MODULE 4

UNIT TITLE: FEMALE REPRODUCTION

TITLE OF THE LESSONS: FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

DURATION: 6 HRS

INTRODUCTION:
The female reproductive system is designed to carry out several functions. It
produces the female egg cells necessary for reproduction, called the ova or oocytes.
The system is designed to transport the ova to the site of fertilization. Conception, the
fertilization of an egg by a sperm, normally occurs in the fallopian tubes. The next step
for the fertilized egg is to implant into the walls of the uterus, beginning the
initial stages of pregnancy. If fertilization and/or implantation does not take place, the
system is designed to menstruate (the monthly shedding of the uterine lining). In
addition, the female reproductive system produces female sex hormones that
maintain the reproductive cycle.

OBJECTIVES:
At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:
1. Identify the different parts of the female external and internal organs
2. Give the functions and activities of the female organs
3. Discuss the menstrual cycle of the female
4. Define conception and identify the different stages of pregnancy

CONTENTS:
Female Reproduction
1. Gross Anatomy and Sexual Differentiation
2. Physiology of the Female Organ
3. Ovum Anatomy and Physiology
4. Endometrial Cycle/Menstruation
5. Ovulation
6. Conception and Pregnancy
 LESSON 9
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE ORGAN

PRE-TEST
Define the following parts of the female reproductive organ.
 Republic of the Philippines
Bulacan State University
City of Malolos, Bulacan

COLLEGE OF SCIENCE

NAME: SCORE:

COURSE, YR. & SEC. GROUP:

INSTRUCTOR: MARLYN ROSE M. SACDALAN DATE:

Lesson
Female Reproductive
9 Organs
PRE-TEST. Write your answers here.
 LESSON 9
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE ORGAN

FEMALE EXTERNAL REPRODUCTIVE ORGAN

• Labia majora: The labia majora enclose and protect the other external
reproductive organs. Literally translated as "large lips," the labia majora are
relatively large and fleshy, and are comparable to the scrotum in males. The labia
majora contain sweat and oil-secreting glands. After puberty, the labia majora are
covered with hair.
• Labia minora: Literally translated as "small lips," the labia minora can be very small
or up to 2 inches wide. They lie just inside the labia majora, and surround the
openings to the vagina (the canal that joins the lower part of the uterus to the
outside of the body) and urethra (the tube that carries urine from the bladder to the
outside of the body).
• Bartholin's glands: These glands are located beside the vaginal opening and
produce a fluid (mucus) secretion.
• Clitoris: The two labia minora meet at the clitoris, a small, sensitive protrusion that
is comparable to the penis in males. The clitoris is covered by a fold of skin, called
the prepuce, which is similar to the foreskin at the end of the penis. Like the penis,
the clitoris is very sensitive to stimulation and can become erect.
• There are four major hormones (chemicals that stimulate or regulate the activity of
cells or organs) involved in the menstrual cycle: follicle-stimulating
hormone, luteinizing hormone, estrogen, and progesterone.
Vulva. The vulva is the external genitalia of the female reproductive tract, situated
immediately external to the genital orifice.

The vulva consists of the external genital organs of the female mammal. Its
development occurs during several phases, chiefly during the fetal and pubertal
periods.

As the outer portal of the human uterus or womb, the vulva protects its opening with a
“double door”: the labia majora (large lips) and the labia minora (small lips). The vulva
also contains the opening of the female urethra, and thus serves the vital function of
passing urine.

In human beings, major structures of the vulva are:

• The mons pubis
• The labia majora and the labia minora
• The external portion of the clitoris and the clitoral hood
• The vulva vestibule
• The opening (or urinary meatus) of the urethra
• The opening (or introitus) of the vagina
• The hymen
Other notable structures include:
• The perineum
• The sebaceous glands on labia majora
• The vaginal glands (Bartholin’s glands and paraurethral or Skene’s, glands)

Vulva: Labeled image of a vulva, showing external and internal views.

Perineum. The perineum is the region between the genitals and the anus, including
the perineal body and surrounding structures.

In human anatomy, the perineum is the surface region between the pubic symphysis
and coccyx in both males and females, including the perineal body and surrounding
structures. The boundaries vary in classification but generally include the genitals and
anus. It is an erogenous zone for both males and females.

The term perineum may refer to only the superficial structures in this region or be used
to include both superficial and deep structures. The term lower rabbus is used
colloquially in the UK to describe this structure. Perineal tears and episiotomy often
occur in childbirth with first-time deliveries, but the risk of these injuries can be reduced
by preparing the perineum through massage.

The perineum corresponds to the outlet of the pelvis. Its deep boundaries are:
• The pubic arch and the arcuate ligament of the pubis
• The tip of the coccyx
• he inferior rami of the pubis and ischial tuberosity, and the sacrotuberous
ligament
The perineum includes two distinct regions separated by the pelvic diaphragm. Its
structures include:
• Superficial and deep perineal pouches
• Ischioanal fossa, a fat-filled space at the lateral sides of the anal canal bounded
laterally by obturator internus muscle, medially by pelvic diaphragm and the anal
canal.
• Anal canal
• Pudendal canal, which contains internal pudendal artery and the pudendal nerve

The soft mound at the front of the vulva, the mons pubis, is formed by fatty tissue
covering the pubic bone. The mons pubis separates into two folds of skin called the
labia majora, literally “major (or large) lips.” The cleft between the labia majora is called
the pudendal cleft, or cleft of Venus, and it contains and protects the other, more
delicate structures of the vulva. The labia majora meet again at the perineum, a flat
area between the pudendal cleft and the anus. The color of the outside skin of the
labia majora is usually close to the individual’s overall skin color although there is
considerable variation.

The inside skin and mucus membrane are often pink or brownish. After the onset of
puberty, the mons pubis and the labia majora become covered by pubic hair. This hair
sometimes extends to the inner thighs and perineum, but the density, texture, color,
and extent of pubic hair coverage vary considerably due to both individual variation
and cultural practices of hair modification or removal. The labia minora are two soft
folds of skin within the labia majora.

The clitoris is located at the front of the vulva where the labia minora meet. The visible
portion of the clitoris is the clitoral glans, roughly the size and shape of a pea. The
clitoral glans is highly sensitive, containing as many nerve endings as the analogous
organ in males, the glans penis. The point where the labia minora attach to the clitoris
is called the frenulum clitoridis. A prepuce, the clitoral hood, normally covers and
protects the clitoris; however, in women with particularly large clitorises or small
prepuces, the clitoris may be partially or wholly exposed. The clitoral hood is the
female equivalent of the male foreskin and may be partially hidden inside of the
pudendal cleft.

The area between the labia minora is called the vulval vestibule, and it contains the
vaginal and urethral openings. The urethral opening (meatus) is located below the
clitoris and just in front of the vagina. This is where urine passes from the urinary
bladder.

FEMALE INTERNAL REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS

The internal genital organs form a pathway (the genital tract). This pathway consists
of the following:
• Vagina (part of the birth canal), where sperm are deposited and from which a
baby can emerge
• Uterus, where an embryo can develop into a fetus
• Fallopian tubes (oviducts), where a sperm can fertilize an egg
• Ovaries, which produce and release eggs

The hymen, a mucous membrane, is located at the beginning of the genital

tract, just inside the opening of the vagina (see figure External Female Genital
Organs). In virgins, the hymen usually encircles the opening like a tight ring, but it may
completely cover the opening. The hymen helps protect the genital tract but is not
necessary for health. It may tear at the first attempt at sexual intercourse, or it may be
so soft and pliable that no tearing occurs. The hymen may also be torn during exercise
or insertion of a tampon or diaphragm. Tearing usually causes slight bleeding. In
women who have had intercourse, the hymen may be unnoticeable or may form small
tags of tissue around the vaginal opening.

Vagina. The vagina is a tube-like, muscular but elastic organ about 4 to 5 inches long
in an adult woman. It connects the external genital organs to the uterus. The vagina is
the organ of sexual intercourse in women. The penis is inserted into it. It is the
passageway for sperm to the egg and for menstrual bleeding or a baby to the outside.
Usually, there is no space inside the vagina unless it is stretched open—for example,
during an examination, sexual intercourse, or childbirth. The lower third of the vagina
is surrounded by elastic muscles that control the diameter of its opening. These
muscles contract rhythmically and involuntarily during orgasm.

The vagina is lined with a mucous membrane, kept moist by fluids produced by
cells on its surface and by secretions from glands in the cervix (the lower part of the
uterus). A small amount of these fluids may pass to the outside as a clear or milky
white vaginal discharge, which is normal. During a woman's reproductive years, the
lining of the vagina has folds and wrinkles. Before puberty and after menopause, the
lining is smooth.

Anatomy of the Vagina

Vagina: The vagina is the most immediate internal female reproductive organ. This
diagram also indicates the ovaries, uterus, and cervix.
The vaginal opening is much larger than the urethral opening. During arousal, the
vagina gets moist to facilitate the entrance of the penis. The inner texture of the vagina
creates friction for the penis during intercourse.

The vaginal opening is at the caudal end of the vulva behind the opening of the urethra.
The upper quarter of the vagina is separated from the rectum by the rectouterine
pouch. The vagina and the inside of the vulva are a reddish-pink color, as are most
healthy internal mucous membranes in mammals. A series of ridges produced by the
folding of the wall of the outer third of the vagina is called the vaginal rugae. These
transverse epithelial ridges and provide the vagina with increased surface area for
extension and stretching.

Vaginal lubrication is provided by the Bartholin’s glands near the vaginal opening and
the cervix. The membrane of the vaginal wall also produces moisture, although it does
not contain any glands. Before and during ovulation, the cervix’s mucus glands secrete
different variations of mucus, which provides an alkaline environment in the vaginal
canal that is favorable to the survival of sperm.

The hymen is a membrane of tissue that surrounds or partially covers the external
vaginal opening. The tissue may or may not be ruptured by vaginal penetration. It can
also be ruptured by childbirth, a pelvic examination, injury, or sports. The absence of
a hymen may not indicate prior sexual activity. Similarly, its presence may not indicate
a lack of prior sexual activity.

Uterus and cervix. The uterus is a thick-walled, muscular, pear-shaped organ located
in the middle of the pelvis, behind the bladder, and in front of the rectum. The uterus
is anchored in position by several ligaments. The main function of the uterus is to
sustain a developing fetus.

The Uterus, Cervix, and Cervical Canal

The uterus consists of the following:
• The cervix
• The main body (corpus)

Cervix. The cervix is the lower part of the uterus, which protrudes into the upper part
of the vagina. It can be seen during a pelvic examination. Like the vagina, the cervix
is lined with a mucous membrane, but the mucous membrane of the cervix is smooth.
Sperm can enter and menstrual blood can exit the uterus through a channel in the
cervix (cervical canal). The cervical canal is usually narrow, but during labor, the canal
widens to let the baby through.

The cervix is usually a good barrier against bacteria, except around the time an
egg is released by the ovaries (ovulation), during the menstrual period, or during labor.
Bacteria that cause sexually transmitted diseases can enter the uterus through the
cervix during sexual intercourse.

The channel through the cervix is lined with glands that secrete mucus. This
mucus is thick and impenetrable to sperm until just before ovulation. At ovulation, the
mucus becomes clear and elastic (because the level of the hormone estrogen
increases). As a result, sperm can swim through the mucus into the uterus to the
fallopian tubes, where fertilization can take place. At this time, the mucus-secreting
glands of the cervix can store live sperm for up to about 5 days, but occasionally
slightly longer. These sperm can later move up through the corpus and into the
fallopian tubes to fertilize an egg. Almost all pregnancies result from intercourse that
occurs during the 3 days before ovulation. However, pregnancies sometimes result
from intercourse that occurs up to 6 days before ovulation or during the 3 days after
ovulation. For some women, the time between a menstrual period and ovulation varies
from month to month. Consequently, pregnancy can occur at different times during
a menstrual cycle.

Body (Corpus). The corpus of the uterus, which is highly muscular, can stretch to
accommodate a growing fetus. Its muscular walls contract during labor to push the
baby out through the cervix and the vagina. During the reproductive years, the corpus
is twice as long as the cervix. After menopause, the reverse is true.
As part of a woman's reproductive cycle (which usually lasts about a month),
the lining of the corpus (endometrium) thickens. If the woman does not become
pregnant during that cycle, most of the endometrium is shed and bleeding occurs,
resulting in the menstrual period.

How Many Eggs?

A baby girl is born with egg cells (oocytes) in her ovaries. Between 16 and 20 weeks
of pregnancy, the ovaries of a female fetus contain 6 to 7 million oocytes. Most of the
oocytes gradually waste away, leaving about 1 to 2 million present at birth. No
oocytes develop after birth. At puberty, only about 300,000—more than enough for a
lifetime of fertility—remain.

Only a small percentage of oocytes mature into eggs. The many thousands of oocytes
that do not mature degenerate. Degeneration progresses more rapidly in the 10 to 15
years before menopause. All are gone by menopause.

Only about 400 eggs are released during a woman's reproductive life, usually one
during each menstrual cycle. Until released, an egg remains dormant in its follicle—
suspended in the middle of a cell division. Thus, the egg is one of the longest-lived
cells in the body.

Because a dormant egg cannot repair itself as cells usually do, the opportunity for
damage increases as a woman ages. A chromosomal or genetic abnormality is thus
more likely when a woman conceives a baby later in life.

The uterus or womb is a major female hormone -responsive reproductive sex organ
of most mammals including humans. One end, the cervix, opens into the vagina, while
the other is connected to one or both fallopian tubes, depending on the species. It is
within the uterus that the fetus develops during gestation, usually developing
completely in placental mammals such as humans.
Two Müllerian ducts usually form initially in a female fetus and, in humans, they
completely fuse into a single uterus depending on the species. The uterus consists of
a body and a cervix. The cervix protrudes into the vagina. The uterus is held in position
within the pelvis by condensations of endopelvic fascia, which are called ligaments.
These ligaments include the pubocervical, transverse, cervical, cardinal, and
uterosacral ligaments. It is covered by a sheet-like fold of peritoneum, the broad
ligament.

The uterus is essential in sexual response by directing blood flow to the pelvis and to
the external genitalia, including the ovaries, vagina, labia, and clitoris. The
reproductive function of the uterus is to accept a fertilized ovum which passes through
the utero-tubal junction from the fallopian tube. It implants into the endometrium, and
derives nourishment from blood vessels which develop exclusively for this purpose.

Fallopian tubes. The two fallopian tubes, which are about 4 to 5 inches (about 10 to
13 centimeters) long, extend from the upper edges of the uterus toward the ovaries.
The tubes do not directly connect with the ovaries. Instead, the end of each tube flares
into a funnel shape with fingerlike extensions (fimbriae). When an egg is released from
an ovary, the fimbriae guide the egg into the relatively large opening of a fallopian
tube.

The fallopian tubes are lined with tiny hair-like projections (cilia). The cilia and the
muscles in the tube's wall propel an egg downward through the tube to the uterus. The
fallopian tube is the usual site of fertilization of the egg by the sperm.

Ovaries. The ovaries are usually pearl-colored, oblong, and about the size of a walnut.
They are attached to the uterus by ligaments. In addition to producing female sex
hormones ( estrogen and progesterone) and male sex hormones, the ovaries produce
and release eggs. The developing egg cells (oocytes) are contained in fluid-filled
cavities (follicles) in the wall of the ovaries. Each follicle contains one oocyte.
 Oogenesis. The ovaries are the site of gamete (egg cell, oocyte) production. The
developing egg cell (or oocyte) grows within the environment provided by ovarian
follicles. Follicles are composed of different types and number of cells according
to their maturation stage, which can be determined by their size. When oocyte
maturation is completed, a luteinizing hormone ( LH ) surge secreted by the
pituitary gland stimulates follicle rupture and oocyte release.

This oocyte development and release process is referred to as ovulation. The

follicle remains functional and transforms into a corpus luteum, which secretes
progesterone to prepare the uterus for possible embryo implantation. Usually each
ovary takes turns releasing eggs each month. However, this alternating egg
release is random. When one ovary is absent or dysfunctional, the other ovary will
continue to release eggs each month.

Endocrine Function. Ovaries secrete estrogen, progesterone, and

testosterone. Estrogen is responsible for the secondary sex characteristics of
females at puberty. It is also crucial for the maturation and maintenance of the
mature and functional reproductive organs. Progesterone prepares the uterus for
pregnancy and the mammary glands for lactation. The co-actions of progesterone
and estrogen promote menstrual cycle changes in the endometrium. In women,
testosterone is important for the development of muscle mass, muscle and bone
strength, and for optimal energy level. It also has a role in libido in women.

Follicular Phase of the Menstrual Cycle

This phase starts on the first day of your period. During the follicular phase of the
menstrual cycle, the following events occur:
 • Two hormones, follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone
(LH), are released from the brain and travel in the blood to the ovaries.
• The hormones stimulate the growth of about 15 to 20 eggs in the ovaries, each
in its own "shell," called a follicle.
• These hormones (FSH and LH) also trigger an increase in the production of the
female hormone estrogen.
• As estrogen levels rise, like a switch, it turns off the production of follicle-
stimulating hormone. This careful balance of hormones allows the body to limit
the number of follicles that mature.
• As the follicular phase progresses, one follicle in one ovary becomes dominant
and continues to mature. This dominant follicle suppresses all of the other
follicles in the group. As a result, they stop growing and die. The dominant
follicle continues to produce estrogen.

Ovulatory Phase of the Menstrual Cycle

The ovulatory phase, or ovulation, starts about 14 days after the follicular phase
started. The ovulatory phase is the midpoint of the menstrual cycle, with the next
menstrual period starting about two weeks later. During this phase, the following
events occur:

• The rise in estrogen from the dominant follicle triggers a surge in the amount of
luteinizing hormone that is produced by the brain.
• This causes the dominant follicle to release its egg from the ovary.
• As the egg is released (a process called ovulation), it is captured by finger-like
projections on the end of the fallopian tubes (fimbriae). The fimbriae sweep the
egg into the tube.
• Also during this phase, there is an increase in the amount and thickness of
mucus produced by the cervix (lower part of the uterus). If a woman were to
have intercourse during this time, the thick mucus captures the man's sperm,
nourishes it, and helps it to move towards the egg for fertilization.

Luteal Phase of the Menstrual Cycle

The luteal phase of the menstrual cycle begins right after ovulation and involves the
following processes:

• Once it releases its egg, the empty follicle develops into a new structure called the
corpus luteum.
• The corpus luteum secretes the hormone progesterone. Progesterone prepares
the uterus for a fertilized egg to implant.
• If intercourse has taken place and a man's sperm has fertilized the egg (a process
called conception), the fertilized egg (embryo) will travel through the fallopian tube
to implant in the uterus. The woman is now considered pregnant.
• If the egg is not fertilized, it passes through the uterus. Not needed to support a
pregnancy, the lining of the uterus breaks down and sheds, and the next menstrual
period begins.
Mammary Glands
A mammary gland is an organ in female mammals that produces milk to feed young
offspring.
A mammary gland is an organ in female mammals that produces milk to feed young
offspring.

Anatomy of the Mammary Gland

The basic components of a mature mammary gland are the alveoli, hollow cavities, a
few millimeters large lined with milk-secreting cuboidal cells and surrounded by
myoepithelial cells. These alveoli join to form groups known as lobules, and each
lobule has a lactiferous duct that drains into openings in the nipple. The myoepithelial
cells can contract under the stimulation of oxytocin, excreting milk secreted from
alveolar units into the lobule lumen toward the nipple where it collects in sinuses of
the ducts. As the infant begins to suck, the hormonally (oxytocin) mediated “let-down
reflex” ensues, and the mother’s milk is secreted into the baby’s mouth.

Mammary Gland: Cross-section of the mammary-gland. 1. Chest wall 2. Pectoralis

muscles 3. Lobules 4. Nipple 5. Areola 6. Milk duct 7. Fatty tissue 8. Skin
EndFragment
All the milk-secreting tissue leading to a single lactiferous duct is called a simple
mammary gland; a complex mammary gland is all the simple mammary glands serving
one nipple. Humans normally have two complex mammary glands, one in each breast,
and each complex mammary gland consists of 10–20 simple glands. The presence of
more than two nipples is known as polythelia, and the presence of more than two
complex mammary glands as polymastia.

Development of the Mammary Glands

Mammary glands develop during different growth cycles. They exist in both sexes
during the embryonic stage, forming only a rudimentary duct tree at birth. In this stage,
mammary gland development depends on systemic (and maternal) hormones, but is
also under the local regulation of paracrine communication between neighboring
epithelial and mesenchymal cells by parathyroid hormone-related protein. This locally-
secreted factor gives rise to a series of outside-in and inside-out positive feedback
between these two types of cells, so that mammary bud epithelial cells can proliferate
and sprout down into the mesenchymal layer until they reach the fat pad to begin the
first round of branching.

Lactiferous duct development occurs in females in response to circulating hormones,

first during pre- and postnatal stages and later during puberty. Estrogen promotes
branching differentiation, which is inhibited by testosterone in males. A mature duct
tree reaching the limit of the fat pad of the mammary gland is formed by bifurcation of
duct terminal end buds, secondary branches sprouting from primary ducts and proper
duct lumen formation.

The Process of Milk Production

Secretory alveoli develop mainly in pregnancy, when rising levels of prolactin,

estrogen, and progesterone cause further branching, together with an increase in
adipose tissue and a richer blood flow. In gestation, serum progesterone remains at a
high concentration so signaling through its receptor is continuously activated. As one
of the transcribed genes, Wnts secreted from mammary epithelial cells act paracrinely
to induce branching of neighboring cells. When the lactiferous duct tree is almost
ready, alveoli are differentiated from luminal epithelial cells and added at the end of
each branch. In late pregnancy and for the first few days after giving birth, colostrum
is secreted.

Milk secretion (lactation) begins a few days after birth, caused by reduction in
circulating progesterone and the presence of prolactin, which mediates further
alveologenesis and milk protein production and regulates osmotic balance and tight
junction function.
The binding of laminin and collagen in the myoepithelial basement membrane with
beta-1 integrin on the epithelial surface insures correct placement of prolactin
receptors on basal lateral side of alveoli cells and directional secretion of milk into
lactiferous ducts. Suckling of the baby causes release of hormone oxytocin which
stimulates contraction of the myoepithelial cells. With combined control from the
extracellular matrix (ECM) and systemic hormones, milk secretion can be reciprocally
amplified to provide enough nutrition for the baby.

During weaning, decreased prolactin, lack of mechanical stimulation through suckling,

and changes in osmotic balance caused by milk stasis and leaking of tight junctions
cause cessation of milk production. In some species there is complete or partial
involution of alveolar structures after weaning; however, in humans there is only partial
involution, which widely varies among individuals. Shrinkage of the mammary duct
tree and ECM remodeling by various proteinase is under the control of somatostatin
and other growth-inhibiting hormones and local factors. This structure change leads
loose fat tissue to fill the empty space. However, a functional lactiferous duct tree can
be reformed when a female is pregnant again.

Ovarian Cycle

The menstrual cycle is the physiological process that fertile women undergo for the
purposes of reproduction and fertilization.

The menstrual cycle is the scientific term for the physiological changes that occur in
fertile women for the purpose of sexual reproduction. The menstrual cycle is controlled
by the endocrine system and commonly divided into three phases: the follicular phase,
ovulation, and the luteal phase. However, some sources define these phases as
menstruation, proliferative phase, and secretory phase. Menstrual cycles are counted
from the first day of menstrual bleeding.

Uterine (Menstrual) Cycle

The uterine cycle describes a series of changes that occur to the lining of the uterus,
or endometrium, during a typical menstrual cycle.

Several changes to the uterine lining (endometrium) occur during the menstrual cycle,
also called the uterine cycle. The endometrium is the innermost glandular layer of the
uterus. During the menstrual cycle, the endometrium grows to a thick, blood vessel-
rich tissue lining, representing an optimal environment for the implantation of a
blastocyst upon its arrival in the uterus. Menstrual cycles are counted from the first
day of menstrual bleeding and are typically 28 days long.

During menstruation, the body begins to prepare for ovulation again. The levels of
estrogen gradually rise, signaling the start of the follicular, or proliferation, phase of
the menstrual cycle. The discharge of blood slows and then stops in response to rising
hormone levels and the lining of the uterus thickens, or proliferates. Ovulation is
triggered by a surge in luteinizing hormone. The sudden change in hormones at the
time of ovulation sometimes causes minor changes in the endometrium and light
midcycle blood flow.

After ovulation, under the influence of progesterone, the endometrium changes to a

secretory lining in preparation for the potential implantation of an embryo to establish
a pregnancy. If a blastocyst implants, then the lining remains as the decidua. This
becomes part of the placenta and provides support and protection for the embryo
during gestation.

If implantation does not occur within approximately two weeks, the progesterone-
producing corpus luteum in the ovary will recede, causing sharp drops in levels of both
progesterone and estrogen. This hormone decrease causes the uterus to shed its
lining and the egg in menstruation. The cessation of menstrual cycles at the end of a
woman’s reproductive period is termed menopause. The average age of menopause
in women is 52 years, but it can occur anytime between 45 and 55.

Normal menstrual flow can occur although ovulation does not occur. This is referred
to as an anovulatory cycle. Follicular development may start but not be completed
although estrogen will still stimulate the uterine lining. Anovulatory flow that results
from a very thick endometrium caused by prolonged, continued high estrogen levels
is called estrogen breakthrough bleeding. However, if it is triggered by a sudden drop
in estrogen levels, it is called withdrawal bleeding. Anovulatory cycles commonly occur
before menopause and in women with polycystic ovary syndrome.

Phases of the Menstrual Cycle

The menstrual cycle is divided into three stages: follicular phase, ovulation, and the
luteal phase.

Follicular Phase

During the follicular phase (or proliferative phase), follicles in the ovary mature under
the control of estradiol. Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) is secreted by the anterior
pituitary gland beginning in the last few days of the previous menstrual cycle. Levels
of FSH peak during the first week of the follicular phase. The rise in FSH recruits
tertiary-stage ovarian follicles (antral follicles) for entry into the menstrual cycle.

Follicle-stimulating hormone induces the proliferation of granulosa cells in the

developing follicles and the expression of luteinizing hormone (LH) receptors on these
cells. Under the influence of FSH, granulosa cells begin estrogen secretion. This
increased level of estrogen stimulates production of gonadotropin-releasing hormone
(GnRH), which increases production of LH. LH induces androgen synthesis by theca
cells, stimulates proliferation and differentiation, and increases LH receptor expression
on granulosa cells.

Throughout the entire follicular phase, rising estrogen levels in the blood stimulate
growth of the endometrium and myometrium of the uterus. This also causes
endometrial cells to produce receptors for progesterone, which helps prime the
endometrium to the late proliferative phase and the luteal phase. Two or three days
before LH levels begin to increase, one or occasionally two of the recruited follicles
emerge as dominant. Many endocrinologists believe that the estrogen secretion of the
dominant follicle lowers the levels of LH and FSH, leading to the atresia (death) of
most of the other recruited follicles. Estrogen levels will continue to increase for several
days.
High estrogen levels initiate the formation of a new layer of endometrium in the uterus,
the proliferative endometrium. Crypts in the cervix are stimulated to produce fertile
cervical mucus that reduces the acidity of the vagina, creating a more hospitable
environment for sperm. In addition, basal body temperature may lower slightly under
the influence of high estrogen levels.

Ovulation

Estrogen levels are highest right before the LH surge begins. The short-term drop in
steroid hormones between the beginning of the LH surge and ovulation may cause
mid-cycle spotting or bleeding. Under the influence of the preovulatory LH surge, the
first meiotic division of the oocytes is completed. The surge also initiates luteinization
of theca and granulosa cells. Ovulation normally occurs 30 (± 2) hours after the
beginning of the LH surge.

Ovulation is the process in a female’s menstrual cycle by which a mature ovarian

follicle ruptures and discharges an ovum (oocyte). The time immediately surrounding
ovulation is referred to as the ovulatory phase or the periovulatory period. In the
preovulatory phase of the menstrual cycle, the ovarian follicle undergoes cumulus
expansion stimulated by FSH. The ovum then leaves the follicle through the formed
stigma. Ovulation is triggered by a spike in the amount of FSH and LH released from
the pituitary gland.

Luteal Phase

The luteal phase begins with the formation of the corpus luteum stimulated by FSH
and LH and ends in either pregnancy or luteolysis. The main hormone associated with
this stage is progesterone, which is produced by the growing corpus luteum and is
significantly higher during the luteal phase than other phases of the cycle.
Progesterone plays a vital role in making the endometrium receptive to implantation
of the blastocyst and supportive of the early pregnancy. It also raises the woman’s
basal body temperature.

Several days after ovulation, the increasing amount of estrogen produced by the
corpus luteum may cause one or two days of fertile cervical mucus, lower basal body
temperatures, or both. This is known as a secondary estrogen surge. The hormones
produced by the corpus luteum suppress production of the FSH and LH, which leads
to its atrophy. The death of the corpus luteum results in falling levels of progesterone
and estrogen, which triggers the end of the luteal phase. Increased levels of FSH start
recruiting follicles for the next cycle.

Alternatively, the loss of the corpus luteum can be prevented by implantation of an

embryo: after implantation, human embryos produce human chorionic gonadotropin
(hCG). Human chorionic gonadotropin is structurally similar to LH and can preserve
the corpus luteum. Because the hormone is unique to the embryo, most pregnancy
tests look for the presence of hCG. If implantation occurs, the corpus luteum will
continue to produce progesterone (and maintain high basal body temperatures) for
eight to 12 weeks, after which the placenta takes over this function.
ESTROGEN

Functions of and structural changes induced by estrogen include:

• Formation of female secondary sex characteristics

• Accelerating metabolism
• Increasing fat stores
• Stimulating endometrial growth
• Increasing uterine growth
• Increasing vaginal lubrication
• Thickening the vaginal wall
• Maintaining blood vessels and skin
• Reducing bone resorption, increasing bone formation
• Reducing muscle mass

Effect on Libido

Sex drive is dependent on androgen levels only in the presence of estrogen. Without
estrogen, free testosterone levels actually decrease sexual desire, as demonstrated
in women who have hypoactive sexual desire disorder. The sexual desire in these
women can be restored by administration of estrogen through oral contraceptives.

Introduction to Pregnancy and Human Development

Pregnancy is the period of gestation from the fertilization of an egg, through

development of a fetus, and ending at birth.
Pregnancy is the state of fertilization and development for one or more offspring within
a woman’s uterus. The prenatal offspring (also called the conceptus ) is referred to as
an embryo or fetus.
The term embryo is used primarily for developing humans up to eight weeks after
fertilization (to the 10th week of gestation). After that, the term fetus is used.

Pregnancy: Drawing of the lateral (side) view of a pregnant woman’s abdomen

revealing the developing fetus.

In a pregnancy, there can be multiple gestations, as in the case of twins or triplets.

Childbirth usually occurs about 38 weeks after conception. In women who have a
menstrual-cycle length of four weeks, this is approximately 40 weeks from the start of
their last normal menstrual period.

In many societies’ medical or legal definitions, human pregnancy is somewhat

arbitrarily divided into three trimester periods as a means to simplify reference to the
different stages of prenatal development. The first trimester carries the highest risk of
miscarriage (natural death of embryo or fetus). During the second trimester, the
development of the fetus is more easily monitored. The beginning of the third trimester
often approximates the point of viability, or the ability of the fetus to survive, with or
without medical help, outside of the uterus.

The Carnegie stages is a standardized system of 23 stages used to provide a unified

description of the developmental maturation of the vertebrate embryo. This system
bases stages on the development of structures instead of days of development or the
size of the conceptus. This staging method is used only for the first 56 days in humans
(prior to the fetal period).

Ultrasound scan: Ultrasound is used to monitor the age and health of the fetus during
pregnancy.

One scientific term for the state of pregnancy is gravidity, which is Latin for heavy. A
pregnant female is sometimes referred to as a gravida.

Similarly, the term parity (abbreviated as para) is used for the number of times a
female has given birth; parity counts twins and other multiple births as one pregnancy.
Medically, a woman who has never been pregnant is referred to as a nulligravida, and
a woman in subsequent pregnancies is referred to as a multigravida.

A woman who has had more than one live birth is referred to as multiparous, and a
woman who has never given birth is referred to as nulliparous.

During a second pregnancy, a woman would be described as gravida 2, para 1 and,

upon live delivery, as gravida 2, para 2. An in-progress pregnancy, as well as
abortions, miscarriages, or stillbirths, account for parity values being less than the
gravida number. In the case of twins, triplets, and so on, the gravida number and parity
value are increased by one only.

Fertilization
Fertilization occurs when a sperm and an egg have fused together to form a zygote,
which begins to divide as it moves towards the uterus.
If pregnancy is considered to begin at the point of implantation, the process leading to
pregnancy occurs earlier as the result of the female gamete, or oocyte, merging with
the male gamete, or spermatozoon. In medicine, this process is referred to as
fertilization; in lay terms, it is more commonly known as conception.
After the point of fertilization the fused product of the female and male gamete is
referred to as a zygote or fertilized egg. For species that undergo internal fertilization,
such as humans, the fusion of male and female gametes usually occurs following the
act of sexual intercourse.
However, the advent of artificial insemination and in vitro fertilization have made
achieving pregnancy possible without engaging in sexual intercourse. This approach
may be undertaken as a voluntary choice or due to infertility.

Human fertilization: The sperm and ovum unite through fertilization, creating a zygote
that (over the course of 8–9 days) will implant in the uterine wall, where it will reside
over the course of 9 months.

The process of fertilization occurs in several steps and the interruption of any of them
can lead to failure. At the beginning of the process, the sperm undergoes a series of
changes, as freshly ejaculated sperm is unable or poorly able to fertilize.

The sperm must undergo capacitation in the female’s reproductive tract over several
hours, which increases its motility and destabilizes its membrane. By destabilizing the
membrane, the sperm prepares for the acrosome reaction, the enzymatic penetration
of the egg’s tough membrane, the zona pellucida. The sperm and the egg cell (which
has been released from one of the female’s two ovaries) unite in one of the two
fallopian tubes.
The fertilized egg, known as a zygote, then moves toward the uterus, a journey that
can take up to a week to complete until implantation occurs. Through fertilization, the
egg is activated to begin its developmental process (progressing through meiosis II),
and the haploid nuclei of the two gametes come together to form the genome of a new
diploid organism.

Nondisjunction during the completion of meiosis or problems with early cell division in
the zygote to blastula stages can lead to problems with implantation and pregnancy
failure.

PREGNANCY

Pregnancy occurs when a sperm fertilizes an egg after it’s released from
the ovary during ovulation. The fertilized egg then travels down into the uterus, where
implantation occurs. A successful implantation results in pregnancy.

On average, a full-term pregnancy lasts 40 weeks. There are many factors that can
affect a pregnancy. Women who receive an early pregnancy diagnosis and prenatal
care are more likely to experience a healthy pregnancy and give birth to a healthy
baby.

Knowing what to expect during the full pregnancy term is important for monitoring both
your health and the health of the baby. If you’d like to prevent pregnancy, there are
also effective forms of birth control you should keep in mind.

Symptoms of pregnancy
You may notice some signs and symptoms before you even take a pregnancy test.
Others will appear weeks later, as your hormone levels change.

Missed period
A missed period is one of the earliest symptoms of pregnancy (and maybe the most
classic one). However, a missed period doesn’t necessarily mean you’re pregnant,
especially if your cycle tends to be irregular.
There are many health conditions other than pregnancy that can cause
a late or missed period.

Headache
Headaches are common in early pregnancy. They’re usually caused by altered
hormone levels and increased blood volume. Contact your doctor if your headaches
don’t go away or are especially painful.

Spotting
Some women may experience light bleeding and spotting in early pregnancy. This
bleeding is most often the result of implantation. Implantation usually occurs one to
two weeks after fertilization.

Early pregnancy bleeding can also result from relatively minor conditions such as an
infection or irritation. The latter often affects the surface of the cervix (which is very
sensitive during pregnancy).
Bleeding can also sometimes signal a serious pregnancy complication, such
as miscarriage, ectopic pregnancy, or placenta previa. Always contact your doctor if
you’re concerned.

Weight gain
You can expect to gain between 1 and 4 pounds in your first few months of pregnancy.
Weight gain becomes more noticeable toward the beginning of your second trimester.

Pregnancy-induced hypertension
High blood pressure, or hypertension, sometimes develops during pregnancy. A
number of factors can increase your risk, including:
• being overweight or obese
• smoking
• having a prior history or a family history of pregnancy-induced hypertension

Heartburn
Hormones released during pregnancy can sometimes relax the valve between
your stomach and esophagus. When stomach acid leaks out, this can result
in heartburn.

Constipation
Hormone changes during early pregnancy can slow down your digestive system. As
a result, you may become constipated.

Cramps
As the muscles in your uterus begin to stretch and expand, you may feel a pulling
sensation that resembles menstrual cramps. If spotting or bleeding occurs alongside
your cramps, it could signal a miscarriage or an ectopic pregnancy.

Back pain
Hormones and stress on the muscles are the biggest causes of back pain in early
pregnancy. Later on, your increased weight and shifted center of gravity may add to
your back pain. Around half of all pregnant women report back pain during their
pregnancy.

Anemia
Pregnant women have an increased risk of anemia, which causes symptoms such
as lightheadedness and dizziness. The condition can lead to premature birth and low
birth weight. Prenatal care usually involves screening for anemia.

Depression
Between 14 and 23 percent of all pregnant women develop depression during their
pregnancy. The many biological and emotional changes you experience can be
contributing causes. Be sure to tell your doctor if you don’t feel like your usual self.
Insomnia
Insomnia is another common symptom of early pregnancy. Stress, physical
discomfort, and hormonal changes can be contributing causes. A balanced diet, good
sleep habits, and yoga stretches can all help you get a good night’s sleep.

Breast changes
Breast changes are one of the first noticeable signs of pregnancy. Even before you’re
far enough along for a positive test, your breasts may begin to feel tender, swollen,
and generally heavy or full. Your nipples may also become larger and more sensitive,
and the areolae may darken.

Acne
Because of increased androgen hormones, many women experience acne in early
pregnancy. These hormones can make your skin oilier, which can clog pores.
Pregnancy acne is usually temporary and clears up after the baby is born.

Vomiting
Vomiting is a component of “morning sickness,” a common symptom that usually
appears within the first four months. Morning sickness is often the first sign that you’re
pregnant. Increased hormones during early pregnancy are the main cause.

Hip pain
Hip pain is common during pregnancy and tends to increase in late pregnancy. It can
have a variety of causes, including:
• pressure on your ligaments
• sciatica
• changes in your posture
• a heavier uterus

Diarrhea
Diarrhea and other digestive difficulties occur frequently during pregnancy. Hormone
changes, a different diet, and added stress are all possible explanations. If diarrhea
lasts more than a few days, contact your doctor to make sure you don’t
become dehydrated.

Stress and pregnancy

While pregnancy is usually a happy time, it can also be a source of stress. A new baby
means big changes to your body, your personal relationships, and even your finances.
Don’t hesitate to ask your doctor for help if you begin to feel overwhelmed.

The bottom line.. If you think you may be pregnant, you shouldn’t rely solely on these
signs and symptoms for confirmation. Taking a home pregnancy test or seeing your
doctor for lab testing can confirm a possible pregnancy.

Many of these signs and symptoms can also be caused by other health conditions,
such as premenstrual syndrome (PMS). Learn more about the early symptoms of
pregnancy — such as how soon they’ll appear after you miss your period.
Pregnancy Weeks
Pregnancy weeks are grouped into three trimesters, each one with medical milestones
for both you and the baby.

First trimester
A baby grows rapidly during the first trimester (weeks 1 to 12). The fetus begins
developing their brain, spinal cord, and organs. The baby’s heart will also begin to
beat.

During the first trimester, the probability of a miscarriage is relatively high. According
to the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG), it’s estimated
that about 1 in 10 pregnancies end in miscarriage, and that about 85 percent of these
occur in the first trimester. Seek immediate help if you experience the symptoms of
miscarriage.

Second trimester
During the second trimester of pregnancy (weeks 13 to 27), your healthcare provider
will likely perform an anatomy scan ultrasound.

This test checks the fetus’s body for any developmental abnormalities. The test results
can also reveal the sex of your baby, if you wish to find out before the baby is born.

You’ll probably begin to feel your baby move, kick, and punch inside of your uterus.
After 23 weeks, a baby in utero is considered “viable.” This means that it could survive
living outside of your womb. Babies born this early often have serious medical issues.
Your baby has a much better chance of being born healthy the longer you are able to
carry the pregnancy.

Third trimester
During the third trimester (weeks 28 to 40), your weight gain will accelerate, and you
may feel more tired.
Your baby can now sense light as well as open and close their eyes. Their bones are
also formed.

As labor approaches, you may feel pelvic discomfort, and your feet may swell.
Contractions that don’t lead to labor, known as Braxton-Hicks contractions, may start
to occur in the weeks before you deliver.

The bottom line.. Every pregnancy is different, but developments will most likely
occur within this general time frame. Find out more about the changes you and your
baby will undergo throughout the trimesters and sign up for our I’m Expecting
newsletter to receive week-by-week pregnancy guidance.
Pregnancy tests
Home pregnancy tests are very accurate after the first day of your missed period. If
you get a positive result on a home pregnancy test, you should schedule an
appointment with your doctor right away. An ultrasound will be used to confirm
and date your pregnancy.

Pregnancy is diagnosed by measuring the body’s levels of human chorionic

gonadotropin (hCG). Also referred to as the pregnancy hormone, hCG is produced
upon implantation. However, it may not be detected until after you miss a period.

After you miss a period, hCG levels increase rapidly. hCG is detected through either
a urine or a blood test. Urine tests may be provided at a doctor’s office, and they’re
the same as the tests you can take at home. Blood tests can be performed in a
laboratory. hCG blood tests are about as accurate as home pregnancy tests. The
difference is that blood tests may be ordered as soon as six days after ovulation. The
sooner you can confirm you’re pregnant, the better. An early diagnosis will allow you
to take better care of your baby’s health. Get more information on pregnancy tests,
such as tips for avoiding a “false negative” result.

Pregnancy and vaginal discharge

An increase in vaginal discharge is one of the earliest signs of pregnancy. Your
production of discharge may increase as early as one to two weeks after conception,
before you’ve even missed a period.

As your pregnancy progresses, you’ll continue to produce increasing amounts of

discharge. The discharge will also tend to become thicker and occur more frequently.
It’s usually heaviest at the end of your pregnancy.

During the final weeks of your pregnancy, your discharge may contain streaks of thick
mucus and blood. This is called “the bloody show.” It can be an early sign of labor.
You should let your doctor know if you have any bleeding.

Normal vaginal discharge, or leukorrhea, is thin and either clear or milky white. It’s
also mild-smelling.
If your discharge is yellow, green, or gray with a strong, unpleasant odor, it’s
considered abnormal. Abnormal discharge can be a sign of an infection or a problem
with your pregnancy, especially if there’s redness, itching, or vulvar swelling.

If you think you have abnormal vaginal discharge, let your healthcare provider know
immediately. Learn more about vaginal discharge during pregnancy.

Pregnancy and urinary tract infections (UTIs)

Urinary tract infections (UTIs) are one of the most common complications women
experience during pregnancy. Bacteria can get inside a woman’s urethra, or urinary
tract, and can move up into the bladder. The fetus puts added pressure on the bladder,
which can cause the bacteria to be trapped, causing an infection.

Symptoms of a UTI usually include pain and burning or frequent urination. You may
also experience:
• cloudy or blood-tinged urine
• pelvic pain
• lower back pain
• fever
• nausea and vomiting

Nearly 18 percent of pregnant women develop a UTI. You can help prevent these
infections by emptying your bladder frequently, especially before and after sex. Drink
plenty of water to stay hydrated. Avoid using douches and harsh soaps in the genital
area.
Contact your healthcare provider if you have symptoms of a UTI. Infections during
pregnancy can be dangerous because they increase the risk of premature labor.
When caught early, most UTIs can be treated with antibiotics that are effective against
bacteria but still safe for use during pregnancy. Follow the advice here to prevent UTIs
before they even start.

Pregnancy prevention
Women who have male sexual partners should consider birth control if they’re not
interested in becoming pregnant.
Some methods of pregnancy prevention work better for certain individuals. Talk to
your doctor about birth control that’s right for you. A few of the most common birth
control methods are discussed below:

Birth control method Effectiveness rate

Intrauterine devices
Over 99 percent
(IUDs)

99 percent with perfect use; around 91 percent with

The pill
typical use

98 percent with perfect use; around 82 percentTrusted

Male condom
SourceTrusted Source with typical use

Female condom (or 95 percent effective with perfect use; around 79 percent
internal condom) with typical use

Up to 95 percent (taken within one day of sexual

Morning-after pill
contact); 75 to 89 percent (taken within three days)

Natural family planning

75 percent when used on its own
(NFP)
 LESSON 9
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE ORGAN

POST-TEST
Short answer questions.
1. Give three (3) importance of female reproductive organ.

2. Identify the internal parts of the female reproductive organs and give the
functions of each.
 Republic of the Philippines
Bulacan State University
City of Malolos, Bulacan

COLLEGE OF SCIENCE

NAME: SCORE:

COURSE, YR. & SEC. GROUP:

INSTRUCTOR: MARLYN ROSE M. SACDALAN DATE:

Lesson
Female Reproductive
9 Organs
POST-TEST. Write your answers here.
MODULE 5

UNIT TITLE: GAMETOGENISIS

TITLE OF THE LESSONS: SPERMATOGENESIS AND OOGENESIS

DURATION: 3 HRS

INTRODUCTION
"Gamete" is derived from the Greek word "gamete" (wife) and "gamein" (to
marry). "Genesis" is derived from the Greek word "genein" (to produce). Thus, in
gametogenesis, cells marry ("gamein") and produce ("genein") a new being.

Gametogenesis is the production of gametes from haploid precursor cells. In

animals, two morphologically distinct types of gametes are produced (male and
female) via distinct differentiation programs. Animals produce a tissue that is
dedicated to forming gametes, called the germ line. Individual germline cells are
called germ cells. During the process of gametogenesis, a germ cell
undergoes meiosis to produce haploid cells that directly develop into gametes.
Hence, in animals, meiosis is an integral part of gametogenesis.

OBJECTIVES:
At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:
1. Define gametogenesis, spermatogenesis, and oogenesis;
2. Identify the processes taking place in the spermatogenesis and oogenesis;
3. Give the importance of this processes taking place in male and female species.

CONTENTS:
• Spermatogenesis
• Oogenesis
 Republic of the Philippines
Bulacan State University
City of Malolos, Bulacan

COLLEGE OF SCIENCE

NAME: SCORE:

COURSE, YR. & SEC. SN:

INSTRUCTOR: MARLYN ROSE M. SACDALAN DATE:

Lesson

10 Gametogenesis
PRE-TEST
Answer the following question as briefly as possible.
1. What is meiosis? Gametogenesis? Germ cell?

2. What is the difference of spermatogenesis from oogenesis?

 CHAPTER 10
GAMETOGENESIS: SPERMATOGENESIS AND OOGENESIS

INTRODUCTION
Gametogenesis is the development and production of the male and female germ cells
required to form a new individual.

The male and female germ cells are called gametes. The gametes in human
males are produced by the testes, two globe-shaped reproductive organs just below
the penis. Male gametes are what most people refer to as sperm. Gametes in human
females are produced by the ovaries, two oblong organs on each side of the uterus in
the lower abdomen. Female gametes are what most people refer to as eggs or ova.
After sexual intercourse, an ejaculated sperm cell penetrates an egg and unites with
it (fertilizes it). The fertilized egg is called the zygote.

The reproductive organs in both males and females (testes and ovaries,
respectively) begin gametogenesis with a primitive germ cell. A primitive germ cell is
a seed cell. Like a seed planted in a garden, a primitive germ cell initiates the process
that eventually results in a new being. The primitive germ cell contains 46 pairs of
chromosomes. Chromosomes are structures that hold the genetic information (the
DNA) that determine the makeup of the new being. In humans, chromosomes
influence hair, eye and skin color, height, bone structure, and all of the characteristics
that prompt people to say that a child "takes after" his mother or father.

Chromosomes occur in pairs because they reflect the makeup of the previous
generation -- 23 chromosomes from the father and 23 from the mother. However, the
gametes produced by the testes and the ovaries cannot each contain 46
chromosomes. Otherwise, after they unite, they will contain 92 chromosomes. Thus,
the germ cells produced by the testes and ovaries each divide once, then divide again,
in a reduction process that creates cells containing 23 chromosomes, or half the
original number. This reduction process is known as meiosis.

Then, after a male ejaculates sperm into a female and fertilizes her egg, a new
individual with 46 chromosomes begins to form. This is the beginning of pregnancy.

SPERMATOGENESIS AND OOGENESIS

Oogenesis
Oogenesis occurs in the outermost layers of the ovaries. As with sperm production,
oogenesis starts with a germ cell, called an oogonium (plural: oogonia), but this cell
undergoes mitosis to increase in number, eventually resulting in up to one to two
million cells in the embryo.

In oogenesis, diploid oogonium go through mitosis until one develops into a

primary oocyte, which will begin the first meiotic division, but then arrest; it will finish
this division as it develops in the follicle, giving rise to a haploid secondary oocyte and
a smaller polar body.
 The secondary oocyte begins the second meiotic division and then arrests
again; it will not finish this division unless it is fertilized by a sperm; if this occurs, a
mature ovum and another polar body is produced.

Figure 43.3𝐶.143.3C.1: Oogenesis: The process of oogenesis occurs in the ovary’s

outermost layer. A primary oocyte begins the first meiotic division, but then arrests
until later in life when it will finish this division in a developing follicle. This results in a
secondary oocyte, which will complete meiosis if it is fertilized.

The cell starting meiosis is called a primary oocyte. This cell will begin the first meiotic
division, but be arrested in its progress in the first prophase stage. At the time of birth,
all future eggs are in the prophase stage. At adolescence, anterior pituitary hormones
cause the development of a number of follicles in an ovary. This results in the primary
oocyte finishing the first meiotic division. The cell divides unequally, with most of the
cellular material and organelles going to one cell, called a secondary oocyte, and only
one set of chromosomes and a small amount of cytoplasm going to the other cell. This
second cell is called a polar body and usually dies. A secondary meiotic arrest occurs,
this time at the metaphase II stage. At ovulation, this secondary oocyte will be released
and travel toward the uterus through the oviduct. If the secondary oocyte is fertilized,
the cell continues through the meiosis II, completing meiosis, producing a second polar
body and a fertilized egg containing all 46 chromosomes of a human being, half of
them coming from the sperm.

WHICH IS VITAL?
It is vital to note that, meiosis shapes the most major part of the development of
gametogenesis. In addition, both oogenesis and spermatogenesis include similar
stages of sequential changes includes:

The effect of gametogenesis in females is associated with the mature female

gamete. This is created through a process called oogenesis. This happens in the
ovaries or female gonads. There are three phases to oogenesis; namely, multiplication
phase, growth phase and maturation phase. Let us try to understand these phases in
a precise manner.

Multiplication Phase: During foetal development, it should be noticed that certain cells
present in the germinal epithelium of the female ovary are bigger than others. Hence,
these cells split by mitosis, creating a couple of million oogonia or mother egg cells in
each ovary present in the foetus. There are no more oogonia which are formed or
augmented after birth.

Growth Phase: This particular procedure of the primary oocyte tends to be very long.
In this, the oogonium nurtures into bigger primary oocytes. After this, each primary
oocyte gets surrounded by a granulosa cells layer to create primary follicle. Later, a
large number of follicles get debased during the duration from birth to puberty.
Therefore, at puberty around 60,000 to 80,000 primary follicles can be found in each
ovary.

Maturation Phase: Similar to a primary spermatocyte, every primary oocyte

experiences two maturation divisions. However, the outcomes of maturation divisions
under oogenesis are quite different to those which occur in spermatogenesis.
Considering the first meiotic division, the primary oocyte segregates into two uneven
haploid daughter cells. These are known as the large secondary oocyte and a small
polocyte.

Later, considering the second maturation separation, the initial polar body might split
to create two, second polar bodies. Here, the secondary oocyte once again divides to
form unfit daughter cells.

Spermatogenesis
In spermatogenesis, diploid spermatogonia go through mitosis until they begin
to develop into gametes; eventually, one develops into a primary spermatocyte that
will go through the first meiotic division to form two haploid secondary spermatocytes.
The secondary spermatocytes will go through a second meiotic division to each
produce two spermatids; these cells will eventually develop flagella and become
mature sperm.

Spermatogenesis occurs in the wall of the seminiferous tubules, with stem cells
at the periphery of the tube and the spermatozoa at the lumen of the tube. Immediately
under the capsule of the tubule are diploid, undifferentiated cells. These stem cells,
called spermatogonia (singular: spermatagonium), go through mitosis with one
offspring going on to differentiate into a sperm cell, while the other gives rise to the
next generation of sperm.

Meiosis begins with a cell called a primary spermatocyte. At the end of the first
meiotic division, a haploid cell is produced called a secondary spermatocyte. This
haploid cell must go through another meiotic cell division. The cell produced at the end
of meiosis is called a spermatid. When it reaches the lumen of the tubule and grows a
flagellum (or “tail”), it is called a sperm cell. Four sperm result from each primary
spermatocyte that goes through meiosis.

Stem cells are deposited during gestation and are present at birth through the
beginning of adolescence, but in an inactive state. During adolescence, gonadotropic
hormones from the anterior pituitary cause the activation of these cells and the
production of viable sperm. This continues into old age.

Insights about Spermatogenesis

The formation procedure of sperms is known as spermatogenesis. This occurs
primarily in the seminiferous tubules present in the testes. These seminiferous tubules
are creased by germinal epithelium. Further, the germinal epithelium largely
comprises of primordial germ cells or PGCs. In addition, tall somatic cells termed as
Sertoli cells (nurse cells) are also present. Spermatogenesis refers to the formation of
spermatids and spermatozoa.

Creation of Spermatids
This procedure covers three stages; namely:
Multiplication Phase: During sexual maturity, the division of undistinguishable
primordial germ cells occurs several times due to mitosis. This is majorly to produce a
large count of spermatogonia. These are of two kinds: type A and type B. Type A
spermatogonia act as the stem cells that divide to create additional spermatogonia.
On the other hand, Type В spermatogonia can be thought as the prototypes of male
sex cells.

Growth Phase: Do remember that, every type В spermatogonium dynamically grows

to form a superior primary spermatocyte through nourishment received from the
nursing cells. This phase further concludes in the maturation stage.

Maturation Phase: Under this, primary spermatocyte experiences two successive divi-
sions. These are termed as maturation divisions, and meiotic is the first maturation
disunion. Therefore, the primary spermatocyte segregates into two haploid daughter
cells known as secondary spermatocytes. Further, both the secondary spermatocytes
suffer second maturation separation that is a regular mitotic division. It leads to the
creation of four haploid spermatids.

Additional Information
https://www.toppr.com/ask/content/story/amp/formation-of-spermatozoa-and-
spermiation-73193/

Figure 43.3𝐶.143.3C.1: Spermatogenesis: During spermatogenesis, four sperm

result from each primary spermatocyte, which divides into two haploid secondary
spermatocytes; these cells will go through a second meiotic division to produce four
spermatids.
 Republic of the Philippines
Bulacan State University
City of Malolos, Bulacan

COLLEGE OF SCIENCE

NAME: SCORE:

COURSE, YR. & SEC. SN:

INSTRUCTOR: MARLYN ROSE M. SACDALAN DATE:

Lesson

10 Gametogenesis
POST-TEST
Explain the process of spermatogenesis and oogenesis with the used of the
diagram below. (indicate what is happening from the primary oocyte and spermatocyte
up to the production of the mature ovum and spermatocytes).