Secondary Storage
Memory Representation
Binary digit or bit is the basic unit of memory. A bit is a single binary digit, i.e., 0 or 1. A bit is the smallest
unit of representation of data in a computer. However, the data is handled by the computer as a combination
of bits. A group of 8 bits form a byte. One byte is the smallest unit of data that is handled by the computer.
A group of bytes can be further combined to form a word. A word can be a group of 2, 4 or 8 bytes.
1 bit = 0 or 1
1 Byte (B) = 8 bits
1 Kilobyte (KB) = 210 = 1024 bytes
1 Megabyte (MB) = 220 = 1024KB
1 Gigabyte (GB) = 230 = 1024 MB = 1024 *1024 KB
1 Terabyte (TB) = 240= 1024 GB = 1024 * 1024 *1024 KB
Memory Hierarchy (brush up from last lecture)
The memory is characterized on the basis of two key
factors—capacity and access time. Capacity is the
amount of information (in bits) that a memory can
store. Access time is the time interval between the
read/ write request and the availability of data. The
lesser the access time, the faster is the speed of
memory. Ideally, we want the memory with fastest
speed and largest capacity. However, the cost of fast
memory is very high. The computer uses a hierarchy of
memory that is organized in a manner to enable the
fastest speed and largest capacity of memory.
Secondary Storage
In the last lecture, we saw that RAM is expensive and has a limited storage capacity. Since it is a volatile
memory, it cannot retain information after the computer is powered off. Thus, in addition to primary
memory, an auxiliary or secondary memory is required by a computer. The secondary memory is also called
the storage device of computer. In comparison to the primary memory, the secondary memory stores much
larger amounts of data and information (for example, an entire software program) for extended periods of
time. The data and instructions stored in secondary memory must be fetched into RAM before processing is
done by CPU.
Access Types of Storage Devices
The information stored in storage devices can be accessed in two ways—Sequential access, Direct access.
Sequential Access Devices
Sequential access means that computer
must run through the data in sequence,
starting from the beginning, in order to
locate a particular piece of data.
Magnetic tape is an example of
sequential access device. Let us suppose
that magnetic tape consists of 80
records. To access the 25th record, the
computer starts from first record, then
reaches second, third etc. until it
reaches the 25th record. Sequential
access devices are generally slow
devices.
Random/Direct Access Devices
Direct access devices are the ones in which any piece of data can be retrieved in a non-sequential manner
by locating it using the data’s address. It accesses the data directly, from a desired location. Magnetic disks
and optical disks are examples of direct access devices. There is no predefined order in which one can read
and write data from a direct access device. In a magnetic disk consisting of 80 records, to access the 25th
record, the computer can directly access the 25th record, without going past the first 24 records. Based on
access, magnetic tapes are sequential access devices, and, magnetic disks, optical disk and magneto-optical
disks are direct access devices.
Magnetic Tape
Magnetic tape is most commonly used sequential access secondary storage medium. It is a storage medium
on a large open reel or in a smaller cartridge or cassette (like a music cassette). Magnetic tapes are cheaper
storage media. They are durable, can be written, erased, and re-written. Magnetic tapes are sequential
access devices, which mean that the tape needs to rewind or move forward to the location where the
requested data is positioned in the magnetic tape. Due to their sequential nature, magnetic tapes are not
suitable for data files that need to be revised or updated often. They are generally used to store back-up
data that is not frequently used or to transfer data from one system to other.
Physical Organization
Magnetic tape is a plastic tape with
magnetic coating. Physically the tape is a
plastic ribbon which is usually ½ inch or
¼ inch wide and 50 to 2400 feet long.
Plastic ribbon is coated with a
magnetizable recording material such as
iron-oxide or choromium dioxide. Data
are recorded in the form of tiny invisible
magnetized ad non-magnitized spots
(representing 1s and 0s) on its coated
surface. The tape ribbon is stored in reels
or a small cassette. Magnetic tape is
divided horizontally into tracks (7 or 9)
and vertically into frames. A frame
stores one byte of data, and a track in a
frame stores one bit. Data is stored in successive frames as a string with one data (byte) per frame.
Data is recorded on tape in the form of blocks, where a block consists of a group of data also called as
records. Each block is read continually. There is an Inter-Record Gap (IRG) between two blocks that provides
time for the tape to be stopped and started between records.
Storage Capacity
Storage capacity of the tape = Data recording density × Length of tape
Where data recording density is the amount of data that can be stored on a given length of tape
(measured as bpi i.e. bytes per inch).
Advantages
Inexpensive storage device
Can store a large amount of data
Easy to carry or transport
Light in weight
Disadvantages
Not suitable for random access data
Slow access device
Needs dust prevention, as dust can harm the tape
Uses
Suitable for back-up storage or archiving
Examples
Video tapes
Cassettes
Magnetic Disk
Magnetic disk is most commonly used direct access secondary storage device. It is a thin plastic or metallic
circular plate coated with magnetic oxide and encased in a protective cover. Data is stored on magnetic disks
as magnetized spots. The presence of a magnetic spot represents the bit 1 and its absence represents the
bit 0. The disk is stored in a specially designed protected envelope/case.
Physical Organization
The surface of disk is divided into concentric circles known as
tracks. The outermost track is numbered 0 and the
innermost track is the last track. Tracks are further divided
into sectors. A sector is a pie slice that cuts across all tracks.
The data on disk is stored in sector. Sector is the smallest unit
that can be read or written on a disk. A disk has eight or more
sectors per track. A sector typically contains 512 bytes. Disk
drives are designed to read/write one whole sector at a time.
The number of track on a disk may be as few as 40 on small,
low capacity disks and several thousand on a large high
capacity disk. A disk can be coated on both sides and thus the
data can be stored on both sides as well. Large disk storage is created by stacking together multiple disks. A
set of same tracks on all disks forms a cylinder.
Disk address represent the physical location of the record on the disk. It is comprised of the sector number,
track number, and surface number (when double sided surfaces are used). There are heads to read/write
data to and from disks. Several disks can be stacked together in a sealed, contamination free container.
Storage Capacity
Storage capacity of a disk = Number of recording surfaces × Number of tracks per surface ×
Number of sectors per track × Number of bytes per sector.
Access time = seek time + rotational latency + transfer rate.
Where,
Seek Time: It is the time required to position the read/write head over the desired track.
Rotational Latency: Once the read/write head is at the right track, then the head waits for right
sector to come under it (disk is moving at high speed). The time taken for desired sector of the track
to come under read/write head is called the rotational latency.
Transfer Rate: Once the read/write head is positioned at the right track and sector, the data has to
be written to disk or read from disk. The rate at which data is written to disk or read from disk is
called data transfer rate.
Advantages
Cheap storage device
Can store a large amount of data
Easy to carry or transport
Suitable for frequently read/write data
Fast access device
More reliable storage device
Direct access
Disadvantages
To be prevented from dust, as the read/write head flies over the disk.
Any dust particle in between can corrupt the disk.
On a cost per bit basis, the cost of magnetic disk is low, but is cost of magnetic tape is even lower.
Uses
Applications that require random/direct access.
Usage as shared on-line storage medium
Suitable for back-up storage
Examples
Hard disk
Winchester disks
Disk Packs zip disks
Floppy disks
Optical Disk
Optical disk is a flat and circular disk which is coated with reflective plastic material that can be altered by
laser light. Optical disk does not use magnetism. The bits 1 and 0 are stored as spots that are relatively bright
and light, respectively.
Physical Organization
An optical disk consists of a single spiral track that starts from the edge to
the centre of disk. Due to its spiral shape, it can access large amount of data
sequentially, for example music and video. The random access on optical
disk is slower than that of magnetic disk, due to its spiral shape. The track
on optical disk are further divided into sectors which are of same length.
Thus, the sectors near the centre of disk wrap around the disk longer than
the sectors on the edges of disk. Reading the disk thus requires spinning the
disk faster when reading near the centre and slower when reading near the
edge of disk. Optical disks can store large amount of data, up to 6 GB, in a
small space. Commonly used optical disks store 600–700 MB of data. The
access time for an optical disk ranges from 100 to 200 ms.
Optical disk uses laser beam technology for reading/writing of data and therefore has no mechanism of
reading/writing head.
Storage Capacity
Storage capacity of an optical disk = Number of sectors × Number of bytes per sector.
Advantages
Cost per bit is very low
More reliable storage medium than magnetic tape or magnetic disk
Easy to carry or transport
Direct access
Disadvantages
Mostly it is Read-only storage medium. Data once recorded cannot be altered later
Access time slower than magnetic disk
Requires complicated disk drive mechanism
Uses
Applications that require random/direct access
Distribution of electronic versions of books, magazines, conference proceedings etc
Distribution of software products by vendors
Suitable for back-up storage
Examples
CDs/DVDs
CD-ROM
CD-WR
Memory Storage Devices
Relatively new secondary storage devices based on flash memory, enabling easy transport of data from
one computer to another. Plug and play device that simply plug-ins into a USB port of a computer, treated
as removable device. Available storage capacity 8MB, 16MB, 64 MB, 128MB, 256MB, 1GB, 2GB, 4GB, 8GB,
16GB.
Physical Organization
It usually consists of a PCB (printed circuit board) with
a connector, power circuitry and a number of integrated
circuits (ICs). One of the IC in the PCB provides an interface
between the memory and the USB connector. The next IC is
a NAND flash memory where all the files are stored. Flash
drive uses the PCB as the means of transferring the data and
power from the USB. Controller chip is considered to be the
brain of flash memory.
Advantages
Plug-n-play
Easily removable and rewritable
Physically much smaller and portable
Direct access
Disadvantages
Less secure storage medium
Uses
Applications that require random/direct access
Distribution and/or transportation of electronic versions of books, magazines, conference
proceedings etc
Suitable to move data from one computer to another
Examples
pen drives
memory cards
