Introduction To Enhanced Oil Recovery: Lectur - 1

LECTUR_1
Introduction to Enhanced
Oil Recovery
Dr Muayad M. Hasan
Primary oil recovery, secondary oil recovery, and tertiary (enhanced) oil
recovery are terms that are traditionally used in describing hydrocarbons
recovered according to the method of production or the time at which they are
obtained. Primary oil recovery describes the production of hydrocarbons
under the natural driving mechanisms present in the reservoir without
supplementary help from injected fluids such as gas or water. In most cases,
the natural driving mechanism is a relatively inefficient process and results in
a low overall oil recovery. Oil extracted about 20%
The lack of sufficient natural drive in most reservoirs has led to the practice
of supplementing the natural reservoir energy by introducing some form of
artificial drive, the most basic method being the
injection of gas or water. Secondary oil recovery refers to the additional
recovery resulting from the conventional methods of water injection and

‫ﻏﯾر ﻗﺎﺑل ﻟﻼﻣﺗزاج‬ 1
immiscible gas injection. Usually, the selected secondary recovery follows the
‫ﻓﻲ ﻧﻔس اﻟوﻗت‬
primary recovery but may be conducted concurrently with the primary
2
recovery. Water flooding is perhaps the most common method of secondary
3
recovery. However, before undertaking a secondary recovery project it should
be clearly proven that the natural recovery processes are insufficient;
otherwise, there is a risk that the required substantial capital investment may
be wasted.
Oil extracted about (25-30)%
1
Tertiary (enhanced) oil recovery is the additional recovery over and above
what could be recovered by secondary recovery methods. Various methods of
enhanced oil recovery (EOR) are essentially designed to recover oil,
commonly described as residual oil, left in the reservoir after both primary
and secondary recovery methods have been exploited to their respective
economic limits. Figure 1.1 illustrates the concept of the three recovery
categories.
Figure 1.1 Oil recovery categories.
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Mechanisms of Enhanced Oil Recovery
The terms enhanced oil recovery (EOR) and improved oil recovery (IOR)
have been used loosely and interchangeably at times. IOR is a general term
‫ﯾدل‬
that implies improving oil recovery by any means (e.g., operational strategies,
such as infill drilling, horizontal wells, and improving vertical and areal
sweep). EOR is more specific in concept and it can be considered as a subset
of IOR. EOR implies the process of enhancing oil recovery by reducing oil
saturation below the residual oil saturation “Sor.” The target of EOR varies
considerably by different types of hydrocarbons. Figure 1.2 shows the fluid
saturations and the target of EOR for typical light and heavy oil reservoirs and
tar sand. For light oil reservoirs, EOR is usually applicable after secondary
recovery operations with an EOR target of approximately 45% original oil in
place (OOIP). Heavy oils and tar sands respond poorly to primary and
secondary recovery methods, and the bulk of the production from these types
of reservoirs come from EOR methods.
Figure 1.2 Target for different crude oil systems.
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Parameters affecting residual oil saturation (Sor)
The magnitude of the reduction and mobilization of residual oil saturation
“Sor” by an EOR process is controlled by two major factors, these are:
• capillary number “Nc”; and
• mobility ratio “M.”
The capillary number is defined as the ratio of viscous force to interfacial
tension force, or
where
μ = viscosity of the displacing fluid
σ = interfacial tension
υ = Darcy velocity
φ = porosity
ko = effective permeability of the displaced fluid, i.e., oil
Δp/L = pressure gradient
4
Figure 1.3 is a schematic representation of the capillary number and the ratio
of residual oil saturation (after conduction of an EOR process to residual oil
saturation before the EOR process). The illustration shows the reduction in
the residual oil saturation with the increase in the capillary number. It is clear
that the capillary number can be increased by:
• increasing the pressure gradient Δp/L;
• increasing the viscosity of the displacing fluid;
• decreasing the interfacial tension between the injection fluid and displaced
fluid.
Figure 1.3 Effect of Nc on residual oil saturation.
The reduction in the interfacial tension between the displacing and displaced
fluid is perhaps the only practical option in reducing residual oil saturation by
increasing capillary number. As shown in Figure 1.3, the capillary number has
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to exceed the critical capillary number to mobilize residual oil saturation. It
should be noticed that by reducing the interfacial tension to zero, the capillary
number becomes infinite, indicating complete “miscible displacement.”
Another important concept in understanding the displacing mechanism of an
EOR process is the mobility ratio “M.” The mobility ratio is defined as the
ratio of the displacing fluid mobility to that of the displaced fluid, or:
where “k” is the effective permeability and “μ” is the viscosity. The mobility
ratio influences the microscopic (pore-level) and macroscopic (areal and
vertical sweep) displacement efficiencies. A value of M .1 is considered
unfavorable because it indicates that the displacing fluid flows more readily
than the displaced fluid (oil). This unfavorable condition can cause channeling
and by passing of residual oil. Improvement in mobility ratio can be achieved
by increasing the viscosity of the injection fluid, e.g., polymer flood.
Enhanced Oil Recovery Methods

All EOR methods that have been developed are designed to increase the
capillary number as given by Equation (1.1). In general, EOR technologies
can be broadly grouped into the following four categories:
• thermal;
• chemical;
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• miscible;
• others.
Each of the four categories contains an assortment of injection schemes and a
different variety of injection fluids, as summarized below:
1- Thermal Method
 Steam injection
 Cyclic steam stimulation
 Steam flooding
 Steam-assisted gravity drainage
 In situ combustion
 Forward combustion
 Reverse combustion
 Wet combustion
 Toe-to-Heel Air Injection (THAI)
 Toe-to-heel Air Injection catalytic upgrading process In-situ (THAI-
CAPRI)
2- Chemical Method
 Polymer
 Surfactant slug
 Alkaline
 Micellar
 Alkaline-surfactant-polymer (ASP)
3- Miscible Method
 CO2 injection
 Lean gas
 N2
 Rich gas
 WAG flood
4- Others
 MEOR
 Foam
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EOR Methods
As a first step in selecting and implementing an enhanced oil recovery
method, a screening study should be conducted to identify the appropriate
EOR technique and evaluate its applicability to the reservoir. Taber et al.
(1997) proposed screening criteria for enhanced oil recovery methods that
were developed by compiling numerous data from EOR projects around the
world. Based on extensive analysis of the collected data, the authors listed the
optimum reservoir and oil characteristics that are required for implementing a
successful EOR project in a particular field, as shown in Table 1.1. There is a
vast amount of literature on the subject of EOR and its variations, including
excellent reference textbooks by Smith (1966), Willhite (1986), van Poollen
(1980), Lake (1989), Stalkup (1983), and Prats (1983), among others. Brief
description and discussion of someof the listed EOR methods are presented
next.
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Table 1.1 Summary of Screening Criteria for EOR Methods

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LECTUR_1

recovery are terms that are traditionally used in describing hydrocarbons

obtained. Primary oil recovery describes the production of hydrocarbons

under the natural driving mechanisms present in the reservoir without

the natural driving mechanism is a relatively inefficient process and results in

a low overall oil recovery. Oil extracted about 20%

of supplementing the natural reservoir energy by introducing some form of

artificial drive, the most basic method being the

injection of gas or water. Secondary oil recovery refers to the additional

recovery resulting from the conventional methods of water injection and

be clearly proven that the natural recovery processes are insufficient;

what could be recovered by secondary recovery methods. Various methods of

enhanced oil recovery (EOR) are essentially designed to recover oil,

and secondary recovery methods have been exploited to their respective

Figure 1.1 Oil recovery categories.

sweep). EOR is more specific in concept and it can be considered as a subset

considerably by different types of hydrocarbons. Figure 1.2 shows the fluid

recovery operations with an EOR target of approximately 45% original oil in

of reservoirs come from EOR methods.

Figure 1.2 Target for different crude oil systems.

“Sor” by an EOR process is controlled by two major factors, these are:

• capillary number “Nc”; and

• mobility ratio “M.”

The capillary number is defined as the ratio of viscous force to interfacial

μ = viscosity of the displacing fluid

ko = effective permeability of the displaced fluid, i.e., oil

Δp/L = pressure gradient

of residual oil saturation (after conduction of an EOR process to residual oil

that the capillary number can be increased by:

• increasing the pressure gradient Δp/L;

• increasing the viscosity of the displacing fluid;

Figure 1.3 Effect of Nc on residual oil saturation.

number becomes infinite, indicating complete “miscible displacement.”

Another important concept in understanding the displacing mechanism of an

ratio influences the microscopic (pore-level) and macroscopic (areal and

vertical sweep) displacement efficiencies. A value of M .1 is considered

and by passing of residual oil. Improvement in mobility ratio can be achieved

by increasing the viscosity of the injection fluid, e.g., polymer flood.

Enhanced Oil Recovery Methods

capillary number as given by Equation (1.1). In general, EOR technologies

can be broadly grouped into the following four categories:

different variety of injection fluids, as summarized below:

method, a screening study should be conducted to identify the appropriate

successful EOR project in a particular field, as shown in Table 1.1. There is a

excellent reference textbooks by Smith (1966), Willhite (1986), van Poollen

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