APPENDIX B

Vapor Cloud Explosion Modeling Using

the Approach in EPA’s OCA Guidance
 APPENDIX B B-3

DESCRIPTION OF VAPOR CLOUD EXPLOSION METHODOLOGY

EPA’s Risk Management Program Guidance for Offsite Consequence Analysis16
presents a simple VCE methodology referred to as the TNT equivalency method. This
VCE method can be used to perform simple screening calculations for assessing Program
1 eligibility. The TNT method assumes that the consequences (i.e., the overpressures) of a
VCE are similar to the consequences of a TNT explosion involving an equivalent amount
of energy. For WCS events, the fundamental equation for estimating the distance to a 1-
psi overpressure for a VCE using the TNT equivalency approach is given as follows:

1
æ HCf ö 3
D = 42.9 × ç0.1 × Wf × ÷ (B-1)
HCTNT
è ø

where D is the distance (in ft) to a 1-psi overpressure, Wf is the mass (in lb) of the
flammable substance involved in the VCE, HCf is the net heat of combustion (BTU/lb) of
the flammable substance, and HCTNT is the net heat of combustion (2,012 BTU/lb) of
TNT. Table B-1 gives heat of combustion data for regulated flammable substances at a
typical refinery.

Table B-1
Heat of Combustion Data for Regulated Flammable Substances
at a Typical Refinery
Regulated Substance1 CAS Number Net Heat of Combustion2 (BTU/lb)
Acetylene 74-86-2 20,732

1,3-Butadiene 106-99-0 19,152

i-Butane 75-28-5 19,594

n-Butane 106-97-8 19,656

Butene 25167-67-3 19,433

Ethane 74-84-0 20,425

Hydrogen 1333-74-0 51,569

Methane 74-82-8 21,509

i-Pentane 78-78-4 19,308

n-Pentane 109-66-0 19,216

Propane 74-98-6 19,920

Propylene 115-07-1 19,674

1
These flammable substances may not be present at all refineries.
2 16
These values were taken from EPA’s OCA Guidance and converted from kJ/kg to BTU/lb.
B-4 APPENDIX B

DEVELOPMENT OF MATERIAL-SPECIFIC VCE RELATIONSHIPS

By substituting the appropriate heat of combustion values into the TNT equivalency
method, material-specific relationships can be developed for estimating the distance to a
1-psi overpressure for a VCE involving a WCS event. Table B-2 presents these
relationships for regulated flammable substances at a typical refinery. To use the
relationships, simply input the flammable mass (Wf) into the appropriate relationship and
calculate the distance D. Table B-3 presents the distances to a 1-psi overpressure (using
the relationships in Table B-2) for a range of flammable masses of regulated flammable
substances at a typical refinery. See the next subsection for guidance in determining the
flammable mass (Wf).
Table B-2
Distance to 1-psi Relationships for a VCE Involving a WCS Event for
Regulated Flammable Substances at a Typical Refinery
Distance (ft) to 1-psi Overpressure Equation2 Based
Regulated CAS Number on Flammable Mass Wf (lb)
Substance1
Acetylene 74-86-2 D = 43.3 × Wf1/3
1,3-Butadiene 106-99-0 D = 42.2 × Wf1/3
i-Butane 75-28-5 D = 42.5 × Wf1/3
n-Butane 106-97-8 D = 42.6 × Wf1/3
Butene 25167-67-3 D = 42.4 × Wf1/3
Ethane 74-84-0 D = 43.1 × Wf1/3
Hydrogen 1333-74-0 D = 58.7 × Wf1/3
Methane 74-82-8 D = 43.9 × Wf1/3
i-Pentane 78-78-4 D = 42.3 × Wf1/3
n-Pentane 109-66-0 D = 42.2 × Wf1/3
Propane 74-98-6 D = 42.8 × Wf1/3
Propylene 115-07-1 D = 42.6 × Wf1/3
1
These flammable substances may not be present at all refineries.
2
These equations give the distance (in ft) to a 1-psi overpressure based on a flammable mass given in lb. To
obtain the distance in miles, divide the distance in ft by 5,280.

For a mixture of regulated flammable substances, determine the distance based on the
predominant flammable substance in the mixture (using an equation from Table B-2 for
the predominant component and using the total weight of the flammable mixture) or use
the following equation to calculate the net heat of combustion for the mixture:

N Wfi
HCmix = Σ HCi
i=1 Wf (B-2)

where HCmix is the net heat of combustion (in BTU/lb) for the mixture, N is the number of
flammable substances in the mixture, Wfi is the flammable mass (in lb) of substance i in the
mixture, Wf is the total mass (in lb) of the flammable mixture, and HCi is the net heat of
combustion (BTU/lb) of substance i in the mixture. After calculating HCmix, use equation B-
1 to calculate the distance to a 1-psi overpressure for a VCE involving a WCS event.
 APPENDIX B B-5

ESTIMATING THE FLAMMABLE MASS (Wf) FOR VCEs

The flammable mass that should be used in Equation B-1, the distance relationships in
Table B-2, or Table B-3 is determined based on the process or storage conditions for the
WCS release quantity (see Section 4.2 of this Guide). Based on the RMP rule
amendments8-10 published in the Federal Register on May 26, 1999, the flammable mass
Wf for a WCS is determined in one of the three following ways:

1. For a material processed/stored as a gas or a pressurized liquefied gas: The

flammable mass Wf is the total quantity released.

2. For a material processed/stored as a refrigerated liquefied gas (i.e., the

material is processed/stored at its normal boiling point and at atmospheric
pressure): If the released material is not contained such that its pool depth is
greater than or equal to 1 cm (0.39 in.), then the flammable mass Wf is the
total quantity released. If the released material is contained such that it forms
a pool that is 1 cm or greater in depth, then the flammable mass Wf is
determined by (1) assuming the pool instantaneously covers the containment
area, (2) estimating the pool evaporation rate (lb/min), assuming the pool
temperature is equal to the normal boiling point of the material, and (3)
multiplying the pool evaporation rate by 10 min to obtain a total mass (lb)
involved in the VCE.

3. For a material processed/stored as a nonpressurized liquid (i.e., the normal

boiling point of the material at atmospheric pressure is greater than both the
maximum process/storage temperature and the maximum ambient
temperature that have occurred in the past 3 years): The flammable mass Wf
is determined by (1) assuming the pool instantaneously forms a liquid pool, (2)
estimating the pool evaporation rate (lb/min), assuming the pool temperature is
the greater of the maximum process/storage temperature or the maximum
ambient temperature that has occurred in the past 3 years, and (3) multiplying
the pool evaporation rate by 10 min to obtain a total mass (lb) involved in the
VCE.

For those cases where the flammable mass Wf is dependent upon the pool evaporation
rate, EPA’s OCA Guidance16 presents a simple method for estimating the pool
evaporation rate:

QR = 1.4 × LF × A (B-3)

where QR is the pool evaporation rate (in lb/min), LF is a liquid factor (in lb/min-ft2), and
A is the pool area (in ft2). The liquid factor LF is a function of the temperature of the
material in the liquid pool. Table B-4 presents the temperature-dependent LF values for
regulated flammable substances at a typical refinery. The pool area A should be the
lesser of (1) the area covered by an unconfined spill (Auncontained) or (2) the diked or
bermed area (Acontained), if spill is contained. The unconfined pool area may be estimated
from the following:

Auncontained = Q × DF (B-4)
 Table B-3
1
Distance to 1-psi Overpressure for a VCE Involving a WCS Event for RMP-regulated Flammable Substances at a Typical Refinery

Flammable Mass (lb) 10,000 20,000 30,000 50,000 100,000 150,000 200,000 300,000 500,000

Chemical Name2 CAS No. Distance (miles) to 1-psi Overpressure

Acetylene 74-86-2 0.18 0.22 0.25 0.30 0.38 0.44 0.48 0.55 0.65

1,3-Butadiene 106-99-0 0.17 0.22 0.25 0.29 0.37 0.42 0.47 0.53 0.63

i-Butane 75-28-5 0.17 0.22 0.25 0.30 0.37 0.43 0.47 0.54 0.64

n-Butane 106-97-8 0.17 0.22 0.25 0.30 0.37 0.43 0.47 0.54 0.64

Butene 25167-67-3 0.17 0.22 0.25 0.30 0.37 0.43 0.47 0.54 0.64

Ethane 74-84-0 0.18 0.22 0.25 0.30 0.38 0.43 0.48 0.55 0.65

Hydrogen 1333-74-0 0.24 0.30 0.35 0.41 0.52 0.59 0.65 0.74 0.88

Methane 74-82-8 0.18 0.23 0.26 0.31 0.39 0.44 0.49 0.56 0.66

i-Pentane 78-78-4 0.17 0.22 0.25 0.30 0.37 0.43 0.47 0.54 0.64

n-Pentane 109-66-0 0.17 0.22 0.25 0.29 0.37 0.42 0.47 0.54 0.63

Propane 74-98-6 0.17 0.22 0.25 0.30 0.38 0.43 0.47 0.54 0.64

Propylene 115-07-1 0.17 0.22 0.25 0.30 0.37 0.43 0.47 0.54 0.64

1
This table was taken from EPA’s OCA Guidance.16
2
These flammable substances may not be present at all refineries. There may also be other RMP-regulated flammable substances at a given refinery that are not listed in this table. Consult EPA’s OCA
Guidance16 for data on other regulated flammable substances.

B-6
 APPENDIX B B-7

where Auncontained is the uncontained pool area (in ft2), Q is the total quantity released (in
lb), and DF is the density factor (in ft2/lb) for the spilled material. The density factor DF
is a function of the temperature of the material in the liquid pool. The temperature-
dependent DF values for regulated flammable substances at a typical refinery are
presented in Table B-4. The density factors are calculated assuming that the material
spreads to a minimum pool thickness of 1 cm (0.39 in). Once the pool evaporation rate
QR is estimated, then the flammable mass Wf is determined from the following:

Wf = QR × 10 (B-5)

Table B-4
Liquid Factor (LF) and Density Factor (DF) Values for Regulated Flammable
Substances at a Typical Refinery

Regulated CAS Number Pool Temperature Liquid Factor Density Factor

Substance* (°F) (LF) (lb/min-ft2) (DF) (ft2/lb)
Acetylene 74-86-2 -118.8** 0.12 0.78

1,3-Butadiene 106-99-0 24.1** 0.14 0.75

i-Butane 75-28-5 10.9** 0.15 0.82

n-Butane 106-97-8 31.1** 0.14 0.81

Butene 25167-67-3 20.8** 0.14 0.77

Ethane 74-84-0 -127.5** 0.14 0.89

Hydrogen 1333-74-0 -423.2** 0.21 6.89

Methane 74-82-8 -258.7** 0.15 0.15

i-Pentane 78-78-4 70 0.12 0.79

75 0.13 0.79
80 0.15 0.80
82.1** 0.15 0.80

n-Pentane 109-66-0 70 0.09 0.78

75 0.10 0.78
80 0.11 0.79
85 0.12 0.79
90 0.13 0.80
95 0.14 0.80
96.9** 0.15 0.80

Propane 74-98-6 -43.7** 0.14 0.83

Propylene 115-07-1 -53.8** 0.14 0.79

* These flammable substances may not be present at all refineries.

** This temperature corresponds to the normal boiling point of the substance at atmospheric pressure. If the
pool temperature is greater than this temperature, then the substance is a pressurized liquefied gas and the
flammable mass Wf should be the total quantity released (i.e., use of pool evaporation to calculate Wf is not
appropriate).
B-8 APPENDIX B

EXAMPLE APPLICATIONS OF VCE RELATIONSHIPS

Example 1: Consider a storage vessel containing 270,000 lb of propane stored as a

pressurized liquefied gas. Because the propane is stored as a liquid under pressure, the RMP
rule requires that the flammable mass Wf be the total quantity released. The distance to a 1-
psi overpressure for a VCE involving this WCS event is given by the following relationship
for propane from Table B-2:

D = 42.8 × (270,000 lb)1/3 = 2,766 ft or 0.52 mile

Using Table B-3, the distance to a 1-psi overpressure for the propane VCE is between
0.47 mile (for 200,000 lb) and 0.54 mile (for 300,000 lb). Linear interpolation for a
flammable mass of 270,000 lb yields a distance of 0.52 mile.

Example 2: Consider a storage vessel containing 270,000 lb of propane stored as a

refrigerated liquefied gas at a maximum temperature of –43.7 °F and at atmospheric
pressure. The storage tank has a containment berm with a surface area of 2,000 ft2 that
will contain the full inventory of 270,000 lb. Because the propane is stored at its normal
boiling point and at atmospheric pressure and the storage tank has a containment berm,
the flammable mass Wf is estimated based on the pool evaporation rate. First, the
uncontained pool area Auncontained is calculated using equation B-4 (with a DF value of
0.83 for propane) for comparison to the contained pool area Acontained of 2,000 ft2.

Auncontained = (270,000 lb) × (0.83 ft2/lb) = 224,100 ft2

Since the uncontained pool area (224,100 ft2) is greater than the contained pool area
(2,000 ft2), the pool depth in the bermed area is greater than 1 cm (0.39 in.). If the
uncontained pool area had been less than the contained pool area, then the pool depth in
the bermed area would have been less than 1 cm, and the total quantity released (270,000
lb) would have to be used as the flammable mass Wf. However, since the pool depth in
the bermed area is greater than 1 cm, the flammable mass is estimated based on the pool
evaporation rate. The pool evaporation rate is estimated using equation B-3 (with an LF
of 0.14 for propane from Table B-4):

QR = 1.4 × (0.14 lb/min-ft2) × (2,000 ft2) = 392 lb/min

The flammable mass is then estimated using equation B-5:

Wf = (392 lb/min) × 10 = 3,920 lb

The distance to a 1-psi overpressure for a VCE involving this WCS event is given by the
following relationship for propane from Table B-2:

D = 42.8 × (3,920 lb)1/3 = 675 ft or 0.13 mile

Since the flammable mass is less than 10,000 lb, Table B-3 cannot be used to estimate the
distance to a 1-psi overpressure for this WCS event.

Example 3: Consider a storage vessel containing 5,000,000 lb of n-pentane stored at a

maximum temperature of 95 °F (based on meteorological observations at the site for the
past 3 years) and at atmospheric pressure. The storage tank has a containment berm with
a surface area of 20,000 ft2 that will contain the full inventory of 5,000,000 lb. Because
 APPENDIX B B-9

the n-pentane is stored at below its normal boiling point and at atmospheric pressure, the
flammable mass Wf is estimated based on the pool evaporation rate. First, the
uncontained pool area Auncontained is calculated using equation B-4 (with a DF value of
0.80 for n-pentane from Table B-4) for comparison to the contained pool area Acontained of
20,000 ft2.

Auncontained = (5,000,000 lb) × (0.80 ft2/lb) = 4,000,000 ft2

Since the uncontained pool area (4,000,000 ft2) is greater than the contained pool area
(20,000 ft2), the contained pool area should be used to estimate the pool evaporation rate.
The pool evaporation rate is estimated using equation B-3 (with an LF of 0.14 for n-
pentane at 95 °F from Table B-4):

QR = 1.4 × (0.14 lb/min-ft2) × (20,000 ft2) = 3,920 lb/min

The flammable mass is then estimated using equation B-5:

Wf = (3,920 lb/min) × 10 = 39,200 lb

The distance to a 1-psi overpressure for a VCE involving this WCS event is given by the
following relationship for n-pentane from Table B-2:

D = 42.2 × (39,200 lb)1/3 = 1,434 ft or 0.27 mile

Using Table B-3, the distance to a 1-psi overpressure for the n-pentane VCE is between
0.25 mile (for 30,000 lb) and 0.29 mile (for 50,000 lb). Linear interpolation for a
flammable mass of 39,200 lb yields a distance of 0.27 mile.