Educational Theories

Behaviorism

Behaviorism is a worldview that operates on a principle of “stimulus-response.” All behavior caused by external stimuli
(operant conditioning). All behavior can be explained without the need to consider internal mental states or consciousness [1].

CONTRIBUTORS

 John B. Watson
 Ivan Pavlov
 B.F. Skinner
 E. L. Thorndike
 Albert Bandura

KEY CONCEPTS

Behaviorism is a worldview that assumes a learner is essentially passive, responding to environmental stimuli. The learner
starts off as a clean slate (i.e. tabula rasa) and behavior is shaped through positive reinforcement or negative reinforcement [2].
Both positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement increase the probability that the antecedent behavior will happen
again. In contrast, punishment (both positive and negative) decreases the likelihood that the antecedent behavior will
happen again. Positive indicates the application of a stimulus; Negative indicates the withholding of a stimulus. Learning is
therefore defined as a change in behavior in the learner. Lots of (early) behaviorist work was done with animals (e.g. Pavlov’s
dogs) and generalized to humans[3].

Behaviorism precedes the cognitivist worldview. It rejects structuralism and is an extension of Logical Positivism.

Radical Behaviorism

Developed by BF Skinner, Radical Behaviorism describes a particular school that emerged during the reign of behaviorism.
It is distinct from other schools of behaviorism, with major differences in the acceptance of mediating structures, the role of
emotions, etc.

RELATED THEORIES

Classical and Operant Conditioning (Skinner)

A behaviorist theory based on the fundamental idea that behaviors that are reinforced will tend to continue, while behaviors
that are punished will eventually end[1]. [wc_row][wc_column size="one-half" position="first"] Contents Contributors…


Classical Conditioning (Pavlov)

Classical conditioning is a reflexive or automatic type of learning in which a stimulus acquires the capacity to evoke a
response that was originally evoked by another stimulus. [wc_row][wc_column size="one-half"…


 Cognitivism

The cognitivist paradigm essentially argues that the “black box” of the mind should be opened and understood. The learner
is viewed as an information processor (like a computer). [wc_row][wc_column size="one-half"…

CONTRIBUTORS

 Marriner David Merill (1937 – )

 Charles Reigeluth (1946 – )
 Robert Mills Gagné (1916 – 2002)
 Jerome Bruner (1915-2016)
 Roger Schank (1946 – )

KEY CONCEPTS

The cognitivist revolution replaced behaviorism in 1960s as the dominant paradigm. Cognitivism focuses on the inner
mental activities – opening the “black box” of the human mind is valuable and necessary for understanding how people
learn. Mental processes such as thinking, memory, knowing, and problem-solving need to be explored. Knowledge can be
seen as schema or symbolic mental constructions. Learning is defined as change in a learner’s schemata [1][2].

A response to behaviorism, people are not “programmed animals” that merely respond to environmental stimuli; people are
rational beings that require active participation in order to learn, and whose actions are a consequence of thinking. Changes
in behavior are observed, but only as an indication of what is occurring in the learner’s head. Cognitivism uses the metaphor
of the mind as computer: information comes in, is being processed, and leads to certain outcomes.

Constructivism

Constructivism as a paradigm or worldview posits that learning is an active, constructive process. The learner is an
information constructor. People actively construct or create their own subjective representations of objective reality. New
information is linked to to prior knowledge, thus mental representations are subjective.

CONTRIBUTORS

 Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky (1896 – 1943)[1]

 Jean Piaget (1896 – 1980)[2]
 John Dewey (1859 – 1952)
 Jerome Seymour Bruner (1915 – 2016)

KEY CONCEPTS

A reaction to didactic approaches such as behaviorism and programmed instruction, constructivism states that learning is an
active, contextualized process of constructing knowledge rather than acquiring it. Knowledge is constructed based on
personal experiences and hypotheses of the environment. Learners continuously test these hypotheses through social
negotiation. Each person has a different interpretation and construction of knowledge process. The learner is not a blank
slate (tabula rasa) but brings past experiences and cultural factors to a situation [3][4].

NOTE: A common misunderstanding regarding constructivism is that instructors should never tell students anything
directly but, instead, should always allow them to construct knowledge for themselves. This is actually confusing a theory of
pedagogy (teaching) with a theory of knowing. Constructivism assumes that all knowledge is constructed from the learner’s
previous knowledge, regardless of how one is taught. Thus, even listening to a lecture involves active attempts to construct
new knowledge.

Vygotsky’s social development theory is one of the foundations for constructivism.

RELATED THEORIES


Social Development Theory (Vygotsky)
 Summary: Social Development Theory argues that social interaction precedes development; consciousness and cognition are
the end product of socialization and social behavior. Originator: Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934). Key terms: Zone of…


Social Learning Theory (Bandura)

Bandura's Social Learning Theory posits that people learn from one another, via observation, imitation, and modeling. The
theory has often been called a bridge between behaviorist and cognitive learning theories…


Behaviorism

Behaviorism is a worldview that operates on a principle of "stimulus-response." All behavior caused by external stimuli
(operant conditioning). All behavior can be explained without the need to consider internal…

Design-Based Research

Summary: Design-Based Research is a lens or set of analytical techniques that balances the positivist and interpretivist
paradigms and attempts to bridge theory and practice in education. A blend of empirical educational research with the
theory-driven design of learning environments, DBR is an important methodology for understanding how, when, and why
educational innovations work in practice; DBR methods aim to uncover the relationships between educational theory,
designed artefact, and practice.

Originators: A. Brown[1], A. Collins[2], DBR Collective[3], and others

Keywords: design experiments, iterative, interventionist, theory-building, theory-driven

Design-Based Research Methods (DBR)

In recent years, educators have been trying to narrow the chasm between research and practice. Part of the challenge is that
research that is detached from practice “may not account for the influence of contexts, the emergent and complex nature of
outcomes, and the incompleteness of knowledge about which factors are relevant for prediction” [3].

According to Collins et al., Design-based Research (also known as design experiments) intends to address several needs and
issues central to the study of learning [4]. These include the following:

 The need to address theoretical questions about the nature of learning in context
 The need for approaches to the study of learning phenomena in the real world situations rather than the laboratory
 The need to go beyond narrow measures of learning.
 The need to derive research findings from formative evaluation.

Characteristics of design-based research experiments include:

 addressing complex problems in real, authentic contexts in collaboration with practitioners

 applying integrating known and hypothetical design principles to render plausible solutions
 conducting rigorous and reflective inquiry to test and refine innovative learning environments
 intertwined goals of (1) designing learning environments and (2) developing theories of learning
 research and development through continuous cycles of design, enactment, analysis, and redesign
 research on designs that must lead to sharable theories that help communicate relevant implications to
practitioners and other educational designers
 research must account for how designs function in authentic settings
 development of such accounts relies on methods that can document and connect processes of enactment to
outcomes of interest[3].
 Design-based research vs. traditional evaluation

The following excerpt highlights the difference between the goals and contributions of design-based research methods can
offer and traditional evaluation:

“In traditional evaluation, an intervention (e.g. a textbook, an instructional program, a policy) is measured against a set of
standards. During formative evaluation, iterative cycles of development, implementation, and study allow the designer to
gather information about how an intervention is or is not succeeding in ways that might lead to better design. Then the
intervention is ‘frozen’, and the rigorous summative evaluation begins….Like formative evaluation, design-based research
uses mixed methods to analyze an intervention’s outcomes and refine the intervention. Unlike evaluation research, design-
based research views a successful innovation as a joint product of the designed intervention and the context. Hence, design-
based research goes beyond perfecting a particular product. The intention of design-based research…is to inquire more
broadly into the nature of learning in a complex system and to refine generative or predictive theories of learning. Models of
successful innovation can be generated through such work — models, rather than particular artifacts or programs, are the
goal”[3].

For more information, see:

 Cobb, P., diSessa, A., Lehrer, R., Schauble, L. (2003). Design experiments in educational research. Educational
Researcher, 32(1): 9-13.

RELATED THEORIES


Situated Learning Theory (Lave)

Summary: Situated Learning Theory posits that learning is unintentional and situated within authentic activity, context, and
culture. Originator: Jean Lave Key Terms: Legitimate Peripheral Participation (LPP), Cognitive Apprenticeship Situated
Learning…


Learner-centered design

Summary: Learner centered design focuses on creating software for heterogeneous groups of learners who need scaffolding
as they learn while completing constructivist activities. Originators and Key Contributors: Elliot Soloway, Mark…


Discovery Learning (Bruner)

Summary: Discovery Learning is a method of inquiry-based instruction, discovery learning believes that it is best for learners
to discover facts and relationships for themselves. Originator: Jerome Bruner (1915-) Keywords:…

Humanism
 Humanism is a paradigm/philosophy/pedagogical approach that believes learning is viewed as a personal
act to fulfill one’s potential.

CONTRIBUTORS

 Abraham Maslow
 Carl Rogers
 Malcolm Knowles

KEY CONCEPTS

Humanism, a paradigm that emerged in the 1960s, focuses on the human freedom, dignity, and potential. A central
assumption of humanism, according to Huitt (2001), is that people act with intentionality and values[1]. This is in contrast
to the behaviorist notion of operant conditioning (which argues that all behavior is the result of the application of
consequences) and the cognitive psychologist belief that the discovering knowledge or constructing meaning is central to
learning. Humanists also believe that it is necessary to study the person as a whole, especially as an individual grows and
develops over the lifespan. It follows that the study of the self, motivation, and goals are areas of particular interest.

Key proponents of humanism include Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow. A primary purpose of humanism could be
described as the development of self-actualized, autonomous people[2]. In humanism, learning is student centered and
personalized, and the educator’s role is that of a facilitator. Affective and cognitive needs are key, and the goal is to develop
self-actualized people in a cooperative, supportive environment[3].

RELATED THEORIES


Experiential Learning (Kolb)

A four-stage cyclical theory of learning, Kolb’s experiential learning theory is a holistic perspective that combines experience,
perception, cognition, and behavior. [wc_row][wc_column size="one-half" position="first"] Contents Contributors Key
Concepts Resources and…


Discovery Learning (Bruner)

Summary: Discovery Learning is a method of inquiry-based instruction, discovery learning believes that it is best for learners
to discover facts and relationships for themselves. Originator: Jerome Bruner (1915-) Keywords:…


Situated Learning Theory (Lave)

Summary: Situated Learning Theory posits that learning is unintentional and situated within authentic activity, context, and
culture. Originator: Jean Lave Key Terms: Legitimate Peripheral Participation (LPP), Cognitive Apprenticeship Situated
Learning…
 Summary: Skills necessary for students to master in order for them to experience school and life success in an increasingly
digital and connected age; includes digital literacy, traditional literacy, content knowledge, media literacy, and
learning/innovation skills.

Originators & Proponents: Groups – United States Department of Education, Partnership for 21st Century Skills, MacArthur
Foundation; Individuals – Henry Jenkins [1], Mimi Ito, John Seely Brown

Keywords: collaboration, digital literacy, innovation, technology, work-life skills, readiness, interdisciplinary learning,
problem-solving, ICT (information and communication technologies)

21st Century Skills (Partnership for 21st Century Skills and other groups and individuals)

The 21st Century Skills initiative is an education standards and reform movement, located primarily in the United States,
that is focused on improving what US public school students must learn in school so that they are better prepared to succeed
in their school and career lives. The term “21 st century skills” includes the following skill sets:

 Life/career skills: adaptability & flexibility, initiative & self-direction, leadership & responsibility, productivity &
accountability, social & cross-cultural skills
 Core subjects: English/language arts, mathematics, arts, science, history, geography and others
 21st century themes: civic literacy, environmental literacy, financial  literacy (including economic, business, and
entrepreneurial skills), global awareness, health literacy
 Information/media/technology skills: media literacy, information literacy
 Learning/innovation skills: creativity, critical thinking, collaboration, communication, problem solving

Students are expected to master these skills and understand these themes while learning core subject content in meaningful,
interdisciplinary way. Teachers, administrators, schools, and districts are expected to use these guidelines, known as the P21
Framework, as a foundation for developing curriculum, assessments, and standards that they deem appropriate for their
students.

Some organizations, like the Partnership for 21 st Century Skills, provide tools and resources for educators to use in
supporting their students’ acquisition of these skills. In addition, there are also model classrooms, schools, and districts that
can serve to guide others as they develop their alignment with these standards. Teachers are encouraged to create their own
curriculum following the P21 Framework that would work best for their students.

PARADIGMS

 Behaviorism
 Cognitivism
 Constructivism
 Design-Based
 Humanism
 21st Century Skills
CONSTRUCTIVIST, SOCIAL AND SITUATIONAL THEORIES

 Constructivism Overview
 Anchored Instruction (Bransford)
 Cognitive Apprenticeship (Collins et al.)
 Cognitive Dissonance (Festinger)NEW!
 Communities of Practice (Lave and Wenger)
 Connectivism (Siemens, Downes)
 Discovery Learning (Bruner)
 Multiliteracies (New London Group)
 Semiotics (deSaussure, Barthes, Bakhtin)
 Social Development Theory (Vygotsky)
 Problem-Based Learning (PBL)
 Situated Learning (Lave)
DESCRIPTIVE AND META THEORIES

 Activity Theory (Vygotsky, Leont’ev, Luria, Engstrom, etc.)

 Actor-Network Theory (Latour, Callon)
 Bloom’s Taxonomy (Bloom)
 Distributed Cognition (Hutchins)
 Social Network Analysis (Scott, Prell)
 CHILD DEVELOPMENT THEORIES

 Attachment Theory (Bowlby)

 Cognitive Tools Theory (Egan)
 Object Relations Theory (Klein)
 Montessori Method (Montessori)
 Separation-Individuation Theory of Child Development (Mahler)
BEHAVIORIST THEORIES

 Behaviorism Overview
 Classical Conditioning (Pavlov)
 GOMS Model (Card, Moran, and Newell)
 Operant Conditioning (Skinner)
 Psychological Behaviorism (Staats) NEW!
 Social Learning Theory (Albert Bandura)
MOTIVATION AND HUMANIST THEORIES

 Humanism Overview
 ARCS Model of Motivational Design (Keller)
 Emotional Intelligence (Goleman)
 Experiential Learning (Kolb)
 Flow (Csikszentmihalyi)
 Grit (Duckworth, Matthews, Kelly, Peterson)
 Intrinsically Motivating Instruction (Malone)
 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (Maslow)
 Positive Psychology / PERMA Theory (Seligman) NEW!
 Self-Determination Theory (Deci and Ryan)
IDENTITY THEORIES

 Erikson’s Stages of Development (Erik Erikson)

 Identity Status Theory (Marcia)
 Mindset: Fixed vs. Growth Mindset (Dweck) NEW!
 Narcissism (Kernberg) NEW!
 Self-Perception Theory (Bem)NEW!
 Self-Theories: Entity and Incremental Theory (Dweck)
 Social Identity Theory (Tajfel, Turner) NEW!
MISCELLANEOUS LEARNING THEORIES AND MODELS

 Affordance Theory (Gibson)

 Multiple Intelligences Theory (Gardner)
 Systems Thinking NEW!
 21st Century Skills (P21 and Others)
COGNITIVIST THEORIES

 Cognitivism Overview
 Attribution Theory (Weiner)
 Cognitive Load Theory (Sweller)
 Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning (Mayer)
 Elaboration Theory (Reigeluth)
 Expertise Theory (Ericsson, Gladwell) NEW!
 Functional Context Theory (Sticht)
 Gestalt Theory (von Ehrenfels)
 Information Processing Theory
 Situated Cognition (Brown, Collins & Duguid)
 Stage Theory of Cognitive Development (Piaget)
 Theory of Mind, Empathy, Mindblindness (Premack, Woodruff, Perner, Wimmer) NEW!
DESIGN THEORIES AND MODELS

 Design-Based Research Overview

 ADDIE Model of Instructional Design
 ARCS Model of Motivational Design (Keller)
 Elaboration Theory (Reigeluth)
 Learner-Centered Design (Soloway, Guzdian, Hay)
 Multimodality (Kress)
MEDIA AND TECHNOLOGY THEORIES

 Digital Citizenship
 Dopamine, Games and MotivationNEW!
 Educational Robotics and Constructionism (Papert)  NEW!
 E-Learning Theory (Mayer, Sweller, Moreno) NEW!
 Game Reward Systems NEW!
 Gamification in Education NEW!
 Online Collaborative Learning (Harasim)
 Online Disinhibition Effect (Suler)
 Uses and Gratification Theory NEW!