Maxon Formelsammlung - e

Precision Drive Systems
Formulae Handbook
maxon academy
maxon academy
Selection process
Step 1
System
Overview Ambient
conditions
Power
Communicaton
v(t), F(t
) Motor
Gear
oller
Contr
Load
Start
Step 2 Step 3 Step 4 Step 5 + 6 Step 7
drive selection Load Drive Gearhead Motor type Sensor
Winding Controller
Overview, system analysis, pre- When performing a system analysis, the first step is to describe the drive as a whole in its
selection of controller & sensor environment. The objective is to obtain an overview of the system, to determine the theoretical
Chap. A.1 feasibility of a solution and to get a picture of the boundary conditions and restrictions. See
Chap. A.1: Overview, system analysis
Motion of the load The goal of "The goal of the Motion of the load" is to define the key requirements regarding forces
Chap. A.2
(torques) and velocities (speeds of rotation). How long must they be applied? What is the required
control accuracy? See Chap. A.2: Motion of the load
No The mechanical drive design can be skipped if the load is driven directly and the drive system
Mechanical drive? does not include a mechanical drive.
Yes Mechanical drives transform mechanical power into mechanical power. For the selection of
the drive the load key data are converted to the output of the motor or gearshaft. See Chap. 3
Mechanical drive design Mechanical drives.
Chap. 3
The step for the gearhead selection can be skipped if no (maxon) gearhead is used. Gearheads
are typically used whenever high torques are required at low speeds.
No
Use of The purpose of this step is to determine if and which maxon gearhead can be used. The key data
gearhead?
for the motor selection can then be calculated from the gearhead reduction and efficiency. See
Yes Chap. 3.4: maxon gearhead
Gearhead selection On the basis of the torque and speed requirements, the next step is to select suitable types of
Chap. 3.4 motors. The useful life, commutation and bearing systems also have to be considered. See Chap.
3.4: Motor selection
Motor type selection The selection of the winding is made on the basis of a comparison of the applied motor voltage
Chap. 6.5 with the speed and a comparison of the available current with the torque requirements. See
Chap. 6.5: Motor selection
The purpose of the last step is the verification of the controller and sensor, as well as a verification
Winding selection
Chap. 6.5 that the controller and sensor preselected in the situation analysis (Step 1) are compatible with the
selected motor. See Chap. A.3: Verification of controller and sensor
Verification of controller & sensor

Chap. A.3
Drive selected
Start
drive selection
Overview, system analysis, pre-

selection of controller & sensor
Chap. A.1
Motion of the load

Chap. A.2
No
Mechanical drive?
Yes
Mechanical drive design

Chap. 3
No
Use of
gearhead?
Yes
Gearhead selection
Chap. 3.4
Motor type selection

Chap. 6.5
Winding selection
Chap. 6.5
Verification of controller & sensor

Chap. A.3
Drive selected
Foreword
This Formulae Handbook lists the most important formulae in relation to all components of the drive
system. It makes use of a flow chart that supports quick selection of the correct drive. Numerous
illustrations and the clear descriptions of the symbols on the respective page help the reader to
understand the formulae.
Roughly speaking, it is a collection of the most important formulae from the maxon catalog, as
well as from the book "The selection of high-precision microdrives", published by maxon academy.
The initiative for writing this Formulae Handbook was the book "The selection of high-precision
microdrives" by Dr. Urs Kafader, which contains extensive know-how from the success story of
50-years of maxon DC drives with low power (below approx. 500 W). The collection is intended for
engineers, professors, lecturers and students, as a perfect supplement to the above mentioned
book.
Thank you
Firstly I would like to thank Dr. Urs Kafader, who encouraged me to tackle this book. The professional
layout and illustrations were done by Patricia Gabriel and Beni Anderhalden. Urs Kafader, Barbara
Schlup, Anja Schütz, Patrik Gnos, Stefan Baumann, Martin Rüegg, Michael Baumgartner, Martin
Windlin, Jens Schulze, Albert Bucheli, Martin Odermatt and Walter Schmid have read the
manuscript and have given valuable suggestions for improvements. I also received extensive
and ready support from many other people at maxon motor ag in response to my questions and
requests for assistance.
Special thanks go to Susan Bechtiger, Paul Williams, Robin Philips, Anthony Mayr and Mark Casey
who helped improve the translation from German into English.
Sachseln, Spring 2012

Jan Braun
5th Edition 2019

© 2019, maxon academy, Sachseln
This work is protected by copyright. All rights reserved, including but not limited to the rights to
translation into foreign languages, reproduction, storage on electronic media, reprinting and
public presentation. The use of proprietary names, common names etc. in this work does not
mean that these names are not protected within the meaning of trademark law. All the information
in this work, including but not limited to numerical data, applications, quantitative data etc. as well
as advice and recommendations, has been carefully researched, although the accuracy of such
information and the total absence of typographical errors cannot be guaranteed. The accuracy
of the information provided must be verified by the user in each individual case. The author, the
publisher and / or their agents may not be held liable for bodily injury or pecuniary or property
damage.
Content
A. Drive selection 6
A.1 Overview, system analysis 6
A.2 Motion of the load 7
A.3 Verification of controller and sensor 8
1. Mass, force, torque 9
1.1 Forces in general 9
1.2 Torques in general 11
1.3 Moments of inertia of various bodies with reference
to the principal axes through the center of gravity S 12
2. Kinematics 14
2.1 Linear equations of motion 14
2.2 Rotary equations of motion 15
2.3 Typical linear motion profiles 16
2.4 Typical rotary motion profiles 18
3. Mechanical drives 21
3.1 Mechanical transmission 21
3.2 Mechanical drives, rotation → linear 22
3.3 Mechanical drives, rotation → rotation 25
3.4 maxon gear 26
4. Bearing 27
4.1 Comparison of characteristics of sintered sleeve bearings and ball bearings 27
5. Electrical principles 29
5.1 Principles of DC (Direct Current) 29
5.2 Electrical resistive circuits 31
5.3 Principles of AC (Alternating Current) 33
5.4 Simple filters 34
6. maxon motors 35
6.1 General 35
6.2 Power consideration DC motor 38
6.3 Motor constants and diagrams 39
6.4 Acceleration 41
6.5 Motor selection 42
7. maxon sensor 43
8. maxon controller 45
8.1 Operating quadrants 45
8.2 Selection of power supply 45
8.3 Size of the motor choke with PWM controllers 46
9. Thermal behavior 47
9.1 Basics 47
9.2 Continuous operation 49
9.3 Cyclic and intermittent operation (continuously repeated) 51
9.4 Short-term operation 52
10. Tables 53
10.1 maxon Conversion Tables 53
10.2 Typical coefficients of friction for rolling, static and kinetic friction 54
11. Symbol list for the Formulae Handbook 56
A. Drive selection
A.1 Overview, system analysis
Before the actual selection process begins, a consideration with the drive system in its entirety
is needed. The possible range of variations of the key parameters must also be determined. As
a rule, all of these aspects are closely interlinked. The descriptions below are intended to help
clarify these points and establish a framework for the further selection process.
Mechanical design
d1
JS mR
J1
Is the intended motion linear or a rotary? What
drive (screw, toothed belt, etc.) or what combi-
p
J2 nation of drives are going to be used to achie-
ve the desired motion? Is it a direct drive?
d2
Define the control concept
What variables are to be controlled: current,

Set value
speed, position? With what accuracy? Is an
Output
open-loop control system sufficient? How is
the controlled variable measured? Where do
Actuator the commands and set values come from?
Feedback Sensor
The answers to these questions will result in a
Measurement preselection of possible controllers and sen-
sors, i.e. for selection step 7 (see page 2).
Verify the power components
Is sufficient electric power available to drive

the load under all operating conditions and
to compensate for the expected losses in the
drive train? What are the maximum voltage
and current that will be available?
Determine the boundary conditions
Are there restrictions on size? In what envi-

d
ronment (temperature, atmosphere etc.) is the
drive required to operate? Is compliance with
particular specifications or quality standards
required? What is the specified useful life?
l
Cost considerations
Cost is always a key consideration. How can

the drive be designed as economically as
possible and still meet the requirements
regarding performance and useful life?
For detailed information, refer to the book "The selection of high-precision microdrives", chapter 3.
6 maxon Formulae Handbook

A.2 Motion of the load
In the step for determining the load requirements, the motions to be executed must be defined.
It is important to select appropriate motion profiles and to consider which operating times are to
be expected.
Operating points
Velocity v
Speed n
1 2 3 4 1
For determining the associated operating
points (value pairs of torque and speed of
rotation or of force and velocity), the respec-
tive total forces and torques are important. To
this end, all acting forces and torques have
Time t to be determined. These in turn depend on
Velocity v
Speed n
the moments of inertia and the acceleration
3 2 1
values.For the purpose of making a selection,
calculating these values with an accuracy of
approx. 10% is sufficient.
Force F, torque M
Mechanical play of the drive
Twisting angle [°]

0.4
0.2
Furthermore, the question of the maximum
0 permissible mechanical play of the drive has
-1500 -1000 -500 0 500 1000 1500 to be determined.
-0.2 Test torque [mNm]
-0.4
Key data
Force F
Torque M
Fmax/Mmax
FRMS/MRMS The key data which caracterize the load can

finally be calculated from the operating points.
They are important for selecting the drive.
∆tmax
Time t
∆ttot
maxon Formulae Handbook 7

A.3 Verification of controller and sensor
The controller and sensor verification involves checking whether the preselection made during
the system analysis (selection step 1, see page 2) are compatible with the motor chosen. De-
tailed examination of the configuration of the control circuit allows to make definitive decisions
regarding the suitable components (controller and sensor).
Motion controller
In higher-level drive systems, the motion con-

troller is the central element. It is where all the
threads come together. Thus, the controller
must satisfy a wide range of requirements.
The controller must

– be able to control the manipulated variable
with sufficient accuracy in a reasonable
amount of time
– be able to process the information provided
by the sensor
– understand the set values and commands
of the higher-level system
– provide the required electric power
– be suited to the motor type (brushed or
brushless) and the commutation
Sensor
The sensor (encoder, DC tacho or resolver)

must be appropriate for the control task and
comply with the other components.
Additionally, the following further selection
criteria apply.
The sensor has to

– be mountable on the motor according to
the maxon modular system.
– measure the correct control variable
(speed, position, direction of rotation)
with sufficient resolution. Rule of thumb:
The resolution of the sensor should be at
least four times higher than the specified
accuracy of the control variable.

1. Mass, force, torque
1.1 Forces in general
The force required to accelerate a mass of 1 kg by 1 m/s in 1 s has the unit kg · m/s2, with the
special unit name Newton (N).
Typical component forces in a drive system
Fa Force for acceleration =

m mass · acceleration Fa = m · a = m · Δv
Δt
[F] = kg · m/s2 = kgm/s2 = N
m Gravitation
(gravitational acceleration FG = m · g
FG g = 9.81 m/s2 = 9.81 N/kg ≈ 10 N/kg)
FH Forces on the inclined plane: FH = FG · sin α

α Downhill-slope force and normal
force FN = FG · cos α
FG FN
FR
Friction force
FR = μ · FN
Sliding friction
FN
Spring force, compression and

FS = k · Δl
extension springs
p FP Compressive force Fp = p · A
Symbol Name SI Symbol Name SI

A Cross section m2 a Acceleration m/s2
F Force N g Gravitational acceleration m/s2
Fa Acceleration force N k Spring constant N/m
FG Weight of a body N m Mass kg
FH Downhill-slope force N p Pressure (1 Pa = 1 N/m = 10 bar)
2 -5
Pa
FN Normal force α Angle of the inclined plane °
(force perpendicular to the plane) N Δl Displacement m
Fp Compressive force N Δt Duration s
FR Friction force N Δv Velocity change m/s
F S Spring force N μ Coefficient of friction (see table Chap. 10.2)

Calculating the total load force consisting of component forces
F1 F2 Fx
Addition of forces acting in the same
FL = F1 + F2 + ...+ FX
direction
FL
F1
Addition of forces acting in opposite
FL = F1 − F2 − ...− FX
directions
FL Fx F2
F1
2 2
F2 Addition of perpendicular forces FL = F1 + F2
FL
Symbol Name SI
FL Load force (output) N
F 1 / F2 / Fx Partial forces N

1.2 Torques in general
The torque is a measure of the rotational effect that a force exerts on a rotating system.
It plays the same role for rotation that the force plays for linear motion. The equations always
apply for a defined axis of rotation.
General
F
r
M Torque = force ∙ lever arm

M=F∙r
[M] = N ∙ m = Nm
Typical component torques in drive systems

Torque for acceleration of moments of inertia Mα = J · α = J · Δω
Torque = moment of inertia ∙ angular acceleration Δt
(For information on calculating moments of inertia, Mα = J · � · Δn
see the next pages) 30 Δt
r
Friction of ball bearing and
MR = µ · FKL · rKL
sintered sleeve bearing (simplified)
Torque of spiral or leg springs MS = km ∙ Δφ
Calculating the load torque consisting of component torques
M1 M2 Mx
Addition of torques acting in
ML = M1 + M2 + ...+ MX
same direction
ML
M1
Addition of torques acting in
ML = M1 − M2 − ...− MX
opposite directions
ML Mx M2

F Force N r Radius m
FKL Bearing load, axial / radial N rKL Mean radius bearing m
J Moment of inertia kgm2 α Angular acceleration rad/s2
M Torque Nm Δt Duration s
ML Load torque Nm Δφ Rotation angle change rad
MR Friction torque Nm Δω Angular velocity change rad/s
MS Torque, spiral spring Nm μ Coefficient of friction (see table chapt. 10.2)
Mα Torque for acceleration Nm
M1 /M2 /Mx Partial torques Nm Symbol Name maxon
km Torsion coefficient (spring constant) Nm Δn Speed change rpm

1.3 Moments of inertia of various bodies with reference
to the principal axes through the center of gravity S
Body type Illustration Mass, moments of inertia
m = ρ · π · r2 · h
1
Circular cylinder, disc Jx = · m · r 2
2
1
Jy = Jz = · m · (3r 2 + h 2)
12
m = ρ · π · (ra2 − ri2) · h
1
Hollow cylinder Jx = 2 · m · (ra2 + ri2)
1 h2
Jy = Jz = · m · ra2 + ri2 +
4 3
1
m = · ρ · π · r2 · h
3
Circular cone 3 · m · r2
Jx =
10
3 · m · (4r 2 + h2)
Jy = Jz =
80
m = 1 · ρ · π · (r22 + r2r1+ r12) · h

3
Truncated circular cone r 5 − r15
Jx = 3 · m · 23
10 r2 − r13
m = 2ρ · π 2 · r 2 · R
Circular torus Jx = Jy = 1 · m · (4R2 + 5r 2)

8
1
Jz = · m · (4R2 + 3r 2)
4
4
m = · ρ · π · r3
3
Sphere
2
Jx = Jy = Jz = · m · r 2
5

Jx Moment of inertia h Height m
with reference to the rotation axis x kgm2 m Mass kg
J y Moment of inertia r Radius m
with reference to the rotation axis y kgm2 ra Outer radius m
Jz Moment of inertia ri Inner radius m
with reference to the rotation axis z kgm2 r1 Radius 1 m
R Radius circular torus around z-axis m r2 Radius 2 m
ρ Density kg/m3

Body type Illustration Mass, moments of inertia
m = 4 · ρ · π · (ra3 − ri3)
3
Hollow sphere r 5 − r5
Jx = Jy = Jz = 2 · m · a3 i3
5 ra − ri
m=ρ·a·b·c
Cuboid 1
Jx = · m· (b2 + c2)
12
m=ρ·A·l
Thin rod y
1
Jy = Jz = · m · l 2
12
1
m= ·ρ·a·b·h
3
Square pyramid Jx = 1 · m · (a2 + b 2)
20
1
Jy = · m · (b 2 + 3 h 2)
20 4
x2
m = ρ · π · ∫x1 f 2(x) · dx
Arbitrary rotation body 1 x2
Jx = · ρ · π · ∫x1 f 4(x) · dx
2
Steiner's theorem
Moment of inertia with referen-
ce to a parallel axis of rotation Jx = m · r s2 + Js
x at a distance of rs to axis s
through the center of gravity S.

A Cross section m2 c Length of side c m
J s Moment of inertia with reference h Height m
to axis s through center of gravity S kgm2 l Length m
Jx Moment of inertia m Mass kg
with reference to the rotation axis x kgm2 ra Outer radius m
J y Moment of inertia ri Inner radius m
with reference to the rotation axis y kgm2 rs Distance of axis s from
Jz Moment of inertia center of gravity S m
with reference to the rotation axis z kgm2 ρ Density kg/m3
a Length of side a m x1 Point 1 on the x-axis m
b Length of side b m x2 Point 2 on the x-axis m

2. Kinematics
2.1 Linear equations of motion
Uniform movement
Velocity v
Velocity v = Δs
Δt
v = Δs / Δt = constant
∆s v [v] = m/s Δs = v ∙ Δt
∆t Time t
Constant acceleration from a standing start
Velocity v Acceleration Δv = a ∙ Δt
a = Δv / Δt = constant
[a] = m/s2 Δs = 1 · a · Δt 2
2
∆v
∆s Δv = g ∙ Δt
Free fall
∆t Time t h = 1 · g · Δt 2
2
Constant acceleration from initial speed
Velocity v
vend = vstart + a ∙ Δt
vend
Δs = vstart · Δt + 1 a · Δt 2
vstart 2
∆s
∆t Time t

a Acceleration m/s2 t, Δt Time, duration s
g Gravitational acceleration m/s2 v, Δv Velocity, velocity change m/s
h Drop height m vend Velocity after acceleration m/s
Δs Distance change m vstart Velocity before acceleration m/s
Remark:
– The shaded areas represent the distance Δs traveled during time period Δt.

2.2 Rotary equations of motion
General
Conversion between radian 360°

and degrees 1 rad = = 57.2958°
2π
1m (The unit rad is frequently
1rad
2π rad
omitted.) 1° = = 0.01745 rad
360
Conversion between
1m π 30
angular velocity and speed ω= ·n n= π ·ω
30
of rotation
Uniform movement
Angular velocity ω,
Angular velocity
Speed n Δφ
ω = Δφ / Δt = constant ω=
Δt
[ω] = rad/s Δφ
ω = 30 Δφ
∆φ ω,n n = Δt
π · Δt
Speed of rotation 30 Δφ
n = 30 / π · Δφ / Δt = const. n = π · Δt
∆t Time t [n] = 1 / min = rpm
Constant acceleration from a standing start
Angular velocity ω, Δω = αα ·· Δt
Δω = Δt
Speed n 30
30
Δn = ππ ·· αα ·· Δt
Δn = Δt
Acceleration
∆ω, ∆n α = Δω / Δt = constant 11
= 2 ·· αα ·· Δt
Δφ =
Δφ 2
∆φ [α] = 1 / s2 = rad/s2 Δt 2
2
1 ππ · Δn · Δt
∆t Time t Δφ = 21 ·· 30
Δφ = · Δn · Δt
2 30
Constant acceleration from initial speed
Angular velocity ω, ωend = ωstart + α · Δt

ωend = ωstart + α · Δt
Speed n 30
ωend, nend nend = nstart + 30 · α · Δt
nend = nstart + ππ · α · Δt
1
Δφ = ωstart · Δt + 1 · α · Δt22
∆φ ωstart, nstart Δφ = ωstart · Δt + 2 · α · Δt
π 2 1 π
Δφ = π · nstart · Δt + 1 · π · Δn·Δt
∆t Time t Δφ = 30 · nstart · Δt + 2 · 30 · Δn·Δt
30 2 30
Symbol Name SI Symbol Name maxon

t, Δt Time, duration s n, Δn Speed of rotation (change) rpm
α Angular acceleration rad/s2 nend Speed after acceleration rpm
Δφ Rotation angle change rad nstart Speed before acceleration rpm
ω, Δω Angular velocity (change) rad/s
ωend Angular velocity after acceleration rad/s
ωstart Angular velocity before acceleration rad/s
Remarks:
– The shaded areas represent the angle of rotation Δφ traveled during time period Δt.
– Angle of rotation Δφ = 2π rad ∙ Number of revolutions = 360° ∙ Number of revolutions

2.3 Typical linear motion profiles
Profile General Symmetrical
Travel over long distance at

Suitability
limited velocity
vmax vmax
∆s ∆s
Diagram
∆ta ∆tb ∆tc ∆ta ∆tb ∆ta
∆ttot ∆ttot
Task:
Δs Δs
vmax = vmax =
Δt + Δtc (Δttot − Δta)
Travel a distance Δs Δttot − a
2
in time Δttot vmax Δs
amax = Δt amax =
a
(Δttot − Δta) · Δta
Δs Δt + Δtc
Δttot = v + a Δttot = vΔs + Δta
Travel a distance Δs at max 2 max
maximum velocity of vmax vmax v
amax = amax = max
Δta Δta
Travel a distance Δs at Δttot = a Δs· Δt + Δta

max a
maximum acceleration of amax vmax = amax · Δta
Δta + Δtc
Δs = + Δtb · vmax Δs = (Δttot − Δta) · vmax
Complete motion in the time 2
Δttot at maximum velocity vmax vmax v
amax = amax = max
Δta Δta
Complete motion in the time Δs = amax · (Δttot − Δta) · Δta

Δttot at maximum acceleration
amax vmax = amax · Δta
Motion at maximum
velocity vmax and maximum
acceleration amax

amax Maximum acceleration m/s2 Δta Time a s
vmax Maximum velocity m/s Δtb Time b s
Δs Distance change m Δtc Time c s
Δt tot Total time s

3 / 3 Trapezoidal Triangle
Optimized for minimum power (at given Δs Optimized for limited acceleration or force
and Δt): Most advantageous from a thermal (at given Δs and Δt). Optimized for minimum
point of view time requirement (at given Δs and amax).
vmax
vmax
∆s ∆s
∆ttot ∆ttot
vmax = 1.5 · Δs Δs
vmax = 2 · Δt
Δttot tot
amax = 4.5 · Δs 2 amax = 4 · Δs 2

Δt tot Δt tot
Δttot = 1.5 · vΔs Δttot = 2 · v

Δs
max max
v max2 v max2
amax = 2 · amax =
Δs Δs
Δttot = 3 · Δs ≈ 2.12 · Δs
Δttot = 2 · a
Δs
2 amax amax max
vmax = 1 · Δs · amax ≈ 0.7 · Δs · amax vmax = Δs · amax

2
1
Δs = 2 · Δttot · vmax Δs = · Δttot · vmax
3 2
v vmax
amax = 3 · max amax = 2 ·
Δttot Δttot
Δs = 2 · amax · Δt tot2 ≈ 0.22 · amax Δt tot2 Δs =

1
· a · Δt tot2
9 4 max
1 · a · Δt ≈ 0.33 · a Δt
vmax = 3 vmax = 1 · amax · Δttot
max tot max tot 2
v max2 v max2
Δs = 2 · a Δs = a
max max
vmax v
Δttot = 3 · a Δttot = 2 · amax
max max

amax Maximum acceleration m/s2 Δs Distance change m
vmax Maximum velocity m/s Δt tot Total time s

2.4 Typical rotary motion profiles
Profile General Symmetrical
Long rotation at limited speed

Suitability
of rotation
nmax nmax
∆φ ∆φ
Diagram
∆ta ∆tb ∆tc ∆ta ∆tb ∆ta
∆ttot ∆ttot
Task:
30 Δφ
nmax = � · 30 Δφ
Δt + Δtc nmax = � ·
Travel an angle Δφ
Δttot − a (Δttot − Δta)
2
in time Δttot Δφ Δφ
αmax = Δt + Δtc αmax =
Δttot − a · Δta (Δttot − Δta) · Δta
2
30 Δφ Δta + Δtc 30 Δφ
Δttot = � · + Δttot = � · n + Δta
Travel an angle Δφ at nmax 2 max
maximum speed nmax n
αmax = � · max
n αmax = � · max
30 Δta 30 Δta
Δφ
Travel an angle Δφ at maxi- Δttot = + Δta
αmax · Δta
mum angular acceleration
αmax nmax = 30
� · αmax · Δta
Δt + Δtc
Δφ = � · nmax · a + Δtb Δφ = � · nmax · (Δttot − Δta )
Complete motion in the time 30 2 30
Δttot at maximum speed nmax n n
αmax = � · max αmax = � · max
30 Δta 30 Δta
Complete motion in the Δφ = αmax · (Δttot − Δta) · Δta

time Δttot at maximum angular
30
acceleration α max nmax = � · αmax · Δta
Motion at maximum speed

nmax and maximum angular
acceleration α max

α max Maximum angular acceleration rad/s2 Δφ Rotation angle change rad
Δta Time a s
Δtb Time b s Symbol Name maxon
Δtc Time c s nmax Maximum speed in load cycle rpm

3 / 3 Trapezoidal Triangle
Optimized for minimum power (at given Δφ Optimized for limited angular acceleration
and Δt): Most advantageous from a thermal or torque (at given Δφ and Δt) and for minimum
point of view time requirement (at given Δφ and α max).
nmax
nmax
∆φ ∆φ
∆ttot ∆ttot
30 Δφ 30 Δφ
nmax = 1.5 · � · Δt nmax = 2 · � · Δt
tot tot
Δφ Δφ
αmax = 4.5 · αmax = 4 ·
Δt tot2 Δttot2
30 Δφ 30 Δφ
Δttot = 1.5 · � · n Δttot = 2 · � · n
max max
n 2 nmax2
αmax = 2 · � 2 · max
2
αmax = � 2
·
30 Δφ 302 Δφ
3 Δφ Δφ Δφ
Δttot = · α ≈ 2.12 · α Δttot = 2 · α
2 max max max
30
nmax = 1 · � · Δφ · αmax ≈ 6.75 · Δφ · αmax 30
nmax = � Δφ · αmax
2
Δφ = 2 · � · Δttot · nmax Δφ = 1 · � · Δttot · nmax
3 30 2 30
� nmax n
αmax = 3 · 30 · Δt αmax = 2 · � · max
tot
30 Δttot
Δφ = 2 · αmax · Δt tot2 ≈ 0.22 · αmax · Δt tot2 Δφ = 1 · αmax · Δt tot2

9 4
nmax = 1 · 30 · αmax · Δttot ≈ 3.18 · αmax · Δttot nmax = 1 · 30 · αmax · Δttot
3 � 2 �
n max2
Δφ = 30
nmax2
Δφ = 2 · 30� · αmax ·
� αmax
n n
Δttot = 3 · � · αmax Δttot = 2 · � · α max
30 max 30 max

α max Maximum angular acceleration rad/s2 nmax Maximum speed in load cycle rpm
Δφ Rotation angle change rad

Notes
3. Mechanical drives
3.1 Mechanical transmission
Classification Output power / transmission, general
Linear
Output power, linear motion
Screw Rack and pinion [W] = m/s · N
Ball screw Pmech = v · F

Conveyor belt
Trapezoidal screw Transmission, general

Crane
Pin,mech
Eccentric drive Rover PL,mech =
η
ωin � Min
Crankshaft vL � FL =
η
Rotation
Output power, rotary motion
Gearhead Belt [W ] = s-1 · Nm
Spur gearhed Toothed belt Pmech = ω · M = � · n · M

30
Planetary gearhead Chain drive
Transmission, general
Bevel gear
Special design
Pin,mech
Worm gear PL,mech =
η
Cyclo gear
ωin � Min
Wolfrom gear ωL � M L =
Harmonic Drive® η
Designations in the formulae

– The load-side variables at the output are identified by the index L.
– The input-side variables (usually the motor) are identified by the index in.

F Force N vL Load velocity m/s
FL Load force (output) N ɳ Efficiency
M Torque Nm ω Angular velocity rad/s
Min Input torque Nm ω L Angular velocity load rad/s
ML Load torque Nm ωin Angular velocity input rad/s
Pin,mech Mechanical input power W
PL,mech Mechanical output power W Symbol Name maxon
Pmech Mechanical power W n Speed of rotation rpm
v Velocity m/s

3.2 Mechanical drives, rotation → linear
Screw drive
Speed of 60
JS nin = p · vL
rotation
p p FL
Torque Min = ·
2� η
Additional torque for constant acceleration

(speed change Δnin during period Δta)
mL + mS p 2 π Δnin
Min,α = Jin + JS + · · ·
η 4π 2 30 Δta
Play, 2π
position error Δφin = ΔsL ·
p
Belt drive / conveyor belt / crane
Speed of 60 v
mB J1 nin = π · L (Assumption: no slip)
rotation d1
d1 d1 FL
J2 Torque Min = ·
2 η
d2
d1 J2 d12 JX d12 mL + mB d12 Δn

Min,α = Jin + J1 + · + · + · · π · in
J1
η d22 η dX2 η 4 30 Δta
Play, position Δφin = ΔsL · 2

error d1

FL Load force (output) N mL Mass of the load kg
Jin Moment of inertia, input mS Mass, screw nut kg
(motor, encoder, brake) kgm2 p Screw lead (pitch) m
JS Moment of inertia, screw kgm2 vL Load velocity m/s
J X Moment of inertia, deflector pulley X kgm2 ΔsL Mechanical play, load m
J1 Moment of inertia, driving end kgm2 Δta Acceleration time s
J 2 Moment of inertia, deflector pulley 2 kgm2 Δφin Mechanical play, input rad
Min Input torque Nm η Efficiency
Min,α Torque for acceleration Nm
dX Diameter, deflector pulley X m Symbol Name maxon
d1 Diameter, drive pulley m nin Input speed rpm
d2 Diameter, deflector pulley 2 m Δnin Speed change, input rpm
mB Mass, belt kg

Rack-and-pinion drive
J P, z Speed of 60
p nin = · vL
rotation p·z
mz p · z FL
Torque Min = ·
2π η

mL + mZ p2 · z2 Δnin
Min,α = Jin + JP + · · π ·
η 4π 2 30 Δta
Play, position 2π
Δφin = ΔsL ·
error p·z
Rover
Speed of 60 vL
nin = π · (Assumption: no slip)
rotation d
JW
d FL
Torque Min = ·
mF d 2 η

mL + mF d 2 π Δnin
Min,α = Jin + JW + · · ·
η 4 30 Δta
Play, 2
position error Δφin = ΔsL ·
d

FL Load force (output) N m Z Mass, gear rack kg
Jin Moment of inertia, input p Pitch m
(motor, encoder, brake) kgm2 vL Load velocity m/s
JP Moment of inertia, pinion kgm2 z Number of teeth, pinion
J W Moment of inertia, ΔsL Mechanical play, load m
all wheels together kgm2 Δta Acceleration time s
Min Input torque Nm Δφin Mechanical play, input rad
Min,α Torque for acceleration Nm η Efficiency
d Diameter, drive wheel m
mF Mass, rover kg Symbol Name maxon
mL Mass of the load kg nin Input speed rpm
Δnin Speed change, input rpm

Eccentric drive
e Sinusoidal velocity curve of the load
JE (assumption: constant input speed nin)
vL (t) = � · nin · e · sin � · nin · t

30 30
Angle-dependent periodic acceleration force for load,

pistons and rods (mL)
Fa (φ) = Fa · cos φ = mL · � · nin · e · cos φ

30
Angle-dependent torques due to different load conditions in the two

half cycles of the back and forth motion.
Min1 (φ) = e ∙ (FL1 ∙ sin φ + Fa1 ∙ cos φ) 0≤φ≤π

Min2 (φ) = e ∙ (FL2 ∙ sin φ + Fa2 ∙ cos φ) π ≤ φ ≤ 2π
Average effective torque load
e
Min,RMS = · FL1 2 + Fa1 2 + FL22 + Fa22
2·η
Additional torque for acceleration of the eccentric disc

Δnin
Min,α = Jin + JE · π ∙
30 Δta

FL1 Load force 1st half cycle N e Eccentricity m
FL2 Load force 2nd half cycle N m L Mass of the load kg
Fa Acceleration force N vL (t) Sinusoidal velocity curve of the load m/s
Fa (φ) Periodic acceleration force as a t Time s
function of the angle of rotation N Δta Acceleration time s
Fa1 Acceleration force, 1st / 2nd half cycle N φ Rotation angle rad
Fa2 Acceleration force, 1st / 2nd half cycle N η Efficiency
Jin Moment of inertia, input
(motor, encoder, brake) kgm2 Symbol Name maxon
J E Moment of inertia, eccentric disc kgm2 nin Input speed rpm
Min,RMS RMS torque Nm Δnin Speed change, input rpm
Min1 (φ) Torque, 1st half cycle Nm
Min2 (φ) Torque, 2nd half cycle Nm

3.3 Mechanical drives, rotation → rotation
Gearhead
Speed of rotation nin = nL · iG
iG J1
ML
Torque Min =
J2 iG · ƞ

JL + J2 Δn J π · Δnin
Min,α= Jin+ J1+ · π · in = Jin + JG + 2 L ·
iG2 · η 30 Δta iG · η 30 Δta
z3
Play, position error Δφin = ΔφL · iG
z1
Reduction ratio z1+ z3

iG =
planetary gearhead z1
Belt drive
d1 d2
mR Speed of rotation nin = nL · (Assumption: no slip)
J1 d1
J2 d1 ML
Torque Min = ·
d2 d2 η

2 2 2
JL + J2 d1 Jx d1 mR · d1 π Δnin
Min,α = Jin + J1 + · 2+ · + · ·
η d2 η dX2 4·η 30 Δta
Play, position error Δφin = Δφ out · d2

d1

J G Moment of inertia, iG Reduction ratio, gearhead
gearhead transformed kgm2 (catalog value)
Jin Moment of inertia, input m R Mass, belt kg
(motor, encoder, brake) kgm2 z1 Number of teeth, sun wheel
J L Moment of inertia, load kgm2 z3 Number of teeth, internal gear
Jx Moment of inertia, deflector pulley X kgm2 Δta Acceleration time s
J1 Moment of inertia, driving end kgm2 Δφin Mechanical play, input rad
J 2 Moment of inertia, load kgm2 Δφ L Mechanical play, load rad
Min Input torque Nm η Efficiency
ML Load torque Nm Symbol Name maxon
dX Diameter, deflector pulley X m nin Input speed rpm
d1 Diameter, drive pulley m nL Load speed rpm
d2 Diameter, load pulley m Δnin Speed change, input rpm

3.4 maxon gear
Identification system for maxon-gearheads

Gearhead design type
GS Spur gearhead
GP Planetary gearhead
GPX Configurable planetary gearhead
KD Koaxdrive
GP 22 A
Diameter Version
in mm
A Metal version
AR, CR High Radial loads
B Version with enlarged internal gear
C Ceramic version
HD Heavy Duty – for applications in oil
HP High Power version
UP Ultra high Performance
K Plastic version
LN Low Noise version
SPEED High input speeds
S Screw drive with axial bearing
V Reinforced version
_Z, LZ Low backlash version
Operating ranges of gearheads

maxon-gearheads are designed for an operating life of at least 1000 hours at the given
maximum continuous torque and maximum input speed ratings. Operation below these limits
will significantly increase operating life. If the limits are exceeded, the useful life of the gearhead
may be reduced.
Load speed nL
Max. load speed
(determined by max. gearhead input speed)
nG,max
nin,max
nG,max =
iG
nG,max nin,max
Continuous Short-term operation
operation
Load torque ML
MG,cont MG,max

MG,cont Max. continuous torque, gearhead nG,max Maximum output speed gearhead rpm
(catalog value) Nm nin,max Maximum input speed (catalog value) rpm
MG,max Max. intermittent torque, gearhead
(catalog value) Nm
iG Reduction ratio, gearhead (catalog value)

4. Bearing
4.1 Comparison of characteristics of sintered sleeve bearings and ball bearings
Sintered sleeve bearings Ball bearings
Operating – continuous operation – suitable for all types of operations

modes – especially for start-stop operations
and low-speed applications
Speed – ideal above approx. 500 rpm – up to several 10 000 rpm
range (range for hydrodynamic lubrication) – in special cases up to 100 000 rpm
– with special material pairing and and higher (e.g. with ceramic balls)
lubrication even at lower speeds
Radial / – only small bearing loads – higher loads

axial load – preloaded ball bearings permit axial
loads up to the value of the preload.
Additional – t ypical in small DC motors up – typical in DC motors above 10 mm

operating to approx. 30 mm diameter diameter and in planetary gearheads
criteria and in spur gearheads – preloaded ball bearings typical in
– not suitable for rotating load brushless DC motors guaranteeing a
– not suitable for vacuum very long life and smooth operation
applications (outgassing)
– not suitable for low
temperatures (< -20°C)
Bearing – axial: typically 0.05 … 0.15 mm – axial: typically 0.05 … 0.15 mm

play – radial: typically 0.014 mm (no axial play if preloaded)
– radial: typically 0.025 mm
Coefficient – 0.001 … 0.01 – 0.001 … 0.1
of friction, (hydrodynamic lubrication)
typical
Lubrica- – hydrodynamic lubrication – temperature range for standard
tion only at high speeds lubrication: typically -20 … 100 °C
– shaft bearing material very – special lubrication possible for very
important, pore size of the sintered high or very low operating temperatures
bearing and viscosity of the lubricant – sealing possible (but higher friction,
at operating temperature are critical shorter life and lower speed limit)
– special: sintered iron bearings
with ceramic shaft for high radial
loads and long operating life
Costs economical more expensive

Notes
5. Electrical principles
5.1 Principles of DC (Direct Current)
Electric power
Power:
U2
[P ] = V ∙ A =VA P=U·I=R·I2=
R
= W = J/s
Power loss: PV = R · I 2
Power adjustment
At RL = Ri the maximum power is drawn from a voltage source.
1.0 Linear source Consumer load

a
P/Pmax
0.8 I Ri I
0.6 U0 Ukl RL
0.4
b
0.2
0.0 U02
0.01 0.1 1 10 100 Pmax = = I 2 · Ri
RL/Ri 4 · Ri
Ohm's law
I U=R∙I
+ A U
I=
R
V U R
_ U
R=
I

I Current A Ri Inner resistance, voltage source Ω
P Power W RL Load resistance Ω
Pmax Maximum power W U Voltage V
PV Power losses W U0 Source voltage V
R Electrical resistance Ω Ukl Terminal voltage V

Electrical time constant
100
The electrical time constant Current change with
% inductive load
63% describes the reaction
60
time of the current when τel = L
40 switching on or off a voltage. R
20 Voltage change with
0 [τel] = H/Ω = Vs/A/Ω = s capacitive load
0 τel 2τel 3τel 4τel 5τel [τel] = Ω · F = Ω · As/V = s τel = R · C
t
Pull-up / pull-down
+V
Pull-up: (relatively high-impedance) resistor
– Connects signal line with higher voltage potential
Ru Pull-up – Pulls the line up to the higher potential, if no external
voltage actively pulls the line to a lower potential
Logic
Logic
Pull-down: (relatively high-impedance) resistor
Rd Pull-down
– Connects signal line with lower voltage potential
– Pulls the line down to the lower potential, if no external
voltage actively pulls the line to a higher potential
Open-collector output
+V
Open-collector output (OC):
Ru – O utput of an integrated circuit with a bipolar transistor

with an open collector output.
Iout Open – Usually the outputs are used in combination with a
Collector pull-up resistor which raises the output voltage to a
Output higher potential in the inactive state.
Collector
Base Uout = +V — (Iout · Ru)
Logic
Uout
Emitter Hall sensors usually have an open-collector output
without pull-up resistor. Therefore, it is integrated into the
maxon controllers.

C Capacitance F t Time s
Iout Output current A Uin Input voltage V
L Inductance H Uout Output voltage V
R Electrical resistance Ω +V Supply voltage V
R d Pull-down resistance Ω τel Electrical time constant s
Ru Pull-up resistance Ω

5.2 Electrical resistive circuits
Series resistor circuits
I
+
U = U1 + U2 +...
R1 U1
R = R1 + R2 + ...
I = constant
U U1 R1
=
R2 U2 U2 R2
Parallel resistor circuits
I I = I1 + I2 +...
+
I1 I2
1 1 1
= + + ...
R R1 R2
U = constant R1 · R2
U R1 R2 R=
R1 + R2
I1 R2
=
– I2 R1

I Total current A R1 , R2 Partial resistances Ω
I1 , I2 Partial currents A U Total voltage V
R Equivalent resistance Ω U1 , U2 Partial voltages V

Voltage divider, no-load
I
+ R2
U2 = U ·
R1 + R2
R1 U1
U1 R1
U =
U2 R2
R2 U2 U2 U
I= =
– R2 R1 + R2
Voltage divider, under load
I I I I Rx
+ + + + UL = U ·
Rx + R1
R1 R1 R1 R1
RL · R2
Rx =
IL IL RL + R2
U U U U R2
IR2 IR2 IL = I ·
RL + R2
R2 R2 UL UL RL RL Rx Rx
RL
– – – – IR2 = I ·
RL + R2
Potentiometer
+ A A: Start
S: Wiper R = x · R0
E: End
No-load UL = x · U
R0
1 S
U x
0 x
UL RL Under load UL = U ·
R0
(x – x 2) +1
– RL
E
Winding resistance
Temperature-dependence RTW = Rmot · (1 + α Cu · (T W – 25 C°))

I Total current A RTW Winding resistance at current temp. TW Ω
IL Load current A U Total voltage V
IR2 Current through resistor R2 A U 1 , U 2 Partial voltages V
R Equivalent resistance Ω UL Load voltage V
R0 Resistance, potentiometer Ω TW Winding temperature °C
R1 , R2 Partial resistances Ω x Potentiometer position 0...1
R L Load resistance Ω
Rmot Terminal resistance, motor (catalog value) Ω Symbol Name Value
Rx Equivalent resistance of R2 and RL Ω α Cu Resistance coefficient, copper 0.0039 K-1

5.3 Principles of AC (Alternating Current)
Alternating quantities
Frequency 1
[f] = 1 / s = Hz f=
T T
t
Angular frequency
ω = 2π · f
[ω] = 1 / s = rad/s
Ohm's law
I U=Z·I
~
A
U
I= Z
V U Z
U
Z= I
~
Resistances
Reactance
XL
XL Inductive: XL = ω · L = 2π · f · L
~
~ XC
XC
~ Capacitive: XC = 1 = 1
~ ω · C 2� · f · C
Impedance (AC resistance) Z = |Z|
For series connection of R and L, or R and C Z = R2 + X 2

C Capacitance F X Stands for XC or XL Ω
I Current A XC Reactance, capacitive Ω
L Inductance H XL Reactance, inductive Ω
R Electrical resistance Ω Z Impedance Ω
T Period s f Frequency Hz
U Voltage V t Time s
ω Angular frequency rad/s

5.4 Simple filters
General
1 R
Cut-off frequency fC fC = or fC = 2� · L
2� · R · C
Uout
Phase shift cosφ =
Uin
Low-pass filters, integral element

Allow frequencies to pass virtually unaffected below their cut-off frequency fC.
Higher frequencies are dampened.
Applications: maxon controller inputs, commutation signal measurement of maxon motors.
R I UR 1.0
0.707 Uout 1
0.5 =
Uin 1 + ( f / fC )2
Uin C Uout Uout Uout 0.2
φ f = fC
Uin Uin 0.1
Xc
L 90° Uout = Uin
Uin
R2 + Xc2
45°
UL
Uin R Uout 0° R
φ φ 0.1 0.2 0.5 1 2 5 10 Uout = Uin
R2 + XL2
I Uout f/fC
High-pass filter, derivative element
Allow frequencies to pass virtually unaffected above their cut-off frequency fC.
Lower frequencies are dampened.
C I Uout 1.0
0.707
Uout 1
φ 0.5 =
Uin 1 + ( fC / f )2
Uin R Uout UC Uout 0.2
Uin f = fC
Uin 0.1
R
90° Uout = Uin
R R2 + XC2
Uin φ 45°
Uin L Uout Uout 0° XL
0.1 0.2 0.5 1 2 5 10 Uout = Uin
I UR
φ R + XL2
2
f/fC

C Capacitance F Uout Output voltage V
I Current A U R Voltage over resistance V
L Inductance H XC Reactance, capacitive Ω
R Electrical resistance Ω XL Reactance, inductive Ω
UC Voltage over capacitance V f Frequency Hz
Uin Input voltage V fC Cut-off frequency Hz
UL Voltage over inductance V φ Phase shift °

6. maxon motors
6.1 General
What is special about maxon motors?

The heart of the maxon motor is the self-supporting ironless copper winding.
Outstanding features of the maxon DC motors:
– High efficiency → Low power consumption
– Very low moment of inertia → Highest acceleration
– Low inductance → Long service life
– Compact design → Good volume / power ratio
– No magnetic cogging
– Low electromagnetic interference
– High reliability
maxon DC motor (brushed permanent-magnet energized DC motors)
DCX range
– Online configurable
∅6 – 35 mm
– High performance thanks to NdFeB-Magnet
– Dynamic and high efficiency
DC-max range
– High performance at low costs
∅16 – 26 mm
– Combines design of the A-max motors with
NdFeB magnets
– Automated manufacturing process
RE range
– High power density
– High-quality DC motor with NdFeB magnet ∅6 -65 mm
– High speeds and torques
– Robust design (metal flange)
A-max range
– Good price / performance ratio
∅12 – 32 mm
– DC motor with AlNiCo magnet
– Automated manufacturing process
Properties of the two brush systems
Graphite brushes Precious metal brushes
– Well suited for high currents – Well suited for lowest currents
and peak currents and voltages
– Well suited for start-stop and – Well suited for continuous operation
reverse operation – Smaller motors
– Larger motors (from approx. 10 W) – Very low friction, low audible noise
– Low electromagnetic emissions
– Higher friction, higher no-load current
– Cost effective
– Not suited for low currents
– Higher audible noise – N
ot suited for high currents and peak
– Higher electromagnetic emissions currents
– More complex and higher costs – Not suited for start-stop operation

maxon EC motor
Brushless DC motors (BLDC motors)
– Motor behavior similar to brushed DC motor
– Design similar to synchronous motor (3-phase stator winding, rotating permanent magnet)
– Powering of the 3 phases according to the rotor position by a commutation electronics
ECX range
– Power-optimized, with high speeds up to 120 000 rpm ∅6 – 22 mm
– Robust design
– Various types: e.g. short–long, sterilizable
EC range
– Power-optimized, with high speeds up to 100 000 rpm
– Robust design ∅4 – 60 mm
– Various types: e.g. short–long, sterilizable
– Lowest residual imbalance
EC-max range
– Attractive price / performance ratio
– Robust steel housing ∅16 – 40 mm
– Speeds up to 20 000 rpm
– Rotor with one pole pair
EC-4pole range
– Highest power density thanks to 4-pole rotor
∅22 – 32 mm
– Speeds up to 25 000 rpm
– Mechanical time constants below 3 ms.
EC flat motor range

– Attractive price / performance ratio
– High torques due to external, multipole rotor
∅9.2 – 90 mm
– Excellent heat dissipation at higher speeds, resulting from
the to open design
– Speeds of up to 25 000 rpm
EC-i range
– Highly dynamic due to internal, multipole rotor
– Mechanical time constants below 3 ms ∅30 – 52 mm
– High torque density
– Speeds of up to 15 000 rpm
EC frameless range
– High torque grace to multi-pole motor design
– Installation instructions with detailed specification for
∅45 – 90 mm
optimum integration.
– Sensor for supervising the temperature (NTC hot conductor)
– Space saving integration

Electronic commutation
Commutation type Rotor position determination
Block commutation with Hall sensors sensorless
Signal sequence diagram

for the Hall sensors (HS) EMF

0° 60 120 180 240 300 360
Block-shaped phase currents 1
HS 1
0 
EMF

1
HS 2
0
1
HS 3
0
0° 60° 120° 180° 240° 300° 360°
Supplied motor voltage  
(phase to phase)
+
0° 60° 120° 180° 240° 300° 360° U 1-2
Turning angle
+
U 2-3 Legend
 Star point
+
U3-1  Time delay 30°
 Zero crossing of EMF
Sinusoidal commutation With encoder and Hall sensors (HS)
Sinusoidal phase currents
0° 60° 120° 180° 240° 300° 360°

Turning angle EC motor with HS Encoder
Comparison of DC and EC motors

DC motor (brushed) EC motor (brushless)
– Simple operation and control, even without – Long operating life and high speeds with
electronics preloaded ball bearings
– No electronic parts in the motor – No commutator arcing
– Operating life limited by brush system – Iron losses in the magnetic return
– Max. speeds limited by brush system – Needs electronics for operation
(more cables and higher costs)
– Electronic parts in the motor (Hall sensors)

6.2 Power consideration DC motor
Motor as energy converter
Pel= Umot · Imot
�
PL = n·M
30
PJ= Rmot · Imot2
Pel = PL + PJ
Power balance, motor
Umot · Imot = � · n · M + Rmot · Imot2
30
Power P PL Umot > UN

Speed n Umot = UN In the speed-torque diagram, the output
power is equivalent to the area of the
PL rectangle below the speed-torque line. This
n0 rectangle is largest at half the stall torque and
half the no-load speed.
The power curve is a parabola, whose
maximum value is proportional to the square
of the motor voltage.
MH Torque M

Imot Motor current A Rmot Terminal resistance, motor
M Torque Nm (catalog value) Ω
MH Stall torque Nm Umot Motor voltage V
P Power W UN Nominal voltage, motor (catalog value) V
Pel Electrical input power W
PJ Joule power loss W Symbol Name maxon
PL Mechanical output power W n Speed of rotation rpm
n 0 No load speed rpm

6.3 Motor constants and diagrams
Motor constants
The speed constant kn and the torque constant kM are two important characteristic values for
the energy conversion.
Speed constant kn
The speed constant kn combines the speed n with the n = kn · Uind
voltage induced in the winding Uind (=EMF).
Torque constant kM
The torque constant kM links the produced torque M with the
electrical current I. M = kM · Imot
Information: maxon unit mNm/A
Dependence between kn and kM

kn · kM =
30 000
� [ rpm mNm
V
·
A ]
=1 [ rad Nm
·
s·V A ]
Speed-torque line
n0 ≈ kn · Umot
Describes the motor behavior — i.e. possible operating points
(n, M) — at a constant voltage Umot
MH = kM · IA
Speed n
MR = kM · I0
U
mo
t >U Δn
n = kn · Umot – ·M
N
ΔM
n0
(maxon units)
U
∆n mo
t =U
N
Speed / torque gradient:
∆M
Δn 30 000 Rmot n0
= � · ≈
MR MH Torque M ΔM kM2 MH
(maxon units)
I0 IA Motor current Imot

Imot Motor current A Umot Motor voltage V
IA Starting current A UN Nominal voltage, motor (catalog value) V
I0 No load current A
kM Torque constant (catalog value) Nm/A Symbol Name maxon
M Torque Nm kn Speed constant (catalog value) rpm/V
MH Stall torque Nm n Speed of rotation rpm
MR Friction torque Nm n 0 No load speed rpm
Rmot Terminal resistance, motor (catalog value) Ω Δn / ΔM Speed / torque gradient, motor
Uind Induced voltage V (catalog value) rpm/mNm

Voltage equation, motor
Imot
+
di
Umot = Lmot · + Rmot · imot + Uind Rmot · Imot + Uind
dt
Lmot
(at slow current change)
Derived from this the speed of rotation as a

Umot Rmot
function of the load (speed-torque line)
n = kn · Umot – Δn · M = n0 – Δn · M
ΔM ΔM
EMF Uind
(maxon units)
–
Efficiency curve in function of the torque

Efficiency η
Speed n
ηmax � n · (M − MR )
η= · (with MR = kM · I0)
n0 30 000 Umot · Imot
2
I0
ηmax = 1 –
Umot = UN IA
MH
Torque M

EMF Electromotive force V Umot Motor voltage V
I0 No load current A di Current change A
IA Starting current A dt Time change s
Imot , imot Motor current A η Efficiency
kM Torque constant (catalog value) Nm/A ηmax Maximum efficiency at UN (catalog value)
Lmot Terminal inductance, motor (catalog value) H
M Torque Nm Symbol Name maxon
MH Stall torque Nm kn Speed constant (catalog value) rpm/V
MR Friction torque Nm n Speed of rotation rpm
Rmot Terminal resistance, motor (catalog value) Ω n 0 No load speed rpm
UN Nominal voltage, motor (catalog value) V Δn / ΔM Speed / torque gradient, motor
Uind Induced voltage V (catalog value) rpm/mNm

6.4 Acceleration
Angular acceleration: Start with constant current

Speed n
n0
ML, nL
lmot = constant Acceleration

M k ·I
MH α= = M mot
JR + JL JR + JL
Torque M
Speed n
n0 Ramp time to load speed
nL
J + JL J + JL
Δt = � · nL · R = � · nL · R
30 M 30 kM · Imot
∆t Time t
Angular acceleration: Start with constant terminal voltage
Speed n
ML, nL Acceleration, maximum
n0
MH
Umot = constant αmax =
JR + JL
Ramp time to load speed

MH
Torque M
ML + MR
1– · n0
Speed n MH
n0 Δt = τm' · ln
nL ML + MR
1– · n0 – nL
MH
Mechanical time constant with load inertia

(JR + JL) · Rmot
τm ∆t Time t τm' =
kM2

Imot Motor current A α Angular acceleration rad/s2
J L Moment of inertia, load kgm2 α max Maximum angular acceleration rad/s2
JR Moment of inertia, rotor (catalog value) kgm2 Δt Acceleration time s
kM Torque constant (catalog value) Nm/A τm Mechanical time constant (catalog value) s
M Torque Nm τm′ Mechanical time constant
MH Stall torque Nm with additional JL s
ML Load torque Nm
MR Friction torque Nm Symbol Name maxon
Rmot Terminal resistance, motor (catalog value) Ω n Speed of rotation rpm
t Time s n 0 No load speed rpm
Umot Motor voltage V nL Load speed rpm

6.5 Motor selection
Motor type selection
Speed n Motor type selection

Max. speed based on the required torques
MN > MRMS
MH > Mmax
Continuous Short-term operation
operation Root mean square load (RMS)
1
Torque M MRMS = (t · M12 + t2 · M22 + ... + tn · Mn2)
MRMS MN Mmax MH ttot 1
Remark:
A motor type (e.g. DCX 32 L) is defined by: its size, the mechanical output power, the bearing
system of the shaft, the commutation system used and the possible combinations with
gearheads and sensors (maxon modular system)
Winding selection
For an optimum match between the electrical and mechanical power components of the motor.
Speed n
kn specifies the winding:
n0,theor Select winding with
Speed-torque line Δn
high enough for all n0,theor nmax + · Mmax
operating points kn ˃ kn,theor = = ΔM
Umot Umot
Safety (maxon units)
nmax factor
~ 20% where nmax , Mmax is the extreme operating
Deceleration Acceleration
point and Δn / ΔM the average speed / torque
Mmax Torque M gradient of the selected motor type.
Recommendation: Add a safety factor of approx. 20% to kn to compensate for tolerances and
load changes; but do not select too large a value for kn, as this would lead to large currents.
Mmax
Required maximum motor current Imot = I0 +
kM

Imot Motor current A t1…n Duration of operating points 1...n s
I0 No load current A t tot Total time, operating cycle s
kM Torque constant (catalog value) Nm/A
M1...n Torque at operating points 1...n Nm Symbol Name maxon
M Torque Nm kn Speed constant (catalog value) rpm/V
MH Stall torque Nm kn,theor Required speed constant rpm/V
MN Nominal torque, motor (catalog value) Nm n Speed of rotation rpm
MRMS RMS torque Nm nmax Maximum speed in load cycle rpm
Mmax Maximum torque in load cycle Nm n 0,theor Required no load speed rpm
n Speed of rotation rpm Δn / ΔM Speed / torque gradient, motor
Umot Motor voltage V (catalog value) rpm/mNm

7. maxon sensor
maxon incremental encoder

360°e 90°e
channel A
channel B
signal edges
(quadcounts)
index channel I
Recommended applications
Principle magnetic inductive optical
HEDS,
Type
MR EASY QUAD MEnc MILE HEDL, AEDL RIO ENC22
High number of counts        
High speeds        
Low speeds        
Line driver (in the case

of long cables, rough
     ,   
ambient conditions,
positioning applications)
Low positioning
accuracy or positioning   ,      
with gearhead
High positioning ,
      
accuracy 
Index channel
       
(for precision homing)
Dust, dirt, oil        

Ionizing radiation   () ()    
External magnetic fields  ()      
Mechanically robust        
Recommended
  With restrictions () Optional (on request)  Not recommended

Counts per turn from position resolution
Required counts per turn N of the

encoder for a specified position 360°
N≥
resolution of Δφ on the output of a Δφ · i
backlash free mechanical drive.
Remark: By evaluating the quadcounts (qc), a four times finer resolution is achieved. This is
recommended for a sufficiently accurate positioning.
Measurement resolution, motor speed
Example: ΔQ
Δn =
Measurement Q·N
resolution ΔQ: (given by
the sample rate of the speed qc qc
controller) 1 qc/ms ΔQ 1 60 000
ms min
Δn = = qc = = 30 rpm
Counts per turn N, Q·N 2000 qc
encoder: 500 CPT
4 · 500 CPT
CPT
Comment: The achievable speed stability is much higher than the above measurement
resolution, due to the mass inertias and feed forward (if applicable).

N Counts per turn CPT Δφ Position resolution °
i Reduction ratio, mechanical drive
Q = 4 Quadcounts per pulse qc/IMP Symbol Name maxon
ΔQ Measurement resolution qc/ms Δn Measurement resolution, motor speed rpm

8. maxon controller
8.1 Operating quadrants
Operating quadrants
Quadrant II Quadrant I
Braking operation ncw Motor operation 1-Q operation
Clockwise (cw) n n Clockwise (cw)
– Only motor operation (Quadrant I
M M or Quadrant III)
– Direction reversal via digital signal
– Typical: amplifier for EC motors
– Braking is not controlled (friction),
often slow
Mccw
Mcw
4-Q operation
– Controlled motor operation and
braking operation in both rotation
Quadrant III Quadrant IV
M M directions (all 4 quadrants)
Motor operation Braking operation
n
Counterclockwise n Counterclockwise – A must for positioning tasks
(ccw) nccw (ccw)
8.2 Selection of power supply
Required supply voltage at given load (nL, ML)
UN Δn
n0,UN · nL + ΔM · ML + ΔUmax (maxon units)
VCC ≥
Notes:
– In the case of a 4Q servo amplifier, the power supply has to be able to absorb the kinetic
energy generated (for example in a capacitor) when the load is decelerated.
– When a stabilized power supply is used, the overcurrent protection has to be deactivated for
the operating range.
– The formula includes the maximum voltage drop ΔUmax of the controller at maximum
continuous current.
Achievable speed at given voltage supply
n0,UN Δn
nL ≤ (VCC – ΔU max ) · – (maxon units)
UN ΔM · ML

M Torque Nm n Speed of rotation rpm
ML Load torque Nm n L Load speed rpm
UN Nominal voltage, motor (catalog value) V n0,UN No load speed motor at UN (catalog value) rpm
VCC Supply voltage V Δn / ΔM Speed / torque gradient, motor
ΔUmax Maximum voltage drop of the controller V (catalog value) rpm/mNm

8.3 Size of the motor choke with PWM controllers
Calculation of current ripple

PWM scheme 1-Q 2-level (4-Q) 3-level (4-Q)
Maximum VCC VCC VCC

current ripple, ΔIPP,max = ΔIPP,max = ΔIPP,max =
4 · Ltot · fPWM 2 · Ltot · fPWM 4 · Ltot · fPWM
peak-to-peak
Calculation Ltot Ltot = Lint + 0.3...0.8 · Lmot + Lext
The effective motor inductance in the case of square PWM excitation only amounts to approx.
30–80% of the catalog value Lmot .
The catalog value Lmot is defined at a frequency of 1 kHz with sinusoidal excitation.
– A
t a current ripple of ΔIPP ≤ 1.5 ∙ IN the motor can still be loaded to approx. 90% of the
nominal current IN (catalog value).
– At a current ripple of ΔIPP > 1.5 ∙ IN , it is recommended to use an external motor choke,
in accordance with the formula below.
Calculation, additional external motor choke

PWM scheme 1-Q and 3-level (4-Q) 2-level (4-Q)
VCC VCC
Rule of thumb Lext = – Lint – 0.3 · Lmot Lext = – Lint – 0.3 · Lmot
6 · IN · fPWM 3 · IN · fPWM
Lext ≤ 0 No additional motor choke required

Lext > 0 Additional motor choke recommended
DC amplifier EC amplifier
Lint Lext /2 Lint

1 1
/2 Lext
PWM
DC
PWM motor Lmot 1
/2 Lint 1
/2 Lext
EC
PWM Lmot
motor
1
/2 Lint 1
/2 Lext
PWM

fPWM PWM frequency Hz Lmot Terminal inductance, motor (catalog value) H
IN Nominal current, motor (catalog value) A Ltot Total inductance H
Lext Inductance, additional external VCC Supply voltage V
motor choke H ΔIPP Current ripple, peak-to-peak A
L int Inductance, built-in choke controller H ΔIPP,max Maximum current ripple, peak-to-peak A

9. Thermal behavior
9.1 Basics
Heat sources
Iron losses in EC Remagnetization losses Eddy current losses
motors and motors � PV,eddy = const · n2
with iron core winding PV, magn = 30 · n · Mmagn
Resistance R
RTW
PJ = RTW · Imot2
Joule power losses Rmot
in winding
RTW = Rmot · [1 + α Cu · (T W – 25°C)]
Temperature T
25°C TW
Friction losses: in the bearings and in the brushes (brushed DC motors)

Efficiency η
100% PV,R = � · nmot · Mmot · (1 – ƞG )
1-stage 30
Losses in the 80% 3-stage
gearhead 60%
5-stage 1 – ƞG
40% PV,R = � · nL · ML ·
Torque M 30 ƞG
MG, cont
Stall torque reduced through temperature rise

First approximation; calculated from voltage and increased Umot
winding resistance MHT = kM · IAT = kM ·
RTW
(Temperature dependence of kM not considered)
Storing heat
Q = c · m · ΔT = Cth · ΔT Q = PV · t
Winding: Cth,W = cCu · mW Stator: Cth,S = cFe · mmot Gearhead: Cth,G = cFe · mG

C th Heat capacity J/K PV,magn Power losses for reversal of magnetization W
C th,G Heat capacity gearhead J/K PV,R Friction power losses W
C th,S Heat capacity stator J/K Q Stored heat J
C th,W Heat capacity winding J/K Rmot Terminal resistance, motor (catalog value) Ω
c Specific heat capacity J/(kgK) RTW Winding resistance at current temp. TW Ω
IAT Starting current at temperature TW A T Temperature °C
Imot Motor current A T W Winding temperature °C
kM Torque constant (catalog value) Nm/A t Time s
M Torque Nm Umot Motor voltage V
MG,cont Maximum continuous torque, gearhead ΔT Temperature difference K
(catalog value) Nm η Efficiency
MHT Stall torque at temperature TW Nm η G Gearhead efficiency
ML Load torque Nm
Mmagn Torque for reversal of magnetization Nm Symbol Name maxon
Mmot Motor torque Nm n Speed of rotation rpm
m Mass kg nL Load speed rpm
mG Mass, gearhead kg nmot Motor speed rpm
mmot Mass, motor kg
mW Mass, winding kg Symbol Name Value
P J Joule power losses W α Cu Resistance coefficient, copper 0.0039 K-1
PV Power losses W cCu Specific heat capacity copper 380 J/(kgK)
PV,eddy Eddy current power losses W cFe Specific heat capacity iron 450 − 470 J/(kgK)

Analogy to electrical circuit:
Power loss PV Thermal Electrical Current I

C1
Cth,W TW,∞
Rth1 R1
∆TW,∞ U1 C2
TS,∞
Cth,s
Rth2 R2
∆TS,∞ U2
TA GND
Thermal → Heat flow Electrical → Current flow

Losses Current source
Symbol Name Unit Symbol Name Unit
Q Stored heat J Q Electric charge C
PV Power losses W = J/s I Current A = C/s
ΔT W,∞ Temperature difference, winding–ambient K U1 Voltage, potential difference V
ΔTS,∞ Temperature difference, stator–ambient K U 2 Voltage, potential difference V
TA Ambient temperature °C (K) GND Ground V
Rth1 Therm. resistance, winding–housing R1 Electrical resistance Ω
(catalog value) K/W
Rth2 Therm. resistance, housing–ambient R2 Electrical resistance Ω
(catalog value) K/W
C th,W Heat capacity, winding J/K C1 Electrical capacitance F
C th,S Heat capacity, stator J/K C 2 Electrical capacitance F
Heating of a simple body Cooling of a simple body
Temperature T Temperature T
Tend Tstart
Heating
63% ∆Tmax = 100% 63% ∆Tmax = 100%

Cooling
Tstart Tend
τth τth
Time t Time t
[ ]
ΔT(t) = ΔTmax · 1 – е
– τt
th
ΔT(t) = ΔTmax · е
– τt
th

T Temperature °C t Time s
TA Ambient Temperature °C ΔTmax Maximum temperature change K
Tend End temperature °C ΔT(t) Temperature change as a
Tstart Temperature at start °C function of time t K
T S,∞ End temperature, stator °C τth Thermal time constant s
T W,∞ End temperature, winding °C

9.2 Continuous operation
Continuous operation is characterized by a thermal equilibrium. After several motor time

constants the temperature difference between the rotor and stator stays constant, as their
temperatures do not increase further.
Motor: Winding and stator temperature
Temperature T [°C]
 Heating of the winding in accordance

with the thermal time constant
120 of the winding τW TW,∞
 Heating of the stator in accordance

ΔTW,∞ = TW,∞ − TA = (Rth1 + Rth2) · PJ
100 with the thermal time constant
of the motor τM
 Rth1 ∆TW,∞
80  Thermal equilibrium TS,∞ (Rth1 + Rth2) · RTA · I mot2

after several motor time  ΔTW,∞ =
Stator
60
constants 1 – αCu· (Rth1+ Rth2) · RTA · I mot2
Rth2 ∆TS,∞
Winding  Rth2
40 ΔTS,∞ = TS,∞ – TA = ΔTW,∞
TA
Rth1 + Rth2
20 Temperature
difference
0
1 10 100 1000 10000
Time t [s]
Gearhead: Housing temperature
PV, G
TG
ΔTG = TG − TA = Rth,G · PV,G

Rth,G ∆TG
Rth, G : e.g. estimated with Rth2 of
motors with the same size
PV, G
TA

Imot Motor current A T S,∞ End temperature, stator °C
PJ Joule power losses W T W,∞ End temperature, winding °C
PV,G Power losses, gearhead W t Time s
RTA Winding resistance at temperature TA Ω ΔTG Temperature difference, gearhead–ambient K
Rth,G Therm. resistance, gearhead–ambient K/W ΔT S,∞ Temperature difference, stator–ambient K
Rth1 Therm. resistance, winding–housing ΔT W,∞ Temperature difference, winding–ambient K
(catalog value) K/W τM Therm. time constant, motor (catalog value) s
Rth2 Therm. resistance, housing–ambient τ W Therm. time constant, winding
(catalog value) K/W (catalog value) s
T Temperature °C
TA Ambient temperature °C Symbol Name Value
TG Gearhead temperature °C α Cu Resistance coefficient, copper 0.0039 K-1

Permissible nominal current IN
Dependency on ambient temperature under

Speed n
standard mounting conditions (free air convection at
25°C; mounted horizontally on plastic plate)
Max. speed
n0 Tmax – TA
IN,TA = IN ·
Tmax – 25°C
Short-term
nN operation
Continuous Temperature-dependence under modified mounting
operation conditions
MN Torque M
Tmax – TA Rth1 + Rth2
IN,TA = IN · ·
IN Motor current Imot Tmax – 25°C Rth1 + Rth2,mod
Determining Rth2,mod
PV
TW,∞ Motor under original conditions

– Installation, fastening, air circulation
Rth1
Separate measurement in continuous operation
PV at any motor current Imot
– Stator temperature T S,
TS,∞ – Ambient temperature TA
Rth2, mod ∆TS,∞ 1 – αCu · Rth1 · RTA · I mot 2

Rth2,mod = ΔTS,∞ ·
RTA · I mot 2 · (1 + αCu · ΔTS,∞ )
PV
TA

Imot Motor current A Tmax Max. winding temperature (catalog value) °C
IN Nominal current, motor (catalog value) A T S,∞ End temperature, stator °C
IN,TA Nominal current as a function of TA A T W,∞ End temperature, winding °C
M Torque Nm ΔT S,∞ Temperature difference,
MN Nominal torque, motor (catalog value) Nm stator–ambient K
PV Power losses W
RTA Winding resistance at temperature TA Ω Symbol Name maxon
Rth1 Therm. resistance, winding–housing n Speed of rotation rpm
(catalog value) K/W n N Nominal speed, motor (catalog value) rpm
Rth2 Therm. resistance, housing–ambient n 0 No load speed rpm
(catalog value) K/W
Rth2,mod Therm. resistance, Symbol Name Value
housing–ambient modified K/W α Cu Resistance coefficient, copper 0.0039 K-1
TA Ambient temperature °C

9.3 Cyclic and intermittent operation (continuously repeated)
Repetitive work cycles of short duration (typically only a few seconds) can be assessed with the
same formalism as continuous operation.
50
Temperature T [C°]
Average end
45 Time constant temperature,
40 winding 9s winding
35
On Off
30
(1s) (3s)
25
20
0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000
Time t [s]
Average temperature rise during intermittent operation

Use effective current value (RMS) (Rth1 + Rth2 ) · RTA · I RMS 2
as motor load. ΔTW,∞ =
1 – αCu (Rth1 + Rth2 ) · RTA · I RMS 2
Rth2
ΔTS,∞ = ΔTW,∞
(Rth1 + Rth2 )
Intermittent operation
RMS current
ton
Current I IRMS = Ion ·
ton + toff
Ion
IRMS Basic requirement: IRMS ≤ IN,TA
ton toff Time t Maximum load current for a given time cycle
Tmax – TA t +t
Ion ≤ IN · · on off
Temperature T Tmax – 25°C ton
Tmax
OFF duration for a load of Ion during ton
TW,av∞
I on 2
TS,∞ toff ≥ – 1 � ton
T − TA
Time t I N2 � max
Tmax – 25°C

I Current A Tmax Max. winding temperature (catalog value) °C
IN Nominal current, motor (catalog value) A T S,∞ End temperature, stator °C
IN,TA Nominal current as a function of TA A T W,av∞ Average end temperature, winding °C
Ion Current during ON phase A t Time s
IRMS RMS current A toff OFF time s
RTA Winding resistance at temperature TA Ω ton ON time s
Rth1 Therm. resistance, winding–housing ΔT S,∞ Temperature difference, stator–ambient K
(catalog value) K/W ΔT W,∞ Temperature difference, winding–ambient K
Rth2 Therm. resistance, housing–ambient
(catalog value) K/W Symbol Name Value
T Temperature °C α Cu Resistance coefficient, copper 0.0039 K-1

9.4 Short-term operation
High, brief, one-time overload of the motor. The operation duration is so short that the temperature
of the thermally inert stator does not increase significantly; this corresponds to an ON time of
approx. τM / 10 (≈ 5 ∙ τ W).
 Only the heating of the winding, which corresponds to the heating of a simple body
(see chapter 9.1), has to be taken into account.
Temperature T [C°]

120 TW,∞
100 Rth1 ∆TW,∞ TS,∞ = TA
80 TS,∞
≤ 0.1 τM ΔTW ,∞ = Rth1 · PJ

60
Stator Rth1 · RTA · I mot2
40
Winding  Rth2
ΔTW,∞ =
Temperature 1 – αCu· Rth1· RTA· I mot2
20 difference
TA
0
1 10 100 1000 10000
Time t [s]
Overload factor K
Quantification of the overload
Meaning: Imot Tmax – 25°C Rth1
K= · ·
– K < 1: Tmax is not reached during short-term operation IN Tmax – TS,∞ Rth1 + Rth2
– K > 1: Limit maximum ON time ton
1
Maximum permissible overload at given K=
t
ON time ton 1 – exp – τon
W
Maximum ON time ton at given overload ton = τW � ln K2

factor K K2 – 1
Maximum motor current Imot at given Tmax – TS R + Rth2

Imot = K · IN · · th1
overload factor K Tmax – 25°C Rth1

Imot Motor current A T S,∞ End temperature, stator °C
IN Nominal current, motor (catalog value) A TW,∞ End temperature, winding °C
K Overload factor t Time s
PJ Joule power losses W ton ON time s
RTA Winding resistance at temperature TA Ω ΔT W ,∞ Temperature difference,
Rth1 Therm. resistance, winding–housing K/W winding–ambient K
(catalog value) τM Therm. time constant, motor
Rth2 Therm. resistance, housing–ambient K/W (catalog value) s
(catalog value) τ W Therm. time constant, winding
T Temperature °C (catalog value) s
Tmax Max. winding temperature (catalog value) °C Symbol Name Value
α Cu Resistance coefficient, copper 0.0039 K-1

10. Tables
10.1 maxon Conversion Tables
General Information Power P [W]

BA oz-in-s-1 oz-in-rpm in-lbf-s-1 ft-lbf-s-1 Nm s-1 = W mW kpm s-1 mNm rpm
Quantities and their basic units in the
International System of Units (SI) W=Nm s-1 7.06 · 10-3 1.17 · 10-4 0.113 1.356 − 1 · 10-3 9.807 1
/60000
mW 7.06 0.117 112.9 1.356 · 103 1 · 103 − 9.807 · 103 1
/60
oz-in-s-1 − 1
/60 16 192 141.6 0.142 1.39 · 103 2.36 · 10-3
Quantity Base unit Unit sign
ft-lbf-s-1 1
/192 1
/11520 1
/12 − 0.737 0.737 · 10-3 7.233 1.23 · 10-5
Length Meter m kpm s-1 7.20 · 10-4 1.2 · 10-5 1.15 · 10-2 0.138 0.102 0.102 · 10-3 − 1.70 · 10-6
Mass Kilogram kg
Time Second s
Electric Torque M [Nm]
current Ampere A BA oz-in ft-lbf Nm = Ws Ncm mNm kpm pcm
Thermodynamic Nm = WS 7.06 · 10-3 1.356 − 1 · 10-2 1 · 10-3 9.807 9.807 · 10-5
temperature Kelvin K mNm 7.06 1.356 · 103 1 · 103 10 − 9.807 · 103 9.807 · 10-2
kpm 7.20 · 10-4 0.138 0.102 0.102 · 10-2 0.102 · 10-3 − 1 · 10-5
Conversion example oz-in − 192 141.6 1.416 0.142 1.39 · 103 1.39 · 10-2
A Known unit ft-lbf 1
/192 − 0.737 0.737 · 10-2 0.737 · 10-3 7.233 7.233 · 10-5
B Unit sought
Known: Multiply by ought:
Moment of inertia J [kg m2]
oz-in 7.06 mNm
BA oz-in2 oz-in-s2 lb-in2 lb-in-s2 Nms2=kgm2 mNm s2 gcm2 kpm s2
Factors used for … g cm2 182.9 7.06 · 104 2.93 · 103 1.13 · 106 1 · 107 1 · 104 − 9.807 · 107
kgm2=Nms2 1.83 · 10-5 7.06 · 10-3 2.93 · 10-4 0.113 − 1 · 10-3 1 · 10-7 9.807
… conversions: oz-in2 − 386.08 16 6.18 · 103 5.46 · 104 54.6 5.46 · 10-3 5.35 · 105
1 oz = 2.834952313 · 10-2 kg lb-in2 1
/16 24.130 − 386.08 3.41 · 103 3.41 3.41 · 10-4 3.35 · 104
1 in = 2.54 · 10-2 m
… gravitational acceleration:
g = 9.80665 m s-2 Mass m [kg] Force F [N]
BA oz lb gr (grain) kg g A oz
= 386.08858 in s-2 B lbf N kp p
kg 28.35·10-3 0.454 64.79·10-6 − 1 · 10-3 N 0.278 4.448 − 9.807 9.807 · 10-3
… derived units: g 28.35 0.454 ·103 64.79·10 1 · 10
-3 3
− kp 0.028 0.454 0.102 − 1 · 10-3
1 yd = 3 ft = 36 in oz − 16 2.28·10-3 35.27 35.27 · 103 oz − 16 3.600 35.27 35.27 · 10-3
1 lb = 16 oz = 7000 gr (grains) lb 1
/16 − 1
/7000 2.205 2.205·103 lbf 1/16 − 0.225 2.205 2.205 · 10-3
1 kp = 1 kg · 9.80665 ms-2 gr (grain) 437.5 7000 − 15.43 · 103 15.43 · 106 pdl 2.011 32.17 7.233 70.93 70.93 · 10-3
1 N = 1 kgms-2
1 W = 1 Nms-1 = 1 kgm2s-3
1 J = 1 Nms-1 = 1 Ws Length l [m]
B A in ft yd Mil m cm mm m
m 25.4 · 10-3 0.305 0.914 25.4 · 10-6 − 0.01 1 · 10-3 1 · 10-6
Decimal multiples and fractions of units cm 2.54 30.5 91.4 25.4 · 10-4 1 · 102 − 0.1 1 · 10-4
mm 25.4 305 914 25.4 · 10-3 1 · 103 10 − 1 · 10-3
Abbre- Power Abbre- Power
Prefix Prefix in − 12 36 1 · 10-3 39.37 0.394 3.94 · 10-2 3.94 · 10-5
viation of ten viation of ten
deca.. da 101
deci.. d 10-1 ft 1
/12 − 3 1
/12 · 10-3 3.281 3.281 · 10-2 3.281 · 10-3 3.281 · 10-6
hecto.. h 102 centi.. c 10-2
kilo.. k 103 milli.. m 10-3 Angular velocity ω [s-1] Angular acceleration α [s-2]
mega.. M 106 micro.. m 10-6 BA s-1 = Hz rpm rad s-1 BA min-2 s-2 rad s-2 rpm s-2
giga.. G 109 nano.. n 10-9 rad s-1 2p p
/30 − s-2 1
/3600 − 1
/2p 1
/60
tera.. T 1012 pico.. p 10-12 rpm 1
/60 − 30
/p rad s-2 p
/1800 2p − p
/30
Linear velocity v [m s-1]

BA in-s-1 in-rpm ft-s-1 ft-rpm m s-1 cm s-1 mm s-1 m rpm
m s-1 2.54 · 10-2 4.23 · 10-4 0.305 5.08 · 10-3 − 1 · 10-2 1 · 10-3 1
/60
in-s -1
− 60 12 720 39.37 39.37 · 10-2 39.37 · 10-3 0.656
ft-s-1 1
/12 5 − 60 3.281 3.281 · 10-2 3.281 · 10-3 5.46 · 10-2
Temperature T [K]
BA ° Fahrenheit ° Celsius Kelvin
Kelvin (°F -305.15)/1.8 °C + 273.15 −
Units used in ° Celsius (°F -32)/1.8 − K -273.15
the maxon catalog ° Fahrenheit − 1.8°C + 32 1.8 K + 305.15

10.2 Typical coefficients of friction for rolling, static and kinetic friction
Type of friction Friction condition Description
Solid-to-solid friction Direct contact between the

(dry kinetic friction) friction partners
Special case of solid-to-

Boundary friction (lubricated
solid friction with adsorbed
kinetic friction)
lubricant on the surfaces
Kinetic friction Solid-to-solid friction and

Mixed friction fluid friction combined next
to each other
Friction partners are

completely separated from
Fluid friction each other by a film of fluid
(produced hydrostatically or
hydrodynamically)
Friction partners are

completely separated from
Gas friction each other by a gas film
(produced aerostatically or
aerodynamically)
20 … 100% higher than

Static friction
kinetic friction
Bodies separated by
Rolling friction
lubricated roller bearings
Rolling friction
Combined rolling and sliding Rolling friction with a kinetic
friction component (slip)

Typical coefficient of friction Examples Coefficient of friction
Sintered bronze – Steel 0.15 … 0.3
Plastic – Gray cast iron 0.3 … 0.4
Steel – Steel 0.4 … 0.7
0.1 … 1 Nitrided steel – Nitrided steel 0.3 … 0.4
Copper – Copper 0.6 … 1.0
Chromium – Chromium 0.41
Al alloy – Al alloy 0.15 … 0.6
0.1 … 0.2 Steel – Steel 0.1
Sleeve bearing, lubricated, at low speeds of rotation

Sintered bronze – Steel 0.05 … 0.1
0.01 … 0.1
Sintered iron – Steel 0.07 … 0.1
Tempered steel – Tempered steel 0.05 … 0.08
Sintered sleeve bearing, lubricated, at high speeds of

0.001 … 0.01
rotation and low radial load
0.0001
Steel – Steel dry 0.4 … 0.8

Steel – Steel lubricated 0.08 … 0.12
0.1 … 1.2 Sintered bronze – Steel dry 0.2 … 0.4
Sintered bronze – Steel lubricated 0.12 … 0.14
Plastic – Gray cast iron, dry 0.3 … 0.5
0.001 … 0.005 Ball bearings 0.001 … 0.0025
0.001 … 0.1

11. Symbol list for the Formulae Handbook
Name Symbol Unit Page number
Acceleration a m/s2 9, 14
Acceleration force Fa N 9, 24
Acceleration force, 1st / 2nd half cycle Fa1 / Fa2 N 24
Acceleration time Δta s 22, 23, 24, 25
Acceleration time Δt s 41
Ambient temperature TA °C 48, 49, 50, 51, 52
Angle of the inclined plane α ° 9
Angular acceleration α rad/s2 11, 15, 41
Angular frequency ω rad/s 33
Angular velocity / Angular velocity (change) ω / ω, Δω / Δω rad/s 11, 15, 21
Angular velocity after / before acceleration ωend / ωstart rad/s 15
Angular velocity, input / load ωin / ω L rad/s 21
Average end temperature, winding TW,av∞ °C 51
Bearing load, axial / radial FKL N 11
Capacitance C F 30, 33, 34
Coefficient of friction (see table chapt. 10.2) μ 9, 11
Compressive force Fp N 9
Counts per turn, CPT N 44
Cross section A m2 9, 13
Current I A 29, 33, 34, 48, 51
Current change di A 40
Current during ON phase Ion A 51
Current ripple, peak-to-peak ΔIPP A 46
Current through resistor R2 IR2 A 32
Cut-off frequency fC Hz 34
Density ρ kg/m3 12, 13
Diameter, deflector pulley 2 d2 m 22
Diameter, deflector pulley X dX m 22
Diameter, drive pulley d1 m 22, 25
Diameter, drive wheel d m 23
Diameter, load pulley d2 m 25
Displacement Δl m 9
Distance change Δs m 14, 16, 17
Distance of axis s from center of gravity S rs m 13
Downhill-slope force FH N 9
Drop height h m 14
Duration Δt s 9, 11
Duration of operating points 1...n t1…n s 42
Eccentricity e m 24
Eddy current power losses PV,eddy W 47
Efficiency η 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 40, 47
Electric charge Q C 48
Electrical capacitance C1 / C2 F 48
Electrical input power Pel W 38
Electrical resistance R / R1 / R2 Ω 29, 30, 33, 34, 48
Electrical time constant τel s 30
Electromotive force EMK V 40
End temperature Tend °C 48
End temperature, stator / winding TS,∞ / TW,∞ °C 48, 49, 50, 51, 52
Equivalent resistance R Ω 31, 32
Equivalent resistance of R2 and RL Rx Ω 32
Force F N 9, 11, 21
Frequency f Hz 33, 34
Friction force FR N 9
Friction power losses PV,R W 47
Friction torque MR Nm 11, 39, 40, 41
Gearhead efficiency ηG 47
Gearhead temperature TG °C 49
Gravitational acceleration g m/s2 9, 14
Ground GND V 48
Heat capacity Cth J/K 47
Heat capacity gearhead / stator / winding Cth,G / Cth,S / Cth,W J/K 47, 48
Height h m 12, 13
Impedance Z Ω 33
Induced voltage Uind V 39, 40
Inductance L H 30, 33, 34
Inductance, additional external motor choke Lext H 46
Inductance, built-in choke controller Lint H 46
Inner radius ri m 12, 13
Inner resistance, voltage source Ri Ω 29
Input speed nin rpm 22, 23, 24, 25
Input torque Min Nm 21, 22, 23, 25
Input voltage Uin V 30, 34
Joule power loss PJ W 38, 47, 49, 52
Length l m 13
Length of side a / b / c a / b / c m 13
Load current IL A 32
Load force (output) FL N 10, 21, 22, 23
Load force, 1st / 2nd half cycle FL1 / FL2 N 24
Load resistance RL Ω 29, 32
Load speed nL rpm 25, 41, 45, 47
Load torque ML Nm 11, 21, 25, 41, 45, 47
Load velocity vL m/s 21, 22, 23
Load voltage UL V 32

Mass m kg 9, 12, 13, 47
Mass, belt mB kg 22
Mass, belt mR kg 25
Mass, gear rack mZ kg 23
Mass, gearhead mG kg 47
Mass, motor mmot kg 47
Mass of the load mL kg 22, 23, 24
Mass, rover mF kg 23
Mass, screw nut mS kg 22
Mass, winding mW kg 47
Maximum acceleration α max m/s2 16, 17
Maximum angular acceleration α max rad/s2 18, 19, 41
Maximum continuous torque, gearhead (catalog value) MG,cont Nm 26, 47
Maximum current ripple, peak-to-peak ΔIPP,max A 46
Maximum efficiency at UN (catalog value) ηmax 40
Maximum input speed (catalog value) nin,max rpm 26
Maximum intermittent torque, gearhead (catalog value) MG,max Nm 26
Maximum output speed gearhead nG,max rpm 26
Maximum power Pmax W 29
Maximum speed in load cycle nmax rpm 18, 19, 42
Maximum temperature change ΔTmax K 48
Maximum torque in load cycle Mmax Nm 42
Maximum velocity vmax m/s 16, 17
Maximum voltage drop of the controller ΔUmax V 45
Maximum winding temperature (catalog value) Tmax °C 50, 51, 52
Mean radius bearing rKL m 11
Measurement resolution ΔQ qc/ms 44
Measurement resolution, motor speed Δn rpm 44
Mechanical input power Pin,mech W 21
Mechanical output power PL / PL,mech W 21, 38
Mechanical play, input Δφin rad 22, 23, 25
Mechanical play, load ΔsL / Δφ L m/rad 22, 23, 25
Mechanical power Pmech W 21
Mechanical time constant (catalog value) τm s 41
Mechanical time constant with additional JL τm‘ s 41
Moment of inertia J kgm2 11
Moment of inertia with reference to the axis s through the center of gravity S Js kgm2 13
Moment of inertia with reference to the rotation axis x Jx kgm2 12, 13
Moment of inertia with reference to the rotation axis y Jy kgm2 12, 13
Moment of inertia with reference to the rotation axis z Jz kgm2 12, 13
Moment of inertia, all wheels together JW kgm2 23
Moment of inertia, deflector pulley 2 / X J2 / JX kgm2 22, 25
Moment of inertia, driving end J1 kgm2 22, 25
Moment of inertia, eccentric disc JE kgm2 24
Moment of inertia, gearhead transformed JG kgm2 25
Moment of inertia, input (motor, encoder, brake) Jin kgm2 22, 23, 24, 25
Moment of inertia, load JL kgm2 25, 41
Moment of inertia, load J2 kgm2 25
Moment of inertia, pinion JP kgm2 23
Moment of inertia, rotor (catalog value) JR kgm2 41
Moment of inertia, screw JS kgm2 22
Motor current Imot / imot A 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 47, 49, 50, 52
Motor speed nmot rpm 47
Motor torque Mmot Nm 47
Motor voltage Umot V 38, 39, 40, 42, 47
No load current I0 A 39, 40, 42
No load speed n0 rpm 38, 39, 40, 41, 50
No load speed of motor at UN (catalog value) n0,UN rpm 45
Nominal current as a function of TA IN,TA A 50, 51
Nominal current, motor (catalog value) IN A 46, 50, 51, 52
Nominal speed, motor (catalog value) nN rpm 50
Nominal torque, motor (catalog value) MN Nm 42, 50
Nominal voltage, motor (catalog value) UN V 38, 39, 40, 45
Normal force (force perpendicular to the surface of contact) FN N 9
Number of teeth, internal gear / pinion / sun wheel z3 / z / z1 23, 25
OFF time toff s 51
ON time ton s 51, 52
Outer radius ra m 12, 13
Output current Iout A 30
Output voltage Uout V 30, 34
Overload factor K 52
Partial currents I1 , I2 A 31
Partial forces F1 / F2 / Fx N 10
Partial resistances R1 , R2 Ω 31, 32
Partial torques M1 / M2 / Mx Nm 11
Partial voltages U1 , U2 V 31, 32
Period T s 33
Periodic acceleration force as a function of the angle of rotation Fa (φ) N 24
Phase shift φ ° 34
Pitch p m 23
Point 1 / 2 on the x-axis x1 / x2 m 13
Position resolution Δφ ° 44
Potentiometer position x 0…1 32
Power P W 29, 38
Power losses / power losses, gearhead PV / PV,G W 29, 48, 49, 50
Power losses for reversal of magnetization PV,magn W 47

Pressure (1 Pa = 1 N/m2 = 10-5 bar) p Pa 9
Pull-down resistance Rd Ω 30
Pull-up resistance Ru Ω 30
PWM frequency fPWM Hz 46
Quadcounts per pulse Q=4 qc/IMP 44
Radius / Radius 1 / Radius 2 r / r1 / r2 m 11, 12
Radius circular torus around z-axis R m 12
Reactance, capacitive XC Ω 33, 34
Reactance, inductive XL Ω 33, 34
Reduction ratio, gearhead (catalog value) iG 25, 26
Reduction ratio, mechanical drive i 44
Required no load speed n0,theor rpm 42
Required speed constant kn,theor rpm/V 42
Resistance coefficient, copper α Cu 0.0039 K-1 32, 47, 49, 50, 51, 52
Resistance, potentiometer R0 Ω 32
RMS current IRMS A 51
RMS torque Min,RMS / MRMS Nm 24, 42
Rotation angle / rotation angle change φ / Δφ rad 11, 15, 18, 19, 24
Screw lead (pitch) p m 22
Sinusoidal velocity curve of the load vL(t) m/s 24
Source voltage U0 V 29
Specific heat capacity c J/(kgK) 47
Specific heat capacity copper cCu 380 J/(kgK) 47
Specific heat capacity iron cFe 450 − 470 J/(kgK) 47
Speed / torque gradient, motor (catalog value) Δn / ΔM rpm/mNm 39, 40, 42, 45
Speed after acceleration nend rpm 15
Speed before acceleration nstart rpm 15
Speed change Δn rpm 11
Speed change, input Δnin rpm 22, 23, 24, 25
Speed constant (catalog value) kn rpm/V 39, 40, 42
Speed of rotation / Speed of rotation (change) n / n, Δn rpm 15, 21, 38 ,39, 40, 41, 42, 45, 47, 50
Spring constant k N/m 9
Spring force FS N 9
Stall torque MH Nm 38, 39, 40, 41, 42
Stall torque at temperature TW MHT Nm 47
Stands for XC or XL X Ω 33
Starting current IA A 39, 40
Starting current at temperature TW IAT A 47
Stored heat Q J 47, 48
Supply voltage +V V 30
Supply voltage VCC V 45, 46
Temperature T °C 47, 48, 49, 51, 52
Temperature at start Tstart °C 48
Temperature change as a function of time t ΔT(t) K 48
Temperature difference ΔT K 47
Temperature difference, gearhead–ambient ΔTG K 49
Temperature difference, stator–ambient ΔTS,∞ K 48, 49, 50, 51
Temperature difference, winding–ambient ΔTW,∞ K 48, 49, 51, 52
Terminal inductance, motor (catalog value) Lmot H 40, 46
Terminal resistance, motor (catalog value) Rmot Ω 32, 38, 39, 40, 41, 47
Terminal voltage Ukl V 29
Therm. resistance, gearhead–ambient Rth,G K/W 49
Therm. resistance, housing–ambient (catalog value) Rth2 K/W 48, 49, 50, 51, 52
Therm. resistance, housing–ambient modified Rth2,mod K/W 50
Therm. resistance, winding–housing (catalog value)– Rth1 K/W 48, 49, 50, 51, 52
Therm. time constant, motor / winding (catalog value) τ M / τ W s 49, 52
Thermal time constant τth s 48
Time / Time, duration t / t, Δt s 14, 15, 24, 30, 33, 41, 47, 48, 49, 51, 52
Time a / b / c Δta / Δtb / Δtc s 16, 18
Time change dt s 40
Torque M Nm 11, 21, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 45, 47, 50
Torque at operating points 1...n M1...n Nm 42
Torque constant (catalog value) kM Nm/A 39, 40, 41, 42, 47
Torque for acceleration Min,α / Mα Nm 11, 22, 23, 24, 25
Torque for reversal of magnetization Mmagn Nm 47
Torque, 1st / 2nd half cycle Min1 (φ) / Min2 (φ) Nm 24
Torque, spiral spring MS Nm 11
Torsion coefficient (spring constant) km Nm 11
Total current I A 31, 32
Total inductance Ltot H 46
Total time Δttot s 16, 17, 18, 19
Total time, operating cycle ttot s 42
Total voltage U V 31, 32
Velocity / Velocity (change) v / v, Δv / Δv m/s 9, 14, 21
Velocity after acceleration vend m/s 14
Velocity before acceleration vstart m/s 14
Voltage U V 29, 33
Voltage over capacitance / inductance/resistance UC / UL / UR V 34
Voltage, potential difference U1 / U2 V 48
Weight of a body FG N 9
Winding resistance at current temperature TW RTW Ω 32, 47
Winding resistance at temperature TA RTA Ω 49, 50, 51, 52
Winding temperature TW °C 32, 47

Precision Drive Systems
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What is the purpose of performing a system analysis?

What is the purpose of performing a system analysis?

What are the typical steps involved in selecting a drive system?

What are the typical steps involved in selecting a drive system?

Precision Drive Systems

Verification of controller & sensor

Overview, system analysis, pre-

Motion of the load

Mechanical drive design

Motor type selection

Verification of controller & sensor

Sachseln, Spring 2012

5th Edition 2019

Define the control concept

What variables are to be controlled: current,

Verify the power components

Is sufficient electric power available to drive

Determine the boundary conditions

Are there restrictions on size? In what envi-

Cost is always a key consideration. How can

6 maxon Formulae Handbook

Mechanical play of the drive

Twisting angle [°]

FRMS/MRMS The key data which caracterize the load can

maxon Formulae Handbook 7

In higher-level drive systems, the motion con-

The controller must

The sensor (encoder, DC tacho or resolver)

The sensor has to

8 maxon Formulae Handbook

Typical component forces in a drive system

Fa Force for acceleration =

FH Forces on the inclined plane: FH = FG · sin α

Spring force, compression and

Symbol Name SI Symbol Name SI

maxon Formulae Handbook 9

10 maxon Formulae Handbook

M Torque = force ∙ lever arm

Typical component torques in drive systems

Torque of spiral or leg springs MS = km ∙ Δφ

Calculating the load torque consisting of component torques

Symbol Name SI Symbol Name SI

maxon Formulae Handbook 11

Body type Illustration Mass, moments of inertia

m = 1 · ρ · π · (r22 + r2r1+ r12) · h

Circular torus Jx = Jy = 1 · m · (4R2 + 5r 2)

Symbol Name SI Symbol Name SI

12 maxon Formulae Handbook

Symbol Name SI Symbol Name SI

maxon Formulae Handbook 13

Constant acceleration from a standing start

Constant acceleration from initial speed

Symbol Name SI Symbol Name SI

14 maxon Formulae Handbook

Conversion between radian 360°

Angular velocity ω, ωend = ωstart + α · Δt

Symbol Name SI Symbol Name maxon

maxon Formulae Handbook 15

Profile General Symmetrical

Additional – t ypical in small DC motors up – typical in DC motors above 10 mm

Bearing – axial: typically 0.05 … 0.15 mm – axial: typically 0.05 … 0.15 mm

Ru – O utput of an integrated circuit with a bipolar transistor