Materials Failure Analysis

Failure Analysis Services Failure Analysis Investigation

Our materials engineers and failure analysts Failure of a component indicates it has become
provide independent expert opinions regarding completely or partially unusable or has deteriorated
materials failure analysis.  Our analyst to the point that it is undependable or unsafe for
approach is to examine or test materials to normal sustained service.
evaluate the cause of your product failure. 
Our engineers can identify the root cause of Typical Root Cause Failure Mechanisms
your component failure.  Features of
Metallurgical Consultants root cause failure    Fatigue failures
analysis capabilities include:    Corrosion failures

  Analysis conducted by registered    Stress corrosion cracking

professional engineers
  Root cause failure analysis    Ductile and brittle fractures
determination
   Hydrogen embrittlement
  Photographic documentation
   Liquid metal embrittlement
  Broad failure analysis experience
   Creep and stress rupture
  Failure mode identification
It is possible for fracture to be a result of multiple
  Fracture evaluations failure mechanisms or root causes.  A failure
analysis can provide the information to identify the
  Identification of product defects appropriate root cause of the failure.  

           
Common Causes of Failure

  Misuse or Abuse
  Assembly errors

  Manufacturing defects

  Improper maintenance

  Fastener failure

  Design errors

  Improper material

  Improper heat treatments

  Unforeseen operating conditions

  Inadequate quality assurance

  Inadequate environmental protection/control

  Casting discontinuities

 Failure Analysis Experience

Our staff has had broad industrial experience.  Examples of industries in which our staff has had
manufacturing or metallurgical failure analysis experience:

   ASME boiler and pressure vessels    Automotive components

   Aircraft /Aerospace     Refineries

   Gas turbine engine components    Petrochemical plants

   Oil and gas transmission pipelines    Offshore structures

   Food processing equipment    Industrial machinery

   Heat exchangers    Weldments

   Medical supplies    Ships

Root Cause Analysis
Proper root cause analysis identifies the basic source or origin of your problem. Root cause
analysis is a step by step approach that leads to the identification of a fault's first or root cause.
Every system, equipment, or component failure happens for a reason.  There are specific
succession of events that lead to a failure. A root cause analysis investigation follows the cause
and effect path from the final failure back to the root cause.

Root Cause Analysis Procedure Root Cause Failure Analysis

The procedure investigates the failure using facts left Failure of a component indicates it has
behind from the initial flaw. By evaluating the become completely or partially
remaining evidence after the fault, and information unusable or has deteriorated to the
from people associated with the incident, the analyst point that it is undependable or unsafe
can identify both the contributing and non- for normal sustained service.
contributing causes that caused the event. 
Failure analysis is an engineering
Root cause analysis provides a methodology for approach to determining how and why
investigating, categorizing, and eliminating, root equipment or a component has failed. 
causes of incidents with safety, quality, reliability, Some general causes for failure are
and manufacturing process consequences. structural loading, wear, corrosion, and
latent defects.  The goal of a failure
AMC collects the data, analyses the data, develops analysis is to understand the root cause
appropriate corrective action, presents the data clearly of the failure so as to prevent similar
and generates practical recommendations.  Root cause failures in the future. 
analysis is a tool to better explain what happened, to
determine how it happened, and to understand why it In addition to verifying the failure
happened.  mode it is important to determine the
factors that explain the how and why of
The root cause analysis methodology provides clients the failure event.  Identifying the root
specific, concrete recommendations for preventing cause of the failure event allows us to
incident recurrences.  AMC identifies the processes explain the how and why of failure.
and procedures that need changing to improve clients
businesses. AMC specializes in industrial
product failure, corrosion, expert
Understanding the existing data of the incident, the witness testimony, industrial
root cause analysis method allows safety, quality, and accident investigation, materials
risk and reliability managers an opportunity to and metallurgical failure analysis,
implement more reliable and more cost effective welding, manufacturing,  forensic
policies that result in significant, enduring engineering, product liability, and
opportunities for improvement.  These procedural explosion investigation services. 
improvements increase a business' capability to We have extensive experience in
recover from and prevent disasters with both financial applying root cause failure analysis to
and safety consequences. solving engineering problems.
Preventing Reoccurrence of the Failure

It is not always necessary to prevent the first, or root cause, from happening. It is merely
necessary to break the chain of events at any point and the final failure will not occur. 
Frequently the root cause analysis identifies an initial design problem. Then a redesign is
commonly enacted. Where the root cause analysis leads back to a failure of procedures it is
necessary to either address the procedural weakness or to develop an approach to prevent the
damage caused by the procedural failure.

Our clients understand why root causes are important, have identified and defined
inherent problems, and enacted practical recommendations.  AMC has extensive
engineering and quality assurance experience to provide clients with proven
successful techniques to identify the root cause of their problems and appropriate
solutions to these problems.
Fatigue Failures

Metal fatigue is caused by repeated

cycling of of the load.  It is a progressive
localized damage due to fluctuating
stresses and strains on the material.  Metal
fatigue cracks initiate and propagate in
regions where the strain is most severe.    

The process of fatigue consists of three

stages:

  Initial crack initiation 

  Progressive crack growth across
the part

  Final sudden fracture of the Schematic of S-N Curve, showing increase in

remaining cross section fatigue life with decreasing stresses.

Stress Ratio

The most commonly used stress ratio is R, the ratio of the minimum stress to the maximum stress
(Smin/Smax).

   If the stresses are fully reversed, then R = -1.

   If the stresses are partially reversed, R = a negative number less than 1.
   If the stress is cycled between a maximum stress and no load, R = zero.
   If the stress is cycled between two tensile stresses, R = a positive number less than 1.

Variations in the stress ratios can significantly affect fatigue life.  The presence of a mean stress
component has a substantial effect on fatigue failure.  When a tensile mean stress is added to the
alternating stresses, a component will  fail at lower alternating stress than it does under a fully
reversed stress.
Preventing Fatigue Failure

 The most effective method of improving fatigue performance is improvements in design:

   Eliminate or reduce stress raisers by streamlining the part

   Avoid sharp surface tears resulting from punching, stamping, shearing, or other
processes

   Prevent the development of surface discontinuities during processing. 

   Reduce or eliminate tensile residual stresses caused by manufacturing.

    Improve the details of fabrication and fastening procedures

Fatigue Failure Analysis

Metal fatigue is a significant problem because it can occur due to repeated loads below the static
yield strength.  This can result in an unexpected and catastrophic failure in use.

Because most engineering materials contain discontinuities most metal fatigue cracks initiate
from discontinuities in highly stressed regions of the component.  The failure may be due the
discontinuity, design, improper maintenance or other causes.  A failure analysis can determine
the cause of the failure.
High Temperature Failure Analysis

Creep occurs under load at high temperature.  Boilers, gas turbine engines, and ovens are some
of the systems that have components that experience creep.  An understanding of high
temperature materials behavior is beneficial in evaluating failures in these types of systems.  

Failures involving creep are usually easy to identify due to the deformation that occurs.  Failures
may appear ductile or brittle.  Cracking may be either transgranular or intergranular.  While
creep testing is done at constant temperature and constant load actual components may
experience damage at various temperatures and loading conditions.

Creep of Metals

High temperature progressive deformation of a material at constant stress is called creep.  High
temperature is a relative term that is dependent on the materials being evaluated.  A typical creep
curve is shown below:

In a creep test a constant load is applied to a tensile specimen maintained at a constant

temperature.  Strain is then measured over a period of time.  The slope of the curve, identified in
the above figure, is the strain rate of the test during stage II or the creep rate of the material.

Primary creep, Stage I, is a period of decreasing creep rate.  Primary creep is a period of
primarily transient creep.  During this period deformation takes place and the resistance to creep
increases until stage II.  Secondary creep, Stage II, is a period of roughly constant creep rate. 
Stage II is referred to as steady state creep.  Tertiary creep, Stage III, occurs when there is a
reduction in cross sectional area due to necking or effective reduction in area due to internal void
formation.

Stress Rupture

Stress rupture testing is similar to creep testing except that the stresses used are higher than in a
creep test.  Stress rupture testing is always done until failure of the material.  In creep testing the
main goal is to determine the minimum creep rate in stage II.  Once a designer knows the
materials will creep and has accounted for this deformation a primary goal is to avoid failure of
the component.
Stress rupture tests are used to determine the time to cause failure.  Data is plotted log-log as in
the chart above.  A straight line is usually obtained at each temperature.  This information can
then be used to extrapolate time to failure for longer times.  Changes in slope of the stress
rupture line are due to structural changes in the material.  It is significant to be aware of these
changes in material behavior, because they could result in large errors when extrapolating the
data. 

Failure Analysis

High temperature failures is a significant problem.  A failure analysis can identify the root cause
of your failure to prevent reoccurrence.   AMC can provide failure analysis of high temperature
failures to identify the root cause of your component failure

Corrosion Failures 

Corrosion is chemically induced damage to a

material that results in deterioration of the
material and its properties.  This may result in
failure of the component.  Several factors
should be considered during a failure analysis
to determine the affect corrosion played in a
failure.  Examples are listed below:
  Type of corrosion 
  Corrosion rate
  The extent of the corrosion
  Interaction between corrosion and
 other failure mechanisms

Corrosion is is a normal, natural process. 

Corrosion can seldom be totally prevented, but
it can be minimized or controlled by proper
choice of material, design, coatings, and
occasionally by changing the environment. 
Various types of metallic and nonmetallic
coatings are regularly used to protect metal
parts from corrosion.

Stress corrosion cracking necessitates a tensile stress, which may be caused by residual stresses,
and a specific environment to cause progressive fracture of a metal.  Aluminum and stainless
steel are well known for stress corrosion cracking problems. However, all metals are susceptible
to stress corrosion cracking in the right environment.  

Laboratory corrosion testing is frequently used in analysis but is difficult to correlate with actual
service conditions.  Variations in service conditions are sometimes difficult to duplicate in
laboratory testing

Corrosion Failures Analysis

Identification of the metal or metals, environment the metal was subjected to, foreign matter
and/or surface layer of the metal is beneficial in failure determination.  Examples of some
common types of corrosion are listed below:

  Uniform corrosion 
  Pitting corrosion
  Intergranular corrosion
  Crevice corrosion
  Galvanic corrosion
  Stress corrosion cracking

Not all corrosion failures need a comprehensive failure analysis.  At times a preliminary
examination will provide enough information to show a simple analysis is adequate.  

 
Uniform Corrosion

Uniform or general corrosion is typified by the rusting of steel.  Other examples of uniform
corrosion are the tarnishing of silver or the green patina associated with the corrosion of copper.

General corrosion is rather predictable.  The life of components can be estimated based on
relatively simple immersion test results.  Allowance for general corrosion is relatively simple and
commonly employed when designing a component for a known environment.

Some common methods used to prevent or reduce general corrosion are listed below:

   Coatings
   Inhibitors
   Cathodic protection
   Proper materials selection

    

Pitting Corrosion

Pitting is a localized form of corrosive attack.  Pitting corrosion is typified by the formation of
holes or pits on the metal surface.  Pitting can cause failure due to perforation while the total
corrosion, as measured by weight loss, might be rather minimal.  The rate of penetration may be
10 to 100 times that by general corrosion.

Pits may be rather small and difficult to detect.  In some cases pits may be masked due to general
corrosion.  Pitting may take some time to initiate and develop to an easily viewable size.
Pitting occurs more readily in a stagnant environment.  The
aggressiveness of the corrodent will affect the rate of
pitting.  Some methods for reducing the effects of pitting
corrosion are listed below:
   Reduce the aggressiveness of the environment
   Use more pitting resistant materials

   Improve the design of the system

Crevice Corrosion

Crevice corrosion is a localized form of corrosive attack.  Crevice corrosion occurs at narrow
openings or spaces between two metal surfaces or between metals and nonmetal surfaces.  A
concentration cell forms with the crevice being depleted of oxygen.  This differential aeration
between the crevice (microenvironment) and the external surface (bulk environment) gives the
the crevice an anodic character.  This can contribute to a highly corrosive condition in the
crevice.  Some examples of crevices are listed below:

   Flanges
   Deposits
   Washers
   Rolled tube ends
   Threaded joints
   O-rings
   Gaskets
   Lap joints 
   Sediment

Some methods for reducing the effects of crevice corrosion are listed below:

   Eliminate the crevice from the design

   Select materials more resistant to crevice corrosion
   Reduce the aggressiveness of the environment
Stress Corrosion Cracking

Stress corrosion cracking is a failure mechanism that is caused by environment, susceptible

material, and tensile stress.  Temperature is a significant environmental factor affecting cracking.

For stress corrosion cracking to occur all three conditions

must be met simultaneously.  The component needs to be in a
particular crack promoting environment, the component must
be made of a susceptible material, and there must be tensile
stresses above some minimum threshold value.  An externally
applied load is not required as the tensile stresses may be due
to residual stresses in the material.  The threshold stresses are
commonly below the yield stress of the material. 

Stress Corrosion Cracking Failures

Stress corrosion cracking is an insidious type of failure as it

can occur without an externally applied load or at loads
significantly below yield stress.  Thus, catastrophic failure
can occur without significant deformation or obvious
deterioration of the component.  Pitting is commonly
associated with stress corrosion cracking phenomena.

Aluminum and stainless steel are well known for stress corrosion cracking problems.  However,
all metals are susceptible to stress corrosion cracking in the right environment.  

Controlling Stress Corrosion Cracking

There are several methods to prevent stress corrosion cracking.  One common method is proper 
selection of the appropriate material.  A second method is to remove the chemical species that
promotes cracking.  Another method is to change the manufacturing process or design to reduce
the tensile stresses.   AMC can provide engineering expertise to prevent or reduce the likelihood
of stress corrosion cracking in your components. 

Galvanic Corrosion

Galvanic corrosion is frequently referred to as dissimilar metal corrosion.  Galvanic corrosion

can occur when two dissimilar materials are coupled in a corrosive electrolyte.   An illustration
of galvanic corrosion would be joining two dissimilar metals in electrical contact in seawater.
In a galvanic couple, one of the metals in the couple becomes the anode and the other metal
becomes the cathode.  The less noble material becomes the anode.  The anodic metal corrodes
faster than it would all by itself.  The cathodic metal corrodes slower than it would all by itself.

Many boaters use this knowledge to their benefit.  Sacrificial zinc anodes are commonly used to
protect metal components on boats.  The zinc anode corrodes preferentially there by protecting
the boat component.  The zinc anodes are maintained and replaced as required to insure
continued protection.  Other alloys are also used as sacrificial anodes.  Aluminum or magnesium
sacrificial anodes provide better protection in some cases. 

Marine Corrosion

Marine corrosion includes the immersion of components in a

seawater, equipment and piping that use seawater or brackish
water, and corrosion in marine atmospheres.  Exposure of
components can be continuous or intermittent.  Ships,
marinas, pipelines, offshore structures, desalination plants,
and heat exchangers are some examples of systems that
experience marine corrosion. 

Corrosion of a component, such as a bolt, can vary markedly

depending on if it is simply in a marine atmosphere, a splash
zone, or submerged in seawater.  Maintenance costs for
ships, offshore structures and related equipment are
dependent on how marine corrosion issues and failures are
managed.

In addition to the salt (NaCl) in seawater there are other commonly occurring constituents,
dissolved gases, living organisms, and various other materials found in seawater.  Rivers,
temperature, dissolved oxygen, and pollutants are some examples of issues that may affect the
corrosion of a given component in seawater.

Marine atmospheres are generally considered to be one of the more aggressive atmospheric
corrosion environments.  Some factors that affect corrosion rates in marine atmospheres are
listed below:

   Humidity
   Wind
   Temperature
   Airborne contaminants
   Location
   Biological organisms

Alloy selection, metallic coatings, organic coatings, and cathodic protection are commonly used
methods for providing proper corrosion protection to various components.  Thermal spray,
galvanizing, and for specific circumstances electroplating are metallic coatings used in various
marine corrosion applications. 

Organic coatings have changed in recent times due to environmental requirements.  Organic
coatings have various constituents to enhance properties that provide corrosion protection,
antifouling, adhesion, good mechanical strength, or other desirable characteristics.

Cathodic protection can be accomplished by either using an impressed current system or by

using sacrificial anode system.  Magnesium, aluminum and zinc alloys are the most frequently
used sacrificial anode systems.
Ductile and Brittle Metal Characteristics

Ductile metals experience observable plastic deformation prior to fracture.  Brittle metals
experience little or no plastic deformation prior to fracture.  At times metals behave in a
transitional manner - partially ductile/brittle.

Ductile fracture has dimpled, cup and cone fracture appearance.  The dimples can become
elongated by a lateral shearing force, or if the crack is in the opening (tearing) mode.

Brittle fracture displays either cleavage (transgranular) or intergranular fracture. This depends
upon whether the grain boundaries are stronger or weaker than the grains. 

The fracture modes (dimples, cleavage, or intergranular fracture) may be seen on the fracture
surface and it is possible all three modes will be present of a given fracture face.

Schematics of typical tensile test fractures are displayed above.

Brittle Fractures

Brittle fracture is characterized by rapid crack propagation with low energy release and without
significant plastic deformation.  The  fracture may have a bright granular appearance.  The
fractures are generally of the flat type and chevron patterns may be present.  
 

Ductile Fractures

Ductile fracture is characterized by tearing of metal and significant plastic deformation.  The
ductile fracture may have a gray, fibrous appearance.  Ductile fractures are associated with
overload of the structure or large discontinuities.

Wear Failures

Wear may be defined as damage to a solid

surface caused by the removal or displacement
of material by the mechanical action of a
contacting solid, liquid, or gas.  It may cause
significant surface damage and the damage is
usually thought of as gradual deterioration. 
While the terminology of wear is unresolved,
the following categories are commonly used.

   Adhesive wear
   Abrasive wear
   Erosive wear

 Adhesive wear has been commonly identified by the terms galling, or seizing.  Abrasive wear,
or abrasion, is caused by the displacement of material from a solid surface due to hard particles
or protuberances sliding along the surface. Erosion, or erosive wear, is the loss of material from a
solid surface due to relative motion in contact with a fluid that contains solid particles.  More
than one mechanism can be responsible for the wear observed on a particular part.

Hydrogen Embrittlement

Hydrogen Embrittlement

When tensile stresses are applied to a hydrogen embrittled component it may fail prematurely. 
Hydrogen embrittlement failures are frequently unexpected and sometimes catastrophic.  An
externally applied load is not required as the tensile stresses may be due to residual stresses in
the material.  The threshold stresses to cause cracking are commonly below the yield stress of the
material.

High strength steel, such as quenched and tempered steels or precipitation hardened steels are
particularly susceptible to hydrogen embrittlement.   Hydrogen can be introduced into the
material in service or during materials processing.   

Hydrogen Embrittlement Failures

Tensile stresses, susceptible material, and the presence of hydrogen are necessary to cause
hydrogen embrittlement.  Residual stresses or externally applied loads resulting in stresses
significantly below yield stresses can cause cracking.  Thus, catastrophic failure can occur
without significant deformation or obvious deterioration of the component. 

Very small amounts of hydrogen can cause hydrogen embrittlement in high strength steels. 
Common causes of hydrogen embrittlement are pickling, electroplating and welding, however
hydrogen embrittlement is not limited to these processes.  

Hydrogen embrittlement is an insidious type of failure as it can occur without an externally

applied load or at loads significantly below yield stress.  While high strength steels are the most
common case of hydrogen embrittlement all materials are susceptible

When tensile stresses are applied to a hydrogen embrittled component it may fail prematurely. 
Hydrogen embrittlement failures are frequently unexpected and sometimes catastrophic.  An
externally applied load is not required as the tensile stresses may be due to residual stresses in
the material.  The threshold stresses to cause cracking are commonly below the yield stress of the
material.

High strength steel, such as quenched and tempered steels or precipitation hardened steels are
particularly susceptible to hydrogen embrittlement.   Hydrogen can be introduced into the
material in service or during materials processing.   

Hydrogen Embrittlement Failures

Tensile stresses, susceptible material, and the presence of hydrogen are necessary to cause
hydrogen embrittlement.  Residual stresses or externally applied loads resulting in stresses
significantly below yield stresses can cause cracking.  Thus, catastrophic failure can occur
without significant deformation or obvious deterioration of the component. 

Very small amounts of hydrogen can cause hydrogen embrittlement in high strength steels. 
Common causes of hydrogen embrittlement are pickling, electroplating and welding, however
hydrogen embrittlement is not limited to these processes.  

Hydrogen embrittlement is an insidious type of failure as it can occur without an externally

applied load or at loads significantly below yield stress.  While high strength steels are the most
common case of hydrogen embrittlement all materials are susceptible.

Liquid Metal Embrittlement

Liquid metal embrittlement is the decrease in ductility of a metal caused by contact with liquid
metal.  The decrease in ductility can result in catastrophic brittle failure of a normally ductile
material.  Very small amounts of liquid metal are sufficient to result in embrittlement.

Some events that may permit liquid metal embrittlement under the appropriate circumstances are
listed below:

   Brazing
   Soldering
   Welding
   Heat treatment
   Hot working
   Elevated temperature service

In addition to an event that will allow liquid metal embrittlement to occur, it is also required to
have the component in contact with a liquid metal that will embrittle the component.  

Liquid Metal Embrittlement Failures

The liquid metal can not only reduce the ductility but significantly reduce tensile strength. 
Liquid metal embrittlement is an insidious type of failure as it can occur at loads below yield
stress.  Thus, catastrophic failure can occur without significant deformation or obvious
deterioration of the component.

Intergranular  or transgranular cleavage fracture are the common fracture modes associated with
liquid metal embrittlement.  However reduction in mechanical properties due to decohesion can
occur.  This results in a ductile fracture mode occurring at reduced tensile strength.  An
appropriate analysis can determine the effect of liquid metal embrittlement on failure
Fastener Failures

Threaded fasteners are considered to be any

threaded part that may be removed after
assembly.  Nuts and bolts are commonly used
threaded fasteners.  Rivets, pin fasteners, and
special purpose fasteners are some other
commonly used fasteners.  Some common
locations for fastener failures are listed below:
   Head to shank failure
   First thread inside the nut

   Transition from thread to shank

Fastener Failure Analysis

A fastener may experience either static loading or fatigue loading.  Static loading may be
tension, shear, bending, or torsion.  These static loading conditions may occur in combination. 
One example of fatigue loading is vibration. In addition to overload and fatigue, some other
common reasons for fastener failures include environmental issues, manufacturing discrepancies,
and improper use or incorrect installation.

Some common questions concerning fasteners are listed below:

   How were the fasteners torqued?

   In what order were fasteners tightened?
   What is the best way to verify the torque on fasteners?
   How does torque value vary over time?

Fatigue is one of the most common failure modes for threaded fasteners.  Fretting failures may
result from small movements between adjacent surfaces.   Additionally, atmospheric corrosion,
liquid immersion corrosion,  galvanic corrosion, crevice corrosion, stress corrosion cracking, and
hydrogen damage may contribute to fastener failure

Material selection, heat treatment, cutting or rolling threads, manufacturing, assembly, and
design are some of the factors that effect fastener failures.  Failure analysis can determine the
cause of the fastener failure and determine the primary or contributing causes of fastener failure.
Castings Casting Discontinuities

Several factors effect the quality of metal  Some common casting deficiencies are:
castings. Some of these factors are listed
below:    Inclusions
   Porosity  (blow holes, pinholes)
   Coefficients of thermal conductivity    Cold Cracking
   Thermal expansion and contraction,    Hot Cracking
   Chemistry    Cold Shuts
   Precision of molds and dies    Surface irregularities
   Shrinkage allowances    Distortion
   Dryness of molds    Improper composition
   Casting design
   Method of pouring liquid metal Casting failures can be due to various causes. 
   Design of gates and risers Some castings fail due to design deficiencies,
while other castings fail due to casting
deficiencies.

Imperfections in castings may not be of

concern for many types of service.  They are
commonly referred to as casting defects since
castings are not perfect. This is unfortunate as
imperfections beyond engineering design
specifications should be considered defects,
while imperfections within engineering design Casting Failure Analysis
specifications should not be considered
defects.  Casting failures can be due to various causes. 
Improper loading or environment may
Some casting imperfections may have no effect contribute  to the cause of failure.  Casting
on the function or service life of castings. imperfections may or may not contribute to the
Many imperfections are easily corrected by cause of failure.  Some imperfections may be
blast cleaning or grinding.  Other commonly occurring discontinuities or
imperfections may be acceptable in some anomalies that are normally expected to be
locations.  present in castings.  Other imperfections are
casting defects that result in failure of the
It is not uncommon for engineers to zone a casting.  Failure analysis can determine the
casting drawing.  Depending on the criticality cause of the casting failure and determine if a
of the location or zone the same imperfection casting imperfections was the primary or
would be judged acceptable in one location
 contributing cause of failure.
while unacceptable in another location. 

Casting Concerns

Casting issues AMC can evaluate for your organization are listed below: 

   Mold designs    Die casting types

   Mold types    Centrifugal casting
   Sand casting    Turbine blade casting
   Investment Casting    Heat Treatment
   Ceramic mold casting    Ferrous alloys
   Plaster mold casting    Non-ferrous alloys
   Shell mold casting    Heat treatment processes
   Permanent Mold Casting    Cleaning/finishing methods
   Gating systems    Inspection
   Cores    Testing
   Solidification of metals    Casting quality assurance
   Cast structures    Process Capability
   Fluidity of molten metals    Allowance and tolerance
   Heat transfer    Process capability
   Shrinkage    Process variation

   Casting defects    Cast alloys

Explosions

American Metallurgical Consultants specializes in materials failure analysis, explosions, and

industrial accident investigation.  Our engineers provide on site accident investigation of
chemical plant explosions, boilers, natural gas pipelines, and gas cylinders. 

An explosion failure investigation involves determining the root cause of the explosion.  Oxygen
and fuel (gasoline, liquefied propane, natural gas, etc.) must be present in the proper proportions
for an explosion to occur.  There also must be a event that ignites the oxygen/fuel mixture to
create the explosion.   

            

Explosion Failure Analysis Services

AMC can provide on site explosion investigation services.  Our engineers have experience with
failure analysis, materials processing, fracture mechanics, and root cause analysis.  

AMC provides engineering support of your pipeline, boiler, or petrochemical plant explosion. 
Our engineers can provide insurance arbitration support services, litigation support or expert
witness testimony.  Our expert explosion analysis services are available to plaintiff or defendant. 

           

Expert Witness and Explosion Investigation Services

Visit AMC's homepage for detailed information on our explosion investigation, expert witness
services, and failure analysis.  Our engineers can provide expert witness and accident
investigation of your explosion.  When you need accurate, and impartial failure analysis or
accident investigation services contact American Metallurgical Consultants.

           

Castings Casting Discontinuities

Several factors effect the quality of metal  Some common casting deficiencies are:
castings. Some of these factors are listed
below:    Inclusions
   Porosity  (blow holes, pinholes)
   Coefficients of thermal conductivity    Cold Cracking
   Thermal expansion and contraction,    Hot Cracking
   Chemistry    Cold Shuts
   Precision of molds and dies    Surface irregularities
   Shrinkage allowances    Distortion
   Dryness of molds    Improper composition
   Casting design
   Method of pouring liquid metal Casting failures can be due to various causes. 
   Design of gates and risers Some castings fail due to design deficiencies,
while other castings fail due to casting
deficiencies.

Imperfections in castings may not be of

concern for many types of service.  They are
commonly referred to as casting defects since
castings are not perfect. This is unfortunate as
imperfections beyond engineering design
specifications should be considered defects,
while imperfections within engineering design
specifications should not be considered
defects. 

Some casting imperfections may have no effect

on the function or service life of castings.
Many imperfections are easily corrected by
blast cleaning or grinding.  Other
imperfections may be acceptable in some Casting Failure Analysis
locations. 
Casting failures can be due to various causes. 
It is not uncommon for engineers to zone a
Improper loading or environment may
casting drawing.  Depending on the criticality
contribute  to the cause of failure.  Casting
of the location or zone the same imperfection
imperfections may or may not contribute to the
would be judged acceptable in one location
cause of failure.  Some imperfections may be
while unacceptable in another location. 
commonly occurring discontinuities or
anomalies that are normally expected to be
present in castings.  Other imperfections are
casting defects that result in failure of the
casting.  Failure analysis can determine the
cause of the casting failure and determine if a
casting imperfections was the primary or
contributing cause of failure.

Casting Concerns

Casting issues AMC can evaluate for your organization are listed below: 

   Mold designs    Die casting types

   Mold types    Centrifugal casting
   Sand casting    Turbine blade casting
   Investment Casting    Heat Treatment
   Ceramic mold casting    Ferrous alloys
   Plaster mold casting    Non-ferrous alloys
   Shell mold casting    Heat treatment processes
   Permanent Mold Casting    Cleaning/finishing methods
   Gating systems    Inspection
   Cores    Testing
   Solidification of metals    Casting quality assurance
   Cast structures    Process Capability
   Fluidity of molten metals    Allowance and tolerance
   Heat transfer    Process capability
   Shrinkage    Process variation

   Casting defects    Cast alloys

Boiler Failures

Boilers and steam power plant components experience various failure modes.  Some of the
common failures associated with boilers are listed below:

   Pitting    Distortion
   Erosion    Thermal fatigue
   Stress corrosion    Acid dew point
cracking corrosion
   Hydrogen damage    Over temperature
   Vibration    Fatigue
   Stress rupture    Maintenance damage
   Corrosion fatigue    Material flaws

   Caustic gouging    Welding flaws

                  

Boilers are used to heat water for industrial purposes, and

to produce steam in power generating plants.  Steels, cast
irons, stainless steels and high temperature alloys are used
to construct various boiler components. 

Design defects, fabrication defects, improper operation

and improper maintenance are some common causes for
boiler failures.  Elevated temperature and corrosion
failures are common failure modes for boilers. 
Additionally, mechanical failures due phenomena such as
fatigue or wear occur as well.  Some of the most common
failures modes for boilers used for steam generating
include overheating, fatigue or corrosion fatigue,
corrosion, stress corrosion cracking, and defective or
improper materials.   

Boiler Failure Analysis

Design errors, fabrication mistakes, improper maintenance, and inadequate water treatment are
some of the causes of component failure.  Tube rupture and corrosion of the tubes are among the
frequent problems with steam boilers.  Failure analysis can determine the effects corrosion, over
heating, scaling, fatigue, erosion, stress corrosion cracking, hydrogen, welding, or other factors
may have contributed to boiler failure.

Heat Exchangers

Heat exchangers are commonly used to transfer heat from steam, water, or gases, to gases, or
liquids.  Some of the criteria for selecting materials used for heat exchangers are corrosion
resistance, strength, heat conduction, and cost.  Corrosion resistance is frequently a difficult
criterion to meet.  Damage to heat exchangers is frequently difficult to avoid.

The tubes in a heat exchanger transfer heat from

the fluid on the inside of the tube to fluid on the
shell side (or vice versa).  Some heat exchanger
designs use fins to provide greater thermal
conductivity.  To meet corrosion requirements,
tubing must be resistant to general corrosion,
pitting, stress-corrosion cracking (SCC),
selective leaching or dealloying, and oxygen cell
attack in service. 

Failures of Heat Exchangers

Some common causes of failures in heat exchangers are listed below:

   Pipe and tubing imperfections

   Welding
   Fabrication
   Improper design
   Improper materials
   Improper operating conditions
   Pitting
   Stress-corrosion cracking (SCC)
   Corrosion fatigue
   General corrosion
   Crevice corrosion
   Design errors
   Selective leaching, or dealloying
   Erosion corrosion
           

Failure analysis can identify the root cause or causes that have contributed to your heat
exchanger failure
Pressure Vessel Failures

Pressure vessels and pressure piping used in

refineries, chemical processing plants, water
treatment systems of boilers, low pressure storage
tanks commonly used in process, pulp and paper
and electric power plants operate over a broad
range of pressures and temperatures and
experience a variety of operating environments. 
Shell, head, attachments, and piping are some of
the components that commonly fail.  Some
common types of failures are listed below:
   Cracking
   Hydrogen embrittlrment
   Explosion
   Creep and stress rupture
   Rupture
   Fatigue
   Leakage
   Over pressure
   Faulty design
   Over temperature
   Improper fabrication practice
   Welding problems
   Faulty inspection
   Discontinuities
   Damage during shipment and storage
   Stress raisers 
   Damage during field fabrication and
   Improper heat treatment
erection
   Caustic embrittlement.
   Specifying or using improper materials
   Brittle fractures
   Corrosion
   Erosion
   Stress corrosion cracking

Safety Concerns

Safety considerations associated with rupture or

leakage failures
   Blast effects    Fire
   Fragmentation damage    Explosion
   Suffocation    Chemical burns

   Poisoning    Thermal burns

Pressure Vessel Failure Analysis

Design errors, fabrication errors, corrosion, and improper maintenance are some of the causes of
failures.  Brittle fracture, stress corrosion cracking, fatigue, welding problems, erosion, creep,
stress rupture, and hydrogen embrittlement are among some of the common failure modes found
in pressure vessel components. Failure analysis can identify the root cause or causes that have
contributed to your pressure vessel failure.

Failures of Pipelines

Gas and oil pipelines have established an impressive safety

record over the years.  However, failures have occurred  for
an assortment of reasons.  Some of the causes of failure are
identified in this commentary.

Since the 1940s, all of the oil and gas transmission lines
have been built by welding.  In general,  American
Petroleum Institute (API) 5L specification steels are used
in pipelines.  Pipeline wall thicknesses are established on
the pressure in the line and on the allowable hoop stress
levels for the material.  The allowable stress levels for gas
pipelines vary based on the location of the pipeline and are
regulated by the U.S. Department of Transportation (DOT).

Pipelines are pressure tested in addition to nondestructive testing prior to being put into service. 
Normally, pipelines are  hydrostatically stressed to levels above their working pressure and near
their specified minimum yield strength.  This pressure is held for several hours to ensure that the
pipeline does not have defects that may cause failure in use.  This proof test of pipelines 
provides an additional level of confidence that is not found in many other structures.

Pipeline Failure Analysis

Some of the causes of pipeline failures are listed below:

   Mechanical damage
   Fatigue cracks
   Material defects
   Weld cracks
   Incomplete fusion
   Improper repair welds
   Incomplete penetration
   External or internal corrosion
   Hydrogen blistering

Mechanical damage normally consists of gouges and dents.  They generally are created by
excavation or handling equipment during construction.  
Lifting Equipment Failures

Lifting equipment is used to raise, lower, and otherwise transport or manipulate components and
equipment in a localized area.  There are several types of components used in lifting equipment. 
Some of these components are listed below:

   Shafts

   Brakes

   Chains

   Gears

   Wire rope

   Hooks

   Couplings

   Bearings

   Wheels

Some typical failure mechanisms in lifting equipment are due to fatigue, wear, corrosion, and
ductile or brittle fracture.  Components may fail from one or more of these mechanisms or due to
other failure mechanisms.

Insuring the lifting equipment is not overloaded, in addition to appropriate inspections,

maintenance, removal from service, and repair can help eliminate many failures.  The leading
cause of lifting equipment failures are due to improper operation.  Unfortunately, overloading of
a lifting mechanism is not an uncommon practice.

Wear is the most readily recognized condition by operators and maintenance personnel. 
Excessive wear is usually a relatively easy condition to correct.  However, complete elimination
of wear in components used in lifting equipment is not feasible.

Fatigue is a more insidious type of failure mechanism as it is more difficult to detect.  Periodic
inspection by properly trained inspection and maintenance personnel can avert fatigue failures of
critical components.
Some other reasons for failures include the following:

   Design issues
   Material selection

   Assembly errors

   Unacceptable material properties

   Improper manufacturing processing

   Improper maintenance or repair

Fastener Failures

Threaded fasteners are considered to be any

threaded part that may be removed after
assembly.  Nuts and bolts are commonly used
threaded fasteners.  Rivets, pin fasteners, and
special purpose fasteners are some other
commonly used fasteners.  Some common
locations for fastener failures are listed below:
   Head to shank failure
   First thread inside the nut

   Transition from thread to shank

Fastener Failure Analysis

A fastener may experience either static loading or fatigue loading.  Static loading may be
tension, shear, bending, or torsion.  These static loading conditions may occur in combination. 
One example of fatigue loading is vibration. In addition to overload and fatigue, some other
common reasons for fastener failures include environmental issues, manufacturing discrepancies,
and improper use or incorrect installation.

Some common questions concerning fasteners are listed below:

   How were the fasteners torqued?

   In what order were fasteners tightened?
   What is the best way to verify the torque on fasteners?
   How does torque value vary over time?

Fatigue is one of the most common failure modes for threaded fasteners.  Fretting failures may
result from small movements between adjacent surfaces.   Additionally, atmospheric corrosion,
liquid immersion corrosion,  galvanic corrosion, crevice corrosion, stress corrosion cracking, and
hydrogen damage may contribute to fastener failure

Material selection, heat treatment, cutting or rolling threads, manufacturing, assembly, and
design are some of the factors that effect fastener failures.  Failure analysis can determine the
cause of the fastener failure and determine the primary or contributing causes of fastener failure.

 
Gear Failures

Gears can fail in several different ways.  Increased

vibration and noise level from the equipment is
commonly associated with gear failures. 

Cast irons, nonferrous alloys, powdered-metals, and

steels are materials used in gears.  Some common
types of gears are listed below:

   Worm gears
   Herringbone gears
   Helical gears
   Spur gears
   Bevel gears
   Internal gears

Idealistically, gears make contact at points or along lines.  In actual service, gears make contact
in small areas or along narrow bands.  Each part of the gear tooth surface is only in contact for a
short duration of time.  Gear tooth surface alignment affects the loading in use.  Lubrication and
temperature also affect gear teeth as well.

 Gear Failure Analysis

 Some of the failure modes in gears are listed below:

   Fatigue
   Wear
   Stress Rupture
   Impact

Tooth bending fatigue, contact fatigue, and thermal fatigue are among some of the types of
fatigue failures in gears.  Abrasive wear and adhesive wear are the common modes of wear
failure of gears.  Material, manufacturing, engineering, service environment, and heat treatment
are some of the causes of gear failures.  AMC can provide failure analysis services to determine
the cause of your gear failure.

Roller and Ball Bearings

Roller and ball bearings are commonly used in
various components.  The rollers or balls are
placed in between two raceways.  This allows
relative motion by rotation of these pieces.

Some common types of bearings used include:

   Radial contact
   Angular contact
   Thrust
   Cylindrical
   Needle
   Tapered

   Spherical

Today’s improved materials provide greater reliability of bearings in use.  High temperature
materials are available for bearing fabrication, but the practical limit is really determined by the
breakdown temperature of the lubricant.  Synthetic lubricants are commonly used in high
temperature applications.

Bearing load ratings are established on the results of laboratory rolling contact fatigue tests.  Real
world conditions such as misalignment, vibration, shock loading, insufficient or inefficient
lubrication, extremes of temperature, or contamination, will decrease the life expectancy of the
bearings.  If these conditions are severe, they may lead to premature failure of the bearings. 

Some common characteristics of bearing failures are listed below:

   Wear
   Fretting
   Corrosion
   Indentations
   Electrical pitting
   Smearing
   Cracking
   Flaking

Some of the factors that may lead to bearing failure are improper lubrication, impact loading,
vibration, excess temperature, contamination, excessive loading, and misalignment.  AMC can
provide failure analysis services to determine the cause of your bearing failure.

Shaft Failures
Shafts function in wide ranging service conditions, including
corrosive environments, and both very high and very low
temperatures.  Shafts may experience a range of loading
conditions.  In general, shafts may experience tension,
compression, bending, torsion, or a combination of these
loading conditions.  Additionally, shafts may experience
vibratory stresses.

Wear is a common cause of shaft failure.  Abrasive wear is one of the forms of wear failures. 
Abrasive wear, or abrasion, is caused by the displacement of material from a solid surface due to
hard particles or protuberances sliding along the surface.   Abrasive wear can reduce the size and
destroy the shape of a shaft.  Some examples of abrasive wear of shafts are foreign particles such
as sand, dirt, metallic particles, and other debris in the lubricant.  This debris can damage a shaft
by wear.  

One of the more common causes of shaft failure is due to fatigue.  Fatigue failures commonly
start at a stress raiser.  Other forms of fracture also commonly occur at stress raisers as well. 
Some typical features in shafts that act as stress raisers are listed below: 

   Corners    Nicks or notches

   Keyways    Splines
   Grooves    Quench cracks
   Press or shrink fits    Localized corrosion

   Welding defects    Arc strikes

Failures may occur due to misalignment.  One cause of misalignment is the mismatch of mating
parts.  Misalignment can be introduced during original assembly of equipment.    Misalignment
can be introduced after an overall or repair of equipment.  Deflection or deformation of
supporting components in service may also cause misalignment.  Misalignment can cause
vibration resulting in a fatigue failure of the shaft.

 Some other causes of shaft failures include the following:

   Accidental overload
   Corrosion
   Creep or stress rupture
   Brittle fracture
   Stress corrosion cracking
   Hydrogen embrittlement

Residual Stresses
Residual stresses can be sufficient to cause a metal part to suddenly split into two or more pieces
after it has been resting on a table or floor without external load being applied.  While this is not
a common occurrence, experienced people in the metal working industry have witnessed this
phenomenon.  While there may be additional factors causing this to occur residual stresses help
explain these occurrences.

Residual stresses are stresses that are inside or locked into a component or assembly of parts. 
The internal state of stress is caused by thermal and/or mechanical processing of the parts. 
Common examples of these are bending, rolling or forging a part.  Another example are the
thermal stresses induced when welding. 

Residual stresses can play a significant role in explaining or preventing failure of a component at
times.  One example of residual stresses preventing failure is the shot peening of component to
induce surface compressive stresses that improve the fatigue life of the component. 
Unfortunately, there are also processes or processing errors that can induce excessive tensile
residual stresses in locations that might promote failure of a component.

It must be kept in mind that the internal stresses are balanced in a component.  Tensile residual
stresses are counter balanced by compressive residual stresses.  To better visualize residual
stresses it is sometimes helpful to picture tension and compression springs to represent tensile
and compressive residual stresses.  While this is an aid to understanding, it must be kept in mind
that residual stresses are three-dimensional. 

Residual stresses can result in visible distortion of a component.  The distortion can be useful in
estimating the magnitude or direction of the residual stresses.

Thermal residual stresses are primarily due to differential expansion when a metal is heated or
cooled.  The two factors that control this are thermal treatment (heating or cooling) and restraint. 
Both the thermal treatment and restraint of the component must be present to generate residual
stresses. 

A good common example of mechanically applied residual stresses is a bicycle wheel.  A bicycle
wheel is a very light and strong because of the way in which the components are stressed.  The
wire spokes are aligned radialy and tightening the spokes creates tensile radial stresses.  The
spokes pull the rim inward, creating circumferential compression stresses in the rim. 
Conversely, the spokes pull the tubular hub outward.  If the thin spokes were not under a proper
tensile preload load the thin wire spokes could not adequately support the load of the rider.

Chemical Plant Corrosion

Corrosion is a significant concern for the
chemical processing industry.  Corrosion
failures can disrupt production or cause
unintended release of chemicals into the
environment.  There are many variables that
may affect corrosion in a chemical plant.  Some
of these variables are listed below:

 
   Contamination/Impurities    Flow rate
   Quality of water    Line size
   Aeration    Concentration
   Galvanic couples    Temperature
   Material selection    Pressure
   Effects of welding    Deposits
   Stagnation    Crevices

   Turbulence    Start-Up/Shutdown
Variation from planned operating variables can have a
significant effect on expected results.  Materials are
commonly selected based on past experience,
corrosion tests, and the literature. 

Engineers need to have a comprehension of the

process to understand the appropriate material choices
for a given application.  Additionally, proper
maintenance and process control are essential.

Materials used in chemical plants vary widely

depending on the application.  Carbon steels, stainless
steels, Nickel alloys, Copper alloys, and Titanium are
some of the alloys regularly used in chemical
processing plants. 

Seasonal variation in temperatures and variations due to start-up/shutdown variables are some
examples of issues that can cause unanticipated problems in chemical processing plants.  It is not
uncommon over time for plants to be operated with process variables different than originally
planned.  It is not uncommon for flow rates or feed stock composition or impurities to
significantly vary over time.  This may necessitate a change in materials, design, or operating
conditions.

 
Metallurgy

Metallurgy of ferrous and nonferrous alloys is presented in the pages linked below.  Hopefully,
this information will help those familiar with metallurgy and those unfamiliar with metallurgy
principals.

Steel

   Steel Alloys
   Effect of elements on Steel

Stainless Steel

Aluminum

Nickel

Copper

Titanium 

Typical Metallurgical Failure Mechanisms

   Fatigue failures
   Corrosion failures
   Stress corrosion cracking
   Ductile and brittle fractures
   Hydrogen embrittlement
   Liquid metal embrittlement  

   Creep and stress rupture

Understanding metallurgical concepts will assist engineering and other personnel gain a greater
comprehension of failure analysis, engineering, and manufacturing of components.  The linked
pages above provide an introduction to the metallurgy of some important engineering metals.

Numbering Systems for Metals and Alloys

A number of diverse numbering systems have been developed for metals and alloys by a variety
of industry associations, standards organizations, and engineering societies.   Frequently, the
designations used are related to a specification for the material.

Some of the numbering systems in use include those listed below:

    American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI)
   Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE)
   American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)
   American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME)
   American Welding Society (AWS)
   American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
   Steel Founders Society of America
   Aluminum Association
   Copper Development Association
   U.S. Department of Defense (Military Specifications)
   General Accounting Office (Federal Specifications)

AMC can provide detailed failure analysis, metallurgical, corrosion, or welding engineering
services to provide solutions to you engineering problems.  Please contact us by any of the
methods listed below.

Steel Alloys

Steel Alloys can be divided into five groups

        Carbon Steels

        High Strength Low Alloy Steels

        Quenched and Tempered Steels

        Heat Treatable Low Alloy Steels

        Chromium-Molybdenum Steels

Steels are readily available in various product forms.   The American Iron and Steel Institute
defines carbon steel as follows:

Steel is considered to be carbon steel when no minimum content is specified or required for
chromium, cobalt, columbium [niobium], molybdenum, nickel, titanium, tungsten, vanadium or
zirconium, or any other element to be added to obtain a desired alloying effect; when the
specified minimum for copper does not exceed 0.40 per cent; or when the maximum content
specified for any of the following elements does not exceed the percentages noted: manganese
1.65, silicon 0.60, copper 0.60.  Carbon steels are normally classified as shown below.

Low-carbon steels contain up to 0.30 weight percent C. The largest category of this class of steel
is flat-rolled products (sheet or strip) usually in the cold-rolled and annealed condition. The
carbon content for these high-formability steels is very low, less than 0.10 weight percent C, with
up to 0.4 weight percent Mn.  For rolled steel structural plates and sections, the carbon content
may be increased to approximately 0.30 weight percent, with higher manganese up to 1.5 weight
percent.
Medium-carbon steels are similar to low-carbon steels except that the carbon ranges from 0.30 to
0.60 weight percent and the manganese from 0.60 to 1.65 weight percent. Increasing the carbon
content to approximately 0.5 weight percent with an accompanying increase in manganese
allows medium-carbon steels to be used in the quenched and tempered condition.

High-carbon steels contain from 0.60 to 1.00 weight percent C with manganese contents ranging
from 0.30 to 0.90weight percent.

High-strength low-alloy (HSLA) steels, or microalloyed steels, are designed to provide better
mechanical properties than conventional carbon steels. They are designed to meet specific
mechanical properties rather than a chemical composition.  The chemical composition of a
specific HSLA steel may vary for different product thickness to meet mechanical property
requirements. The HSLA steels have low carbon contents (0.50 to ~0.25 weight percent C) in
order to produce adequate formability and weldability, and they have manganese contents up to
2.0 weight percent. Small quantities of chromium, nickel, molybdenum, copper, nitrogen,
vanadium, niobium, titanium, and zirconium are used in various combinations.

Steel Alloys

Below is a list of some SAE-AISI designations for Steel (the xx in the last two digits indicate the
carbon content in hundredths of a percent)

Carbon Steels  
10xx Plain Carbon
11xx Resulfurized
12xx Resulfurized and rephosphorized
Manganese steels  
13xx Mn 1.75
Nickel steels  
23xx Ni 3.5
25xx Ni 5.0
Nickel Chromium Steels  
31xx Ni 1.25 Cr 0.65-0.80
32xx Ni 1.75 Cr 1.07
33xx Ni 3.50 Cr 1.50-1.57
34xx Ni 3.00 Cr 0.77
Chromium Molybdenum steels  
41xx Cr 0.50-0.95 Mo 0.12-0.30
Nickel Chromium Molybdenum  
steels
43xx Ni 1.82 Cr 0.50-0.80 Mo 0.25
47xx Ni 1.05 Cr 0.45 Mo 0.20 – 0.35
86xx Ni 0.55 Cr 0.50 Mo 0.20
Nickel Molybdenum steels  
46xx Ni 0.85-1.82 Mo 0.20
48xx Ni 3.50 Mo 0.25
Chromium steels  
50xx Cr 0.27- 0.65 Illustration of effect of Carbon content on
51xx Cr 0.80 – 1.05 Steel Hardness
Effects of Elements on Steel

Steels are among the most commonly used alloys.  The complexity of steel alloys is fairly
significant.  Not all effects of the varying elements are included. The following text gives an
overview of some of the effects of various alloying elements.  Additional research should be
performed prior to making any design or engineering conclusions.

Carbon has a major effect on steel properties.  Carbon is the primary hardening element in steel. 
Hardness and tensile strength increases as carbon content increases up to about 0.85% C as
shown in the figure above.  Ductility and weldability decrease with increasing carbon. 

Manganese is generally beneficial to surface quality especially in resulfurized steels. Manganese

contributes to strength and hardness, but less than carbon.  The increase in strength is dependent
upon the carbon content.  Increasing the manganese content decreases ductility and weldability,
but less than carbon. Manganese has a significant effect on the hardenability of steel.

Phosphorus  increases strength and hardness and decreases ductility and notch impact toughness
of steel.  The adverse effects on ductility and toughness are greater in quenched and tempered
higher-carbon steels.  Phosphorous levels are normally controlled to low levels.  Higher
phosphorus is specified in low-carbon free-machining steels to improve machinability.

Sulfur decreases ductility and notch impact toughness especially in the transverse direction. 
Weldability decreases with increasing sulfur content.  Sulfur is found primarily in the form of
sulfide inclusions.  Sulfur levels are normally controlled to low levels. The only exception is
free-machining steels, where sulfur is added to improve machinability.

Silicon  is one of the principal deoxidizers used in steelmaking.  Silicon is less effective than
manganese in increasing as-rolled strength and hardness. In low-carbon steels, silicon is
generally detrimental to surface quality.

Copper  in significant amounts is detrimental to hot-working steels.  Copper negatively affects

forge welding, but does not seriously affect arc or oxyacetylene welding. Copper can be
detrimental to surface quality.  Copper is beneficial to atmospheric corrosion resistance when
present in amounts exceeding 0.20%. Weathering steels are sold having greater than 0.20%
Copper. 

Lead is virtually insoluble in liquid or solid steel.  However, lead is sometimes added to carbon
and alloy steels by means of mechanical dispersion during pouring to improve the machinability.

Boron is added to fully killed steel to improve hardenability. Boron-treated steels are produced to
a range of 0.0005 to 0.003%. Whenever boron is substituted in part for other alloys, it should be
done only with hardenability in mind because the lowered alloy content may be harmful for
some applications.
Boron is a potent alloying element in steel.  A very small amount of boron (about 0.001%) has a
strong effect on hardenability.  Boron steels are generally produced within a range of 0.0005 to
0.003%.   Boron is most effective in lower carbon steels.   

Chromium  is commonly added to steel to increase corrosion resistance and oxidation resistance,
to increase hardenability, or to improve high-temperature strength.  As a hardening element,
Chromium is frequently used with a toughening element such as nickel to produce superior
mechanical properties. At higher temperatures, chromium contributes increased strength. 
Chromium is a strong carbide former. Complex chromium-iron carbides go into solution in
austenite slowly; therefore, sufficient heating time must be allowed for prior to quenching.

Nickel is a ferrite strengthener.  Nickel does not form carbides in steel.  It remains in solution in
ferrite,  strengthening and toughening the ferrite phase.  Nickel increases the hardenability and
impact strength of steels. 

Molybdenum increases the hardenability of steel.  Molybdenum may produce secondary

hardening during the tempering of quenched steels. It enhances the creep strength of low-alloy
steels at elevated temperatures. 

Aluminum  is widely used as a deoxidizer.  Aluminum can control austenite grain growth in
reheated steels and is therefore added to control grain size.  Aluminum is the most effective alloy
in controlling grain growth prior to quenching. Titanium, zirconium, and vanadium are also
valuable grain growth inhibitors, but there carbides are difficult to dissolve into solution in
austenite.

Zirconium can be added to killed high-strength low-alloy steels to achieve improvements in

inclusion characteristics.  Zirconium causes sulfide inclusions to be globular rather than
elongated thus improving toughness and ductility in transverse bending.

Niobium (Columbium) increases the yield strength and, to a lesser degree, the tensile strength of
carbon steel. The addition of small amounts of Niobium can significantly increase the yield
strength of steels.  Niobium can also have a moderate precipitation strengthening effect. Its main
contributions are to form precipitates above the transformation temperature, and to retard the
recrystallization of austenite, thus promoting a fine-grain microstructure having improved
strength and toughness.

Titanium is used to retard grain growth and thus improve toughness. Titanium is also used to
achieve improvements in inclusion characteristics.  Titanium causes sulfide inclusions to be
globular rather than elongated thus improving toughness and ductility in transverse bending.

Vanadium increases the yield strength and the tensile strength of carbon steel. The addition of
small amounts of Niobium can significantly increase the strength of steels.  Vanadium is one of
the primary contributors to precipitation strengthening in microalloyed steels.   When
thermomechanical processing is properly controlled the ferrite grain size is refined and there is a
corresponding increase in toughness.  The impact transition temperature also increases when
vanadium is added.
All microalloy steels contain small concentrations of one or more strong carbide and nitride
forming elements.  Vanadium, niobium, and titanium combine preferentially with carbon and/or
nitrogen to form a fine dispersion of precipitated particles in the steel matrix

Stainless Steels

Stainless Steels are iron-base alloys containing Chromium.  Stainless steels usually contain less
than 30% Cr and more than 50% Fe. They attain their stainless characteristics because of the
formation of an invisible and adherent chromium-rich oxide surface film. This oxide establishes
on the surface and heals itself in the presence of oxygen.  Some other alloying elements added to
enhance specific characteristics include nickel, molybdenum, copper, titanium, aluminum,
silicon, niobium, and nitrogen.  Carbon is usually present in amounts ranging from less than
0.03% to over 1.0% in certain martensitic grades.  Corrosion resistance and mechanical
properties are commonly the principal factors in selecting a grade of stainless steel for a given
application.

 Stainless steels are commonly divided into five groups:

   Martensitic stainless steels

   Ferritic stainless steels
   Austenitic stainless steels
   Duplex (ferritic-austenitic) stainless steels
   Precipitation-hardening stainless steels.

Martensitic stainless steels are essentially alloys of chromium and carbon that possess a
martensitic crystal structure in the hardened condition. They are ferromagnetic, hardenable by
heat treatments, and are usually less resistant to corrosion than some other grades of stainless
steel.  Chromium content usually does not exceed 18%, while carbon content may exceed 1.0 %.
The chromium and carbon contents are adjusted to ensure a martensitic structure after hardening.
Excess carbides may be present to enhance wear resistance or as in the case of knife blades, to
maintain cutting edges.

Ferritic stainless steels are chromium containing alloys with Ferritic, body centered cubic (bcc)
crystal structures. Chromium content is typically less than 30%.  The ferritic stainless steels are
ferromagnetic.  They may have good ductility and formability, but high-temperature mechanical
properties are relatively inferior to the austenitic stainless steels.  Toughness is limited at low
temperatures and in heavy sections. 

Austenitic stainless steels have a austenitic, face centered cubic (fcc) crystal structure. Austenite
is formed through the generous use of austenitizing elements such as nickel, manganese, and
nitrogen.  Austenitic stainless steels are effectively nonmagnetic in the annealed condition and
can be hardened only by cold working.  Some ferromagnetism may be noticed due to cold
working or welding.  They typically have reasonable cryogenic and high temperature strength
properties. Chromium content typically is in the range of 16 to 26%; nickel content is commonly
less than 35%.
Duplex stainless steels are a mixture of bcc ferrite and fcc austenite crystal structures. The
percentage each phase is a dependent on the composition and heat treatment. Most Duplex
stainless steels are intended to contain around equal amounts of ferrite and austenite phases in
the annealed condition. The primary alloying elements are chromium and nickel.  Duplex
stainless steels generally have similar corrosion resistance to austenitic alloys except they
typically have better stress corrosion cracking resistance.  Duplex stainless steels also generally
have greater tensile and yield strengths, but poorer toughness than austenitic stainless steels.

Precipitation hardening stainless steels are chromium-nickel alloys. Precipitation-hardening

stainless steels may be either austenitic or martensitic in the annealed condition.  In most cases,
precipitation hardening stainless steels attain high strength by precipitation hardening of the
martensitic structure.

Selecting a Stainless Steel

There are a large number of stainless steels produced.  Corrosion resistance, physical properties,
and mechanical properties are generally among the properties considered when selecting
stainless steel for an application.  A more detailed list of selection criteria is listed below:

   Corrosion resistance    Ambient strength

   Resistance to oxidation and sulfidation    Ductility
   Toughness    Elevated temperature strength
   Cryogenic strength    Suitability for intended cleaning
   Resistance to abrasion and erosion procedures
   Resistance to galling and seizing    Stability of properties in service
   Surface finish    Thermal conductivity
   Magnetic properties    Electrical resistivity

   Retention of cutting edge    Suitability for intended fabrication 

techniques

Corrosion resistance is commonly the most significant characteristic of a stainless steel, but can
also be the most difficult to assess for a specific application. General corrosion resistance is
comparatively easy to determine, but real environments are usually more complex.  An
evaluation of other pertinent variables such as fluid velocity, stagnation, turbulence, galvanic
couples, welds, crevices, deposits, impurities, variation in temperature, and variation from
planned operating chemistry among others issues need to be factored in to selecting the proper
stainless steel for a specific environment.

AMC can provide engineering services to determine how to optimize the selection of stainless
steel for your application.  Our engineering analysis can reduce overall costs, minimize service
problems, and optimize fabrication of your structure.

Aluminum Alloys
Aluminum Alloys can be divided into nine groups.

Major Alloying Element

Designation

Unalloyed (pure) >99% Al

1xxx
Copper is the principal alloying element, though other elements
2xxx (Magnesium) may be specified

Manganese is the principal alloying element

3xxx
4xxx Silicon is the principal alloying element
5xxx Magnesium is the principal alloying element
6xxx Magnesium and Silicon are principal alloying elements
Zinc is the principal alloying element, but other elements such as Copper,
7xxx
Magnesium, Chromium, and Zirconium may be specified
8xxx Other elements  (including Tin and some Lithium compositions)

 Reserved for future use

9xxx

1xxx Series.  These grades of aluminum are characterized by excellent corrosion resistance, high
thermal and electrical conductivities, low mechanical properties, and excellent workability.
Moderate increases in strength may be obtained by strain hardening. Iron and silicon are the
major impurities.

2xxx Series.  These alloys require solution heat treatment to obtain optimum properties; in the
solution heat-treated condition, mechanical properties are similar to, and sometimes exceed,
those of low-carbon steel. In some instances, precipitation heat treatment (aging) is employed to
further increase mechanical properties. This treatment increases yield strength, with attendant
loss in elongation; its effect on tensile strength is not as great.

The alloys in the 2xxx series do not have as good corrosion resistance as most other aluminum
alloys, and under certain conditions they may be subject to intergranular corrosion.  Alloys in the
2xxx series are good for parts requiring good strength at temperatures up to 150 °C (300 °F).
Except for alloy 2219, these alloys have limited weldability, but some alloys in this series have
superior machinability.

3xxx Series.  These alloys generally are non-heat treatable but have about 20% more strength
than 1xxx series alloys. Because only a limited percentage of manganese (up to about 1.5%) can
be effectively added to aluminum, manganese is used as major element in only a few alloys.

4xxx Series. The major alloying element in 4xxx series alloys is silicon, which can be added in
sufficient quantities (up to 12%) to cause substantial lowering of the melting range.  For this
reason, aluminum-silicon alloys are used in welding wire and as brazing alloys for joining
aluminum, where a lower melting range than that of the base metal is required.  The alloys
containing appreciable amounts of silicon become dark gray to charcoal when anodic oxide
finishes are applied and hence are in demand for architectural applications.

5xxx Series. The major alloying element is Magnesium an when it is used as a major alloying
element or with manganese, the result is a moderate-to-high-strength work-hardenable alloy.
Magnesium is considerably more effective than manganese as a hardener, about 0.8% Mg being
equal to 1.25% Mn, and it can be added in considerably higher quantities. Alloys in this series
possess good welding characteristics and relatively good resistance to corrosion in marine
atmospheres. However, limitations should be placed on the amount of cold work and the
operating temperatures (150 degrees F) permissible for the higher-magnesium alloys to avoid
susceptibility to stress-corrosion cracking.

6xxx Series. Alloys in the 6xxx series contain silicon and magnesium approximately in the
proportions required for formation of magnesium silicide (Mg2Si), thus making them heat
treatable. Although not as strong as most 2xxx and 7xxx alloys, 6xxx series alloys have good
formability, weldability, machinability, and relatively good corrosion resistance, with medium
strength. Alloys in this heat-treatable group may be formed in the T4 temper (solution heat
treated but not precipitation heat treated) and strengthened after forming to full T6 properties by
precipitation heat treatment.

7xxx Series. Zinc, in amounts of 1 to 8% is the major alloying element in 7xxx series alloys, and
when coupled with a smaller percentage of magnesium results in heat-treatable alloys of
moderate to very high strength. Usually other elements, such as copper and chromium, are also
added in small quantities. 7xxx series alloys are used in airframe structures, mobile equipment,
and other highly stressed parts.  Higher strength 7xxx alloys exhibit reduced resistance to stress
corrosion cracking and are often utilized in a slightly overaged temper to provide better
combinations of strength, corrosion resistance, and fracture toughness.

Copper Alloys

Copper alloys are commonly used for their electrical and thermal conductivities, corrosion
resistance, ease of fabrication, surface appearance, strength and fatigue resistance.  Copper alloys
can be readily soldered and brazed, and a number of copper alloys can be welded by arc, and
resistance methods. Color of copper alloys is a significant reason for using them for decorative
purposes.  For decorative parts, conventional copper alloys having specific colors are readily
available.

Copper is used extensively for cables and wires, electrical contacts, and a wide variety of other
parts that are required to pass electrical current.  Coppers alloys are used for automobile
radiators, heat exchangers, and home heating systems.  Because of copper alloys corrosion
resistance they are used for pipes, valves, and fittings in systems carrying potable water, process
water, or other aqueous fluids.

Along with ease of fabrication, some of the principal selection criteria for copper alloys are:
    Corrosion resistance
   Electrical conductivity
   Thermal conductivity
   Color and surface appearance

Corrosion resistance of copper alloys is good in many environments, however copper alloys may
be attacked by some common reagents and environments.  Pure copper resists attack under some
corrosive conditions.  Some copper alloys, on the other hand, sometimes have inadequate
performance in certain environments.

Stress corrosion cracking most commonly occurs in brass.  Brasses containing more than 15%
Zn are the most susceptible.

Dealloying is another form of corrosion that affects zinc containing copper alloys.  During
dezincification of brass, selective removal of zinc results in gradual replacement of sound brass
by weak, porous copper.  Unless stopped the metal is weakened and liquids or gases may be
capable of leaking through the porous structure.

Electrical and thermal conductivity of copper and its alloys are relatively good.  This is why
copper is the most commonly used electrical conductor.  Alloying decreases electrical
conductivity to a greater extent than thermal conductivity.  This is why copper and high-copper
alloys are preferred over other copper alloys when high electrical or thermal conductivity is
required.

Common classification of copper alloys is shown below:

Name Alloying elements

Coppers Cu
Brasses Cu-Zn
Leaded brasses Cu-Zn-Pb
Tin brasses Cu-Zn-Sn-Pb
Phosphor bronzes Cu-Sn-P
Leaded phosphor bronzes Cu-Sn-Pb-P
Copper-phosphorus and copper-silver-phosphorus alloys Cu-P-Ag
Aluminum bronzes Cu-Al-Ni-Fe-Si-Sn
Silicon bronzes Cu-Si-Sn
Copper-nickels Cu-Ni-Fe
Nickel silvers Cu-Ni-Zn

 Titanium Alloys
The density of Titanium is roughly 55% that of steel.  Titanium alloys are extensively utilized for
significantly loaded aerospace components.  Titanium is used in applications requiring somewhat
elevated temperatures .  The good corrosion resistance experienced in many environments is
based on titanium’s ability to form a stable oxide protective layer.  This makes titanium useful in
surgical implants and some chemical plant equipment applications.

 Unalloyed (commercially pure) titanium can be found in two crystallographic forms:

   Hexagonal close-packed (hcp) or alpha (α) phase is found at room temperature

   Body centered cubic (bcc) or beta (ß) phase is found above 883 °C (1621 °F)

The control of alpha (α) and beta (ß) phases through alloying additions and thermomechanical
processing is the basis for the titanium alloys used by industry today.  It is also the primary
method for classifying titanium alloys.  Titanium alloys are categorized as either alpha (α) alloys,
beta (ß) alloys, or alpha+beta (α+ß) alloys.  Some common titanium alloys are listed below
according to these categories.

Alpha and near alpha alloys Alpha + Beta alloys Beta alloys
Ti-2.5Cu Ti-6Al-4V Ti-13V-11Cr-3Al
Ti-5Al-2.5Sn Ti-6Al-6V-2Sn Ti-8Mo-8V-2Fe-3Al
Ti-8Al-1V-1Mo Ti-6Al-2Sn-2Zr-2Cr-2Mo Ti-10V-2Fe-3Al
Ti-6242 Ti-3Al-2.5V Ti-15-3
Ti-6Al-2Nb-1Ta-0.8 Mo Ti-8Al-1Mo-1V  
Ti-5Al-5Sn-2Zr-2Mo    

One of the primary effect of alloying elements used in titanium production is the affect on the
alpha to beta transformation temperature.  Some elements raise the alpha to beta transformation
temperature thereby stabilizing the alpha crystal structure.  While other elements lower the alpha
to beta transformation temperature thereby stabilizing the beta crystal structure.  The effect of
some elements is shown below:

    Element Effect

    Aluminum  alpha stabilizer
    Tin alpha stabilizer
    Vanadium Beta stabilizer
    Molybdenum Beta stabilizer
    Chromium Beta stabilizer
    Copper Beta stabilizer

Alpha alloys commonly have creep resistance superior to beta alloys.  Alpha alloys are suitable
for somewhat elevated temperature applications.  They are also sometimes used for cryogenic
applications.  Alpha alloys have adequate strength, toughness, and weldability for various
applications, but are not as readily forged as many beta alloys.  Alpha alloys cannot be
strengthened by heat treatment.

Beta alloys have good forging capability.   Beta alloy sheet is cold formable when in the solution
treated condition.  Beta alloys are prone to a ductile to brittle transition temperature.  Beta alloys
can be strengthened by heat treatment.  Typically beta alloys are solutioned followed by aging to
form finely dispersed particles in a beta phase matrix.

Alpha + beta alloys have chemical compositions that result in a mixture of alpha and beta
phases.  The beta phase is normally in the range of 10 to 50% at room temperature.  Alloys with
beta contents less than 20% are weldable.  The most commonly used titanium alloy is Ti-6Al-
4V, an alpha + beta alloy.  While Ti-6Al-4V is fairly difficult to form other alpha + beta alloys
normally have better formability. 

Alpha + beta alloys can be strengthened by heat treatment.  When strengthening alpha + beta
alloys the components are normally quickly cooled from a temperature high in the alpha-beta
range or even above the beta transus.  Solution treatment is then followed by aging to generate an
proper mixture of alpha and transformed beta.  Heat treatment is dependent on the cooling rate
from the solution temperature and can be affected by the size of the component.

Some of the uses of titanium alloys are listed below:

   Surgical Implants
   Prosthetic devices
   Jet engines
   Chemical processing plants
   Pulp and paper industry
   Marine applications
   Sports equipment