced CC slabs is
4.5 m and in reinforced slab of thickness 20 cm is 14 m.
There seems to be no need to providing any load transference, as mainly
this will be done by the aggregate interlocking. For added safety, some
agencies recommended the use of dowel bar which are fully bounded in
the concrete.

Warping Joints

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The warping joints are provided to relieve stresses included due to

warping. These are known as hinged joints.
Longitudinal joints with tie bars fall in this class of joint. These joints are
rarely needed if the suitably designed expansion and contraction joints
are provided to prevent cracking.

Longitudinal Joints

Longitudinal joints are provided in cement concrete roads which have

width over 4.5 m. On soil subgrade of clay, such joints are provided to
allow differential shrinkage and swelling due to rapid changes in subgrade
moisture under the edges than under the centre of road.
The longitudinal joints are provided to prevent longitudinal cracking in the
cement concrete pavements.
This type of joint acts as a hinge and helps to maintain the two slabs
together, at the same level.
IRC recommends to use plain butt with tie bar type of joints.
In cement concrete slab of thickness 20 cm, (a) 10 mm diameter
deformed tie bars of length 35 cm or plain bars of length 45 cm are
placed at 45 cm spacing, or (b) 12 mm diamter deformed bars of length

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40 cm or plain bars of length 55 cm are placed at 64 cm spacing. In slabs

of thickness 25 mm, tie bars of diamter 10, 12 or 14 mm and length 35
top 46 cm are placed at 30 to 62 cm spacing.
Sympathetic cracks are often formed in line with the transverse joints. It is
therefore recommended to provided joints across the longitudinal joint in
same transverse alignment as shown in figure (b)

Joint Filler and Sealer

The infiltration of water damages the soil subgrade and gives rise to the
phenomenon known as mud pumping espcially if the subgrade is of
clayey soil.

If stone grit enters into the joint space, the effective joint width gets reduced
and faults like spalling of joint edges take place.

Soft wood, impregnated fibre board, cork or cork bound with bitumen are
generally used as joint filler.
Bitumen, Rubber-bitumen used as a sealing compound. Air blown
bitumens may be used with advantage, as they are less susceptible to the
temperature changes.

Reinforced Concrete Pavements

The greater quantity of reinforcement should be placed in the longitudinal

direction.
The reinforcement should either be placed in the mid depth or towards
the top of the pavement for better functioning.

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CONSTRUCTION OF SOIL STABILIZED ROADS

Methods The methods of soil stabilization which are in common use are :

1. Mechanical soil stabilization

2. Soil-cement stabilization

3. Soil-lime stabilization

4. Soil-bitument stabilization

Mechanical Soil Stabilization

Suitable for granular soil

Proportioning of aggregate and soils is done to get a mechanically stable
layer.
Stability or a soil-aggregate mix cou ld be increased by increasing its dry
density. Hence proportioning of the mixed is done to attain maximum dry
density.
Proportioning of Materials may be done by Triangular chart or Rothfutch’s
Method.

Mix Design in Mechanical Stabilization

The factors to be considered in the design of mix are gradation, density,

index properties and stability. Of these, the graduation is the most
important factor
Gradation : The particle size distribution that gives maximum density is
generally aimed at. The theoretical gradation for maximum density is
given by

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Here, P = percent fine than diameter ‘d’ (mm) in the material D = diameter of
largest particle, mm n = gradation index, which have values ranging from 0.5
to 0.3 depending upon the shape.
Soil-Cement Stabilization

Soil-cement is an intimate mix of soil, cement and water which is well

compacted to form a strong base course.
In granular soil, the mechanism of stabilization is due to the development
of bond between the hydrated cement and the compacted soil particles at
the points of contact.
In fine grained soil, the stabilization is due to reduction in plasticity and
formation of matrix enclosing small clay lumps.
As the material has poor resistance to abrasion and impact, this can not
be used as a surface course. A bituminous wearing course is placed over
the base course.

Soil Lime Stabilization

Soil-lime is widely used either as a modifier for clayey soil or as a binder.

When clayey soils with high plasticity are treated with lime, the plasticity
index is decreased and the soil becomes friable and easy to be
pulverized, having less affinity with water.
Lime imparts some binding action in granular soils.
Soil-lime is quite suitable as sub-base course for high types of pavements
and base course for pavements with low traffic. Soil-lime cannot be used

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as surface course due to poor resistance to abrasion and impact.

Stabilization of Black Cotton Soils

Black cotton soils are highly clayey soils, greyish to blackish in colour.
The black cotton soils are found to contain montmorillonite clay mineral
which has high expansive characteristics.
The most effective method to stabilize BC soils are by using lime along
with suitable additives.
The cement r equireme nt for satisfactory stabilization of BC soil is so
high that it is not advisable to use portland cement for stabilization.

Stabilization of Desert Sand

Soil-bitmen stabilization is generally used for Desert sand.

The most promising bituminous material in desert region seems to be the
emulsion.

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