BS en 16407-Tangential

BS EN 16407-1:2014
BSI Standards Publication
Non-destructive testing —
Radiographic inspection of
corrosion and deposits in pipes
by X- and gamma rays
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Part 1: Tangential radiographic inspection
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Copyright British Standards Institution

Provided by IHS under license with BSI - Uncontrolled Copy
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BS EN 16407-1:2014 BRITISH STANDARD
National foreword
This British Standard is the UK implementation of EN 16407-1:2014.
The UK participation in its preparation was entrusted to Technical
Committee WEE/46, Non-destructive testing.
A list of organizations represented on this committee can be
obtained on request to its secretary.
This publication does not purport to include all the necessary
provisions of a contract. Users are responsible for its correct
application.
© The British Standards Institution 2014. Published by BSI Standards
Limited 2014
ISBN 978 0 580 77930 5
ICS 19.100; 23.040.01
Compliance with a British Standard cannot confer immunity from
legal obligations.
This British Standard was published under the authority of the
Standards Policy and Strategy Committee on 31 January 2014.
Amendments issued since publication
Date Text affected
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BS EN 16407-1:2014
EUROPEAN STANDARD EN 16407-1

NORME EUROPÉENNE
EUROPÄISCHE NORM January 2014
ICS 19.100; 23.040.01
English Version
Non-destructive testing - Radiographic inspection of corrosion

and deposits in pipes by X- and gamma rays - Part 1: Tangential
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radiographic inspection
Essais non destructifs - Examen radiographique de la Zerstörungsfreie Prüfung - Durchstrahlungsprüfung auf

corrosion et des dépôts dans les canalisations, par rayons Korrosion und Ablagerungen in Rohren mit Röntgen- und
X et rayons gamma - Partie 1: Examen radiographique Gammastrahlen - Teil 1: Tangentiale
tangentiel Durchstrahlungsprüfung
This European Standard was approved by CEN on 26 October 2013.
CEN members are bound to comply with the CEN/CENELEC Internal Regulations which stipulate the conditions for giving this European
Standard the status of a national standard without any alteration. Up-to-date lists and bibliographical references concerning such national
standards may be obtained on application to the CEN-CENELEC Management Centre or to any CEN member.
This European Standard exists in three official versions (English, French, German). A version in any other language made by translation
under the responsibility of a CEN member into its own language and notified to the CEN-CENELEC Management Centre has the same
status as the official versions.
CEN members are the national standards bodies of Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia,
Finland, Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania,
Luxembourg, Malta, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey and United
Kingdom.
EUROPEAN COMMITTEE FOR STANDARDIZATION

COMITÉ EUROPÉEN DE NORMALISATION
EUROPÄISCHES KOMITEE FÜR NORMUNG
CEN-CENELEC Management Centre: Avenue Marnix 17, B-1000 Brussels
© 2014 CEN All rights of exploitation in any form and by any means reserved Ref. No. EN 16407-1:2014 E
worldwide for CEN national Members.

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BS EN 16407-1:2014
EN 16407-1:2014 (E)
Contents Page
Foreword ..............................................................................................................................................................4
1 Scope ......................................................................................................................................................5
2 Normative references ............................................................................................................................5
3 Terms and definitions ...........................................................................................................................6
4 Classification of radiographic techniques ..........................................................................................8
5 General ....................................................................................................................................................8
5.1 Protection against ionising radiation ..................................................................................................8
5.2 Personnel qualification .........................................................................................................................9
5.3 Identification of radiographs ................................................................................................................9
5.4 Marking ...................................................................................................................................................9
5.5 Overlap of films or digital images ........................................................................................................9
5.6 Types and positions of image quality indicators (IQI) .......................................................................9
5.6.1 Single wire or step hole IQIs.................................................................................................................9
5.6.2 Duplex wire IQI (digital radiographs) ...................................................................................................9
6 Recommended techniques for making radiographs ....................................................................... 10
6.1 Test arrangements .............................................................................................................................. 10
6.1.1 General ................................................................................................................................................. 10
6.1.2 Radiation source located on the pipe centre line ............................................................................ 10
6.1.3 Radiation source located offset from the pipe centre line ............................................................. 11
6.1.4 Alignment of beam and film/detector ............................................................................................... 13
6.2 Choice of radiation source ................................................................................................................ 13
6.3 Film systems and metal screens....................................................................................................... 14
6.4 Screens and shielding for imaging plates (computed radiography only) .................................... 16
6.5 Reduction of scattered radiation....................................................................................................... 17
6.5.1 Filters and collimators ....................................................................................................................... 17
6.5.2 Interception of back scattered radiation .......................................................................................... 18
6.6 Source-to-detector distance .............................................................................................................. 18
6.7 Axial coverage and overlap ............................................................................................................... 19
6.8 Dimensional comparators .................................................................................................................. 20
6.9 Image saturation and use of lead strips to avoid burn-off ............................................................. 21
6.10 Selection of digital radiographic equipment .................................................................................... 21
6.10.1 General ................................................................................................................................................. 21
6.10.2 CR systems ......................................................................................................................................... 22
6.10.3 DDA systems ....................................................................................................................................... 22
7 Radiograph/digital image sensitivity, quality and evaluation ........................................................ 22
7.1 Evaluation of image quality ............................................................................................................... 22
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7.1.1 General ................................................................................................................................................. 22

7.1.2 Maximum grey level in free beam (digital radiographs) ................................................................. 22
7.1.3 Minimum normalized signal to noise ratio (digital radiographs) ................................................... 22
7.2 Density of film radiographs ............................................................................................................... 23
7.3 Film processing .................................................................................................................................. 23
7.4 Film viewing conditions ..................................................................................................................... 23
7.5 Dimensional calibration of radiographs or digital images ............................................................. 24
7.5.1 General ................................................................................................................................................. 24
7.5.2 Measurement of distances in radiographic setup ........................................................................... 24
7.5.3 Measurement of pipe outside diameter ............................................................................................ 25
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7.5.4 Dimensional comparator .................................................................................................................... 25

7.6 Wall thickness measurements for film radiographs ........................................................................ 26
7.7 Wall thickness measurements for digital radiographs .................................................................... 26
7.7.1 Interactive on-screen measurements ................................................................................................ 26
7.7.2 Grey-level profile analysis methods .................................................................................................. 26
8 Digital image recording, storage, processing and viewing ............................................................ 27
8.1 Scan and read out of image................................................................................................................ 27
8.2 Multi radiograph technique ................................................................................................................ 27
8.3 Calibration of DDAs ............................................................................................................................. 28
8.4 Bad pixel interpolation ........................................................................................................................ 28
8.5 Image processing ................................................................................................................................ 28
8.6 Digital image recording and storage ................................................................................................. 28
8.7 Monitor viewing conditions ................................................................................................................ 29
9 Test report ............................................................................................................................................ 29
Annex A (normative) Determination of basic spatial resolution .................................................................. 31
Annex B (informative) Choice of radiation source for different pipes ........................................................ 35
Bibliography ...................................................................................................................................................... 36
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BS EN 16407-1:2014
EN 16407-1:2014 (E)
Foreword
This document (EN 16407-1:2014) has been prepared by Technical Committee CEN/TC 138 “Non-destructive
testing”, the secretariat of which is held by AFNOR.
This European Standard shall be given the status of a national standard, either by publication of an identical
text or by endorsement, at the latest by July 2014, and conflicting national standards shall be withdrawn at the
latest by July 2014.
Attention is drawn to the possibility that some of the elements of this document may be the subject of patent
rights. CEN [and/or CENELEC] shall not be held responsible for identifying any or all such patent rights.
EN 16407 consists of the following parts, under the general title Non-destructive testing — Radiographic
inspection of corrosion and deposits in pipes by X- and gamma rays:
— Part 1: Tangential radiographic inspection;
— Part 2: Double wall radiographic inspection.
According to the CEN-CENELEC Internal Regulations, the national standards organizations of the following
countries are bound to implement this European Standard: Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Czech
Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, France, Germany, Greece,
Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal,
Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey and the United Kingdom.
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EN 16407-1:2014 (E)
1 Scope
This European Standard specifies fundamental techniques of film and digital radiography with the object of
enabling satisfactory and repeatable results to be obtained economically. The techniques are based on
generally recognized practice and fundamental theory of the subject.
This European Standard applies to the radiographic examination of pipes in metallic materials for service
induced flaws such as corrosion pitting, generalized corrosion and erosion. Besides its conventional meaning,
“pipe” as used in this standard should be understood to cover other cylindrical bodies such as tubes,
penstocks, boiler drums and pressure vessels.
Weld inspection for typical welding process induced flaws is not covered, but weld inspection is included for
corrosion/erosion type flaws.
The pipes may be insulated or not, and can be assessed where loss of material due, for example, to corrosion
or erosion is suspected either internally or externally.
This part of EN 16407 covers the tangential inspection technique for detection and through-wall sizing of wall
loss, including:
a) with the source on the pipe centre line, and
b) with the source offset from it by the pipe radius.
Part 2 of EN 16407 covers double wall radiography, and note that the double wall double image technique is
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often combined with tangential radiography with the source on the pipe centre line.
This European Standard applies to tangential radiographic inspection using industrial radiographic film
techniques, computed digital radiography (CR) and digital detector arrays (DDA).
2 Normative references
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The following documents, in whole or in part, are normatively referenced in this document and are
indispensable for its application. For dated references, only the edition cited applies. For undated references,
the latest edition of the referenced document (including any amendments) applies.
EN 14784-1, Non-destructive testing — Industrial computed radiography with storage phosphor imaging
plates — Part 1: Classification of systems
EN ISO 11699-1, Non-destructive testing — Industrial radiographic films — Part 1: Classification of film
systems for industrial radiography (ISO 11699-1)
EN ISO 11699-2, Non-destructive testing — Industrial radiographic films — Part 2: Control of film processing
by means of reference values (ISO 11699-2)
EN ISO 17636-1:2013, Non-destructive testing of welds — Radiographic testing — Part 1: X- and gamma-ray
techniques with film (ISO 17636-1:2013)
EN ISO 19232-5, Non-destructive testing — Image quality of radiographs — Part 5: Determination of the
image unsharpness value using duplex wire-type image quality indicators (ISO 19232-5)

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3 Terms and definitions
For the purposes of this document, the following terms and definitions apply.
3.1
actual wall thickness
tact
actual wall thickness of the pipe
3.2
basic spatial resolution of a digital detector
detector
SRb
half of the measured detector unsharpness in a digital image which corresponds to the effective pixel size and
indicates the smallest geometrical detail, which can be resolved with a digital detector at magnification equal
to one
Note 1 to entry: For this measurement, the duplex wire IQI is placed directly on the digital detector array or imaging
plate.
Note 2 to entry: The measurement of unsharpness is described in EN ISO 19232-5, see also ASTM E2736 [18] and
ASTM E1000 [16].
3.3
comparator
C
reference object of defined dimension c and material for dimensional calibration of a radiographic image
3.4
computed radiography
CR
storage phosphor imaging plate system
complete system comprising a storage phosphor imaging plate (IP) and a corresponding read-out unit
(scanner or reader), which converts the information from the IP into a digital image
3.5
detector
D
radiographic image detector consisting of a NDT film system (see EN ISO 11699-1) or a digital radiography
system using an imaging plate system (CR system) or a DDA system
Note 1 to entry: Film systems and IPs can be used as flexible and curved detectors or in planar cassettes.
3.6
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digital detector array system

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DDA system
electronic device converting ionizing or penetrating radiation into a discrete array of analogue signals which
are subsequently digitised and transferred to a computer for display as a digital image corresponding to the
radiologic energy pattern imparted upon the input region of the device
3.7
maximum penetrated thickness
wmax
maximum thickness of material for a pipe which occurs for a tangent to the inner pipe surface
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3.8
measured wall thickness
tmeas
measured wall thickness of the pipe on the radiograph or digital image
3.9
nominal wall thickness
t
thickness of the pipe material only where manufacturing tolerances do not have to be taken into account
3.10
normalized signal-to-noise ratio
SNRN
signal-to-noise ratio, SNR, normalised by the basic spatial resolution, SRb, as measured directly in the digital
image and/or calculated from the measured SNR, SNRmeasured, by:
88,6µm
SNRN =SNRmeasured
SRb
3.11
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object-to-detector distance
b
distance between the radiation side of the test object and the detector surface measured along the central
axis of the radiation beam
3.12
outside diameter
De
nominal outside diameter of the pipe
3.13
pipe centre to detector distance
PDD
distance between the pipe centre and the detector
3.14
pixel size
geometrical centre-to-centre distance between adjacent pixels in a row (horizontal pitch) or column (vertical
pitch) of the scanned image
[SOURCE: EN 14096-2:2003, 3.2]
3.15
signal-to-noise ratio
SNR
ratio of mean value of the linearized grey values to the standard deviation of the linearized grey values (noise)
in a given region of interest in a digital image
3.16
source size
d
size of the radiation source
[SOURCE: EN 12679:1999, 2.1]

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3.17
source-to-detector distance
SDD
distance between the source of radiation and the detector measured in the direction of the beam
3.18
source-to-object distance
f
distance between the source of radiation and the source side of the test object measured along the central
axis of the radiation beam
3.19
source-to-pipe centre distance
SPD
distance between the source of radiation and the pipe centre (pipe axis) measured in the direction of the beam
3.20
storage phosphor imaging plate
IP
photostimulable luminescent material capable of storing a latent radiographic image of a material being
examined and, upon stimulation by a source of red light of appropriate wavelength, generates luminescence
proportional to radiation absorbed
4 Classification of radiographic techniques
The tangential radiographic techniques are divided into two classes:
— basic technique TA;
— improved technique TB.
The basic techniques, TA, are intended for tangential radiography of generalized wall loss, such as that due to
erosion or large scale corrosion.
The improved techniques, TB, should be used for the more demanding tangential radiography of localized
corrosion pitting flaws, which require higher sensitivity for detection and sizing.
Further technique improvements beyond TB are possible and may be agreed between the contracting parties
by specification of all appropriate test parameters.
The choice of radiographic technique shall be agreed between the concerned parties.
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5 General
5.1 Protection against ionising radiation
WARNING — Exposure of any part of the human body to X-rays or gamma-rays can be highly
injurious to health. Wherever X-ray equipment or radioactive sources are in use, appropriate legal
requirements shall be applied. Local or national or international safety precautions when using
ionizing radiation shall be strictly applied.
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5.2 Personnel qualification
Testing shall be carried out by proficient, suitably trained and qualified personnel and, where applicable, shall
be supervised by competent personnel nominated by the employer or, by delegation of the employer, the
inspection company in charge of testing. To demonstrate appropriate qualification it is recommended that
personnel be certified according to EN ISO 9712 or an equivalent formalised system. Operating authorization
for qualified persons shall be issued by the employer in accordance with a written procedure. NDT operations,
unless otherwise agreed, shall be authorized by a competent and qualified NDT supervisory individual (Level
3 or equivalent) approved by the employer.
The personnel shall prove additional training and qualification in digital industrial radiology if digital detectors
are being used.
5.3 Identification of radiographs
Symbols shall be affixed to each section of the object being radiographed. The images of these symbols shall
appear in the radiograph outside the region of interest where possible and shall ensure unambiguous
identification of the section.
5.4 Marking
Permanent markings should be made on the object to be examined in order to accurately locate the position
of each radiograph.
Where the nature of the material and/or its service conditions do not permit permanent marking, the location
may be recorded by means of accurate sketches.
5.5 Overlap of films or digital images
When radiographing an area with two or more films or separate detectors, the films or detectors shall overlap
sufficiently to ensure that the complete region of interest is radiographed. This shall be verified by a high
density marker on the surface of the object which will appear on each film or detector. If the radiographs will
be taken sequentially, the high density marker shall be visible on each of the radiographs.
5.6 Types and positions of image quality indicators (IQI)
5.6.1 Single wire or step hole IQIs
For tangential radiography, single wire or step hole IQIs are not applicable.
5.6.2 Duplex wire IQI (digital radiographs)
IQIs in accordance with EN ISO 19232-5 should be used for measurement of the basic spatial resolution of
the CR/DDA system in a reference radiograph (see 7.1.3 and Annex A). The duplex wire IQI shall be placed
adjacent to the imaging plate or detector array and positioned a few degrees tilted (2° to 5°) to the digital rows
or columns of the digital image.
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6 Recommended techniques for making radiographs
6.1 Test arrangements
6.1.1 General
Normally radiographic techniques in accordance with 6.1.2 and 6.1.3 shall be used. For both techniques, the
film or digital detector shall be placed as close to the pipe as possible.
6.1.2 Radiation source located on the pipe centre line
For this arrangement the source is located in front of the pipe and with the film/detector at the opposite side,
as shown in Figure 1. The pipe can be non insulated (Figure 1 a)) or insulated (Figure 1 b)).
a) non insulated pipe

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EN 16407-1:2014 (E)
b) insulated pipe
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Key
1 detector D
Figure 1 — Test arrangement and distances for tangential radiography with the source on the pipe
centre line
Note that the wall loss can be located on either the inner diameter, outer diameter or both surfaces of the pipe.
6.1.3 Radiation source located offset from the pipe centre line
For this arrangement, the radiation source is located in front of the pipe and with the film/detector at the
opposite side, as shown in Figure 2 a) (non insulated pipe) and Figure 2 b) (insulated pipe).

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a) non insulated pipe
b) insulated pipe
Key
1 detector D
Figure 2 — Test arrangement and distances for tangential radiography with the source offset from the
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pipe centre line
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In this test arrangement, the source is offset from the pipe centre line, and is aligned with the centre of the
pipe wall, as shown in Figure 2. Note that the wall loss can be located on either the inner diameter, outer
diameter or both surfaces of the pipe.
6.1.4 Alignment of beam and film/detector
The beam of radiation shall be directed at the centre of the area being examined.
The film or detector should be aligned to be orthogonal to the centre of the radiation beam.
Modifications to these alignments and the test arrangements given in 6.1.2 and 6.1.3 may be needed in
special cases, due for example to the presence of obstructions.
Other ways of radiographing may be agreed between contracting parties.
6.2 Choice of radiation source
For tangential radiography, the choice of radiation source should be determined by the maximum penetrated
thickness of the pipe, wmax, which occurs for the path forming a tangent to the pipe inner diameter, as shown
in Figure 3.
Key
1 detector D
Figure 3 — Maximum penetrated thickness, wmax, for the tangential technique
The maximum penetrated thickness, wmax, is given by:
wmax 2 t ( De − t )
= (1)
where
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t is the nominal thickness of the pipe;

De is the outside diameter of the pipe.
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Table 1 gives recommended limits on the maximum penetrated thickness for different radiation sources.
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Some forms of insulation (e.g. highly absorbing) may lead to reduction in the limits on maximum penetrated
thickness, wmax, given in Table 1.
By agreement between the contracting parties, these values may be varied provided the position of the inner
diameter edge can be measured with acceptable accuracy on the resulting radiograph/digital image using the
methods described in 7.6 or 7.7.
Table 1 — Maximum penetrated thickness range for different radiation sources for steel
Radiation source Limits on maximum penetrated thickness

wmax
mm
Basic Improved
(for generalized wall loss) (for pitting flaws)
X-ray (100 kV) ≤ 10 ≤7
X-ray (200 kV) ≤ 30 ≤ 20
X-ray (300 kV) ≤ 40 ≤ 30
X-ray (400 kV) ≤ 50 ≤ 35
Se 75 ≤ 55 ≤ 40
Ir 192 ≤ 80 ≤ 60
Co 60 ≤ 120 ≤ 85
For digital radiographs, somewhat higher values for the limits on maximum penetrated thickness than those
given in Table 1 may be used.
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To determine the appropriate source(s) for a particular pipe, the maximum penetrated thickness, wmax,
should be determined using Formula (1) and compared with the values given in Table 1. A graphical
illustration of this procedure is given in Annex B.
In cases where radiographs are produced using gamma rays, the total travel-time to position and rewind the
source shall not exceed 10 % of the total exposure time.
6.3 Film systems and metal screens
For radiographic examination, film system classes shall be used in accordance with EN ISO 11699-1.
The radiographic film system class and metal screens to use with films for different radiation sources are
given in Tables 2 and 3. See also EN ISO 17636-1:2013, Tables 2 and 3.
When using metal screens, good contact between films and screens is required. This may be achieved either
by using vacuum-packed films or by applying pressure.
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Table 2 — Film system classes and metal screens for tangential radiography of steel, copper and
nickel based alloy pipes
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Radiation source Film system class a Type and thickness of metal

screens
Class TA Class TB
X-ray 0,02 mm to 0,15 mm front and back

potentials ≤ 250 kV C5 C4
screens of lead
0,1 mm to 0,2 mm front screens of
X-ray
lead b
potentials > 250 kV C5 C4
0,02 mm to 0,2 mm back screens of
to 500 kV
lead
X-ray
0,25 mm to 0,7 mm front and back
potentials > 500 kV C5 C4
screens of steel or copper c
to 1 000 kV
Se 75 0,02 mm to 0,2 mm front and back
C6 C5
Ir 192 screens of lead b
Co 60 C6 C5
X-ray equipment
with energy from C6 C5
1 MeV to 4 MeV
Up to 1 mm front screen of copper,

X-ray equipment steel or tantalum d
with energy above C6 C5
4 MeV Back screen of copper or steel up to
1 mm and tantalum up to 0,5 mm d
a Better film system classes may also be used.

b Ready packed films with a front screen up to 0,03 mm may be used if an additional lead
screen of 0,1 mm is placed between the object and the film.
c In class TA 0,5 mm to 2,0 mm screens of lead may also be used.
d In class TA lead screens 0,5 mm to 1 mm may be used by agreement between the
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Table 3 — Film system classes and metal screens for tangential radiography of aluminium and
titanium pipes
Radiation source Film system class a Type and thickness of

intensifying screens
Class TA Class TB
None or up to 0,03 mm front
X-ray
and up to 0,15 mm back
potentials ≤ 150 kV
screens of lead
X-ray
0,02 mm to 0,2 mm front and
potentials > 150 kV to C6 C5
back screens of lead b
500 kV
Se 75 0,02 mm to 0,2 mm front and

Ir 192 back screens of lead b
a Better film system classes may also be used.

b Instead of one 0,2 mm lead screen, two 0,1 mm lead screens may be used.
Different film systems may be used by agreement of the contracting parties, provided the required optical
densities defined in 7.2 are achieved.
6.4 Screens and shielding for imaging plates (computed radiography only)
When using metal front screens, good contact between the sensitive detector layer and screens is required.
This may be achieved either by using vacuum-packed IPs or by applying pressure. Lead screens not in
intimate contact with the IPs may contribute to image unsharpness. The intensification obtained by use of lead
screens in contact with imaging plates is significantly smaller than in film radiography.
Many IPs are very sensitive to low energy backscatter and X-ray fluorescence of back-shielding from lead.
This effect contributes significantly to edge unsharpness and reduced SNR, and should be minimized. It is
recommended that steel or copper shielding be used directly behind the IPs. Also a steel or copper shielding
between a backscatter lead plate and the IP may improve the image quality. Modern cassette and detector
designs may consider this effect and can be constructed in a way such that additional steel or copper
shielding outside the cassette is not required.
NOTE Due to the protection layer between the lead and the sensitive layer of an IP, the effect of intensification by
electrons is considerably reduced and appears at higher energies. Depending on the radiation energy and protection layer
design, the effect of intensification amounts to between 20 % and 100 % only (compared to no screen).
The small intensification effect generated by a lead screen in contact with an IP can be compensated for by
increased exposure time or milliampere.minutes, if no lead screens are used. Since lead screens in contact
with IPs may generate scratches on IPs, if not carefully separated for the scan process, lead screens should
be used for intermediate filtering of scattered radiation outside of cassettes.
Table 4 and Table 5 show the recommended screen materials and thicknesses for different radiation sources.
Other screen thicknesses may be also agreed between the contracting parties. The usage of metal screens is
recommended in front of IPs, and they may also reduce the influence of scattered radiation when used with
DDAs.
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Table 4 —Metal front screens for CR for tangential radiography of steels, copper and nickel based
alloys
Radiation source Type and thickness of metal front screens

mm
X-ray
0 to 0,1 (lead)
potentialsb ≤ 250 kV
X-ray
potentialsb > 250 kV to 0 to 0,3 (lead)
1 000 kV
Class TA: 0 to 0,3 (lead)
Ir 192, Se 75 b
Class TB: 0,3 to 0,8 (steel or copper)
Co 60 a 0,3 to 0,8 (steel or copper) + 0,6 to 2,0 (lead)
X-ray
0,3 to 0,8 (steel or copper) + 0,6 to 2,0 (lead)
potentialsa > 1 MV
a In the case of multiple screens (steel+lead), the steel screen shall be located between
the IP and the lead screen. Instead of steel or steel and lead screens, those composed of
copper, tantalum or tungsten may be used if the image quality can be proven.
b Pb screens may be replaced completely or partially by Fe or Cu screens. The
equivalent thickness for Fe or Cu is three times the Pb thickness.
Table 5 — Metal front screens for CR for the digital tangential radiography of aluminium and titanium
Radiation source Type and thickness of metal

front screens
mm
,
X-ray potentials < 500 kV ≤ 0,2 (lead)a b
Se 75
≤ 0,3 (lead)a, b
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Ir 192
a e.g. instead of 0,2 mm lead, a 0,1 mm screen with an additional filter
of 0,1 mm may be used outside of the cassette.
b Pb screens may be replaced completely or partially by Fe or Cu
screens. The equivalent thickness for Fe or Cu is three times the Pb
thickness.
6.5 Reduction of scattered radiation
6.5.1 Filters and collimators
In order to reduce the effect of back scattered radiation, direct radiation shall be collimated as much as
possible to the section under examination.
For computed radiography and radiography with DDAs, with Ir 192, Co 60 and other MeV radiation sources, or
in the case of edge scatter, an additional sheet of lead can be used as a filter of low energy scattered radiation
between the pipe and the DDA or CR cassette. The thickness of this sheet is 0,5 mm to 2,0 mm in accordance
with the penetrated thickness.

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Materials other than lead such as tin, copper, tungsten or steel can be used as a filter. It is recommended that
in the case of a lead filter an additional steel or copper filter is used between the lead and the detector of
thickness 0,3 mm to 1,0 mm. The filter should be as close as possible to the sensitive plate.
6.5.2 Interception of back scattered radiation
The presence of back scattered radiation shall be checked for each new test arrangement by a lead letter B
(with a minimum height of 10 mm and a minimum thickness of 1,5 mm) placed immediately behind each film,
CR cassette or DDA. If the image of this symbol records as a lighter image on the radiograph (negative
presentation), it shall be rejected. If the symbol is darker or invisible the radiograph is acceptable and
demonstrates good protection against scattered radiation.
For digital radiography, if necessary, the detector shall be shielded from back scattered radiation by lead of at
least 1 mm, or tin of at least 1,5 mm, placed behind the detector. In some configurations, up to 6 mm of lead
may be necessary. An additional shielding of steel or copper (about 0,5 mm) shall be applied between the
lead shield and the detector to reduce the influence of lead X-ray fluorescence radiation. No lead screens
shall be used in contact to the back side of the detector above 80 keV.
6.6 Source-to-detector distance
For tangential radiography, the source-to-detector distance, SDD, and the pipe centre to detector distance,
PDD, are shown in Figures 1 and 2.
The minimum source-to-detector distance, SDD, depends on the source size, d, the pipe outer diameter, De
and on the pipe centre to detector distance, PDD.
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For tangential radiography with the source on the pipe centre line (as shown in Figure 1a) and Figure 1b)), the
distances SDD shall be, where practicable, in accordance with the following.
For the basic technique, TA, SDD should be the larger of the following two values (in mm):
SDD ≥ PDD + 3,5 ⋅ De (2)
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and
d ⋅ PDD
SDD ≥ (3)
0,6 mm
For the improved technique, TB, SDD should be the larger of the value given by Formula (2) and:
d ⋅ PDD
SDD ≥ (4)
0,3 mm
For tangential radiography with the source offset from the pipe centre line, as shown in Figures 2a) and 2b),
Formula (2) can be disregarded when determining the minimum SDD. Thus Formula (3) gives the SDD for the
basic technique TA and Formula (4) gives the SDD for the improved technique TB.
NOTE Formulae (3) and (4) give geometric unsharpness values of 0,6 mm and 0,3 mm respectively, projected to the
plane corresponding to the pipe centre, which is close to where the measurements are made using the tangential
technique. The corresponding unsharpness values measured at the detector are larger than these values due to the
effects of projective magnification.
If tangential radiography is combined with the double wall double image technique, the source to detector
centre distance should be determined by also taking account of the criteria used for that technique, as given in
EN 16407-2. The larger of the two values shall be taken where practicable.
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6.7 Axial coverage and overlap
The maximum axial coverage of the pipe for a single image or film is based on a 20 % increase in penetrated
thickness at the edge of the area to be inspected, as illustrated in Figure 4.
Key
1 detector D
Figure 4 — Axial cross section showing the maximum permissible axial length of the evaluated area
for a single source position, on the detector, Ld, and along the pipe, Lp, at the tangent position
The total axial extent of the evaluated area on the detector, Ld, should be no greater than
Ld ≤ 1,32 SDD (5)
The total axial extent of the evaluated area on the pipe, Lp, should be no greater than
Lp ≤ 1,32 SPD (6)
The formula for Lp should be used for determining the interval between exposures along a pipe. If the
collimator of gamma sources or the window collimation of X-ray sources are smaller than ± 35°, Lp and Ld
have to be reduced corresponding to the maximum available opening angle of the radiation cone beam.
The separate films or digital images shall overlap sufficiently to ensure that no portion of the component
remains un-examined. Unless otherwise specified, the minimum overlap shall be 25 mm axially either side of
the diagnostic area, measured on the source side.
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6.8 Dimensional comparators
For measurement of remaining wall thickness, the film radiographs or digital images shall be dimensionally
calibrated to correct for the geometric magnification (or “blow-up”) caused by the geometrical arrangement of
source, pipe and detector.
One method for dimensional calibration is the use of a ball bearing or other dimensional comparator. This is
an effectively radiation opaque object (usually spherical) with a known diameter, which is placed close to the
pipe, and in the same plane as the tangent position on the pipe wall, as illustrated in Figure 5.
Note that other dimensional calibration methods (see 7.5) do not require the use of these additional
comparators.
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Key
1 detector
2 projected dimension c' of comparator C
Figure 5 — Tangential radiography showing use of comparators for dimensional calibration (second
comparator is optional)
Comparator(s) shall be placed in the tangent position, as close to the pipe wall as possible, without
overlapping it.
Measurements of the imaged size of the comparator then allow the pipe wall thickness measurement to be
calibrated (see 7.5).
Note that if the comparator cannot be placed adjacent to the pipe tangent position, due for example to the
presence of external insulation, it is recommended that the source is offset from the pipe centre line to be
aligned with the pipe wall as shown in Figure 6.
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Key
1 detector
Figure 6 — Tangential radiography showing use of offset source position with comparator for
dimensional calibration, for insulated pipes, where the comparator shall be placed as close to the
outside of the insulation as possible
Normally the dimensional comparator shall not be wrapped in lead or similar material. However, if the pipe is
insulated, and the free beam is saturated (see 6.9), then the comparator shall be wrapped in lead to avoid
inaccurate calibration due to burn-off of the edges of the comparator.
6.9 Image saturation and use of lead strips to avoid burn-off
For digital radiography (CR or DDA), lead strips close to, or coincident with the edge of the pipe to avoid
image burn-off effects at the pipe outer diameter should not be used. Burn-off should instead be minimized by
ensuring the exposure time is adjusted according to 7.1.1.
In addition the intensity range between the free beam and the radiograph of the pipe should be reduced by
prefilters (close to the source) or intermediate filters (between the pipe and the imaging plate, see 6.4).
For insulated pipes, it may be permissible for the free beam beyond the insulation to be saturated, provided
the grey levels adjacent to the pipe wall being measured are not greater than 90 % of the dynamic range of
the digital system. In this case, if dimensional comparators are used, they shall be wrapped in lead or similar
to avoid saturation of the image around the comparator.
6.10 Selection of digital radiographic equipment
6.10.1 General
The basic spatial resolution of the detector divided by magnification (M = SDD/SPD) shall not exceed 200 µm
for class TA and 130 µm for class TB and shall not exceed 5 % of the nominal wall thickness t. Different
values can be agreed by contracting parties.
If the tangential technique (TA or TB) is being used in conjunction with the double wall double image
techniques described in Part 2 of EN 16407 (DWA or DWB), then the magnification, M, above shall be set to
one when finding the basic spatial resolution of the detector.

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6.10.2 CR systems
The CR scanner pixel size of the dimensionally calibrated image (see 6.8) shall not exceed 100 µm. For a
given radiographic exposure, increasing the CR scanner gain or sensitivity increases the grey levels, but has
negligible effect on the image quality, as measured by the normalized signal to noise ratio (SNRN). To
increase SNRN, the exposure shall be increased, not the scanner gain.
For scanners with linear responses between radiation dose and grey level, use of low gain/sensitivity reduces
the likelihood of image saturation. For higher scanner gains, image saturation may occur, especially in the free
beam areas, for relatively short exposures, which do not give sufficiently high image SNRN values to meet the
image quality criteria given in 7.1.
6.10.3 DDA systems
The pixel size of the dimensionally calibrated image (see 6.8) shall not exceed 200 µm for class TA
and 130 µm for class TB. Different values can be agreed by contracting parties.
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7 Radiograph/digital image sensitivity, quality and evaluation
7.1 Evaluation of image quality
7.1.1 General
For tangential radiography, conventional wire or step/hole IQIs are not directly applicable, because they
cannot be positioned near to the tangential pipe position, and the rapid changes in penetrated thickness in this
part of a radiographic image make it impossible to assess IQI visibilities in any meaningful way.
Evaluation of image quality is however required using the following methods to ensure reproducible results.
7.1.2 Maximum grey level in free beam (digital radiographs)
The exposure time and/or the system sensitivity should be adjusted so that the un-impeded radiation beam
outside the pipe wall does not exceed 90 % of the imaging system’s saturation.
7.1.3 Minimum normalized signal to noise ratio (digital radiographs)
Digital radiographic images become “noisy” when exposed under sub-optimal conditions (e.g. due to short
exposure times). Excessive image noise can become a significant obstacle in the achievement of acceptable
measurement accuracy.
To ensure that the digital image from CR and DDA systems have acceptable noise levels, the normalized
signal to noise ratio, SNRN, shall be measured using appropriate software and methods as defined in
EN 14784-1 using an area of at least 55 (vertically) x 20 (horizontally) pixels. SNRN values shall be measured
at a minimum of four separate positions, and the average value taken.
To derive the normalized SNRN value, the basic spatial resolution, SRb, of the imaging system shall be
measured using the duplex wire IQI method described in EN ISO 19232-5, or an equivalent method
(Annex A). For this measurement of the detector basic spatial resolution, the duplex wire shall be placed
adjacent to the imaging plate or detector array.
If it is impractical to include a duplex wire IQI on each exposure, the basic spatial resolution can be
determined in advance for the same imaging system, provided exactly the same system settings are used (for
a CR system, these settings include the same CR scanner, imaging plate, pixel size, radiation source, scan
speed and the scanner’s laser intensity).
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The average SNRN values obtained in an unsaturated free beam area of the image outside the pipe shall be
at least 70 for the basic class and shall be at least 100 for the improved class.
If the pipe centre line is available for measurement of SNRN (e.g. with combined tangential/double wall double
image radiography), then minimum SNRN values of 50 and 80 for the standard and higher qualities
respectively can be used as an alternative to the above free beam SNRN values.
Note that in all cases when measuring SNRN, it is important that the image is in a form having the image grey
levels directly proportional to radiation intensity, otherwise the values will be incorrect.
7.2 Density of film radiographs
For tangential film radiography, as far as possible it shall be ensured that exposure conditions should be such
that the following minimum optical densities are achieved for the film system classes as given in Table 2.
— optical density on the pipe centre line ≥ 1,5;
— optical density in the un-impeded beam (outside the pipe): 3,5 to 4 (max);
— optical density in a tangent position of the inner pipe wall ≥ 0,5.
If the optical density in the un-impeded beam is > 4 then in the outer tangential position one emulsion side
shall be removed for measurements of outer wall position. If the optical density is ≤ 4 in the remaining
emulsion, the radiograph can be accepted for wall thickness measurement.
A measuring uncertainty of ± 0,1 is permitted.
In order to avoid unduly high fog densities arising from film ageing, development or temperature, the fog
density shall be checked periodically on a non-exposed sample taken from the films being used, and handled
and processed under the same conditions as the actual radiograph. The fog density shall not exceed 0,3. Fog
density here is defined as the total density (emulsion and base) of a processed, unexposed film.
When using a multi-film technique with interpretation of single films the optical density of each film shall be in
accordance with that given above. If double film viewing is requested the optical density of one single film
shall not be lower than 1,3.
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7.3 Film processing
Films are processed in accordance with the conditions recommended by the film and chemicals
manufacturers to obtain the selected film system class. Particular attention shall be paid to temperature,
developing time and washing time. The film processing shall be controlled regularly in accordance with
EN ISO 11699-2. The radiographs should be free from defects due to processing or other causes which would
interfere with interpretation.
7.4 Film viewing conditions
The radiographs should be examined in a darkened room on an area of the viewing screen with an adjustable
luminance in accordance with EN 25580. The viewing screen should be masked to the area of interest.

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7.5 Dimensional calibration of radiographs or digital images
7.5.1 General
For tangential radiography, when making dimensional measurements of wall thickness, it is necessary to
calibrate the distances involved in the radiography, to allow for the image enlargement or “blow-up”. The
geometric magnification effect for tangential radiography is shown in Figure 7.
Key
1 detector
Figure 7 — Geometric magnification for tangential radiography showing the measured wall thickness
tmeas
The following methods can be used for dimensional calibration, to derive the actual wall thickness tact from
the measured value tmeas.
7.5.2 Measurement of distances in radiographic setup
This method involves direct physical measurement of the key distances involved in the radiography. For
calibration by the distances method, two of the following distances need to be measured accurately (to within
a few percent):
a) source to detector distance, SDD;
b) distance from source to pipe centre line, SPD;
c) distance from detector to pipe centre line, PDD.

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In addition, the following distance shall also be recorded:
d) lateral offset (if any) of source from pipe centre line, x.
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For offset tangential radiography (with x approximately r), the true wall thickness tact at the tangential pipe
position can be calculated from the measured wall thickness tmeas using the approximate formula:
SPD
tact
= ⋅ tmeas (7)
SDD
NOTE Provided x approximately 0, then the following complex formula can be used to derive the wall thickness tact,
from the measured value tmeas:
 r t 
SPD  − meas 
2
 SPD − r
2 SDD 
tact = r − (8)
2
 r t 
1+  − meas 
2
 SPD − r
2 SDD 
where
r is half the pipe outside diameter (= De/2).
For practical in service radiography, the accurate physical measurements of distances may be difficult to
achieve and document reliably. If this is considered to be the case, the alternative methods given below shall
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be used.
7.5.3 Measurement of pipe outside diameter
Provided the pipe outside diameter is known accurately at the measurement position in the image or
radiograph, then dimensional calibration can be achieved by measurement of the imaged size of the pipe
outside diameter, De’, on the radiograph or digital image.
The actual remaining wall thickness tact can then be found from the measured remaining wall thickness value,
tmeas, using the ratio of the actual to measured pipe outside diameter:
De
tact tmeas ⋅
= (9)
De'
7.5.4 Dimensional comparator
If the pipe outside diameter is not known accurately or reliably, then the alternative dimensional calibrator
method, described in 6.8, shall be used.
With this method, the measured dimension of the comparator, c’, is used to calibrate the distances, so the
actual remaining wall thickness tact can then be found from the measured remaining wall thickness value,
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tmeas, using the ratio of the defined (c) to measured (c’) comparator dimensions:
c
tact tmeas ⋅
= (10)
c'
Note that if the pipe outside diameter is known accurately, the method described in 7.5.3 is likely to provide
more accurate measurements, since the calibration is made over a larger distance which can be measured
more accurately in percentage terms than the smaller distance across a comparator.

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7.6 Wall thickness measurements for film radiographs
Dimensional measurements from film radiographs can be made with callipers, of both the pipe wall thickness
and an object of known dimension, for calibration purposes (i.e. the ball-bearing comparator or known pipe
outside diameter – see 7.5.3 and 7.5.4).
7.7 Wall thickness measurements for digital radiographs
7.7.1 Interactive on-screen measurements
CR/DDA systems contain software options which allow on-screen interactive dimensional measurements
using a cursor overlaid on the digital images, without reference to the underlying grey level values in the
images. The user then judges by eye the locations in the image of the inner and outer edges of the pipe wall.
This method can be subject to significant errors as the apparent wall thickness depends on the contrast and
brightness settings used to display the image. These errors are larger for pipes having maximum penetrated
thickness values, wmax, approaching the maximum of those recommended for the radiation source in use
(see Table 1). To reduce these errors, the following techniques can be used:
a) High-frequency spatial filtering (sharpening) which emphasises the positions of the edges of the pipe wall
in the images, and reduces the dependence on the contrast and brightness settings on the image;
b) For some images, display of the image using a logarithmic relation between radiation intensity and grey
level reduces the overall image contrast and improves the definition of the inner diameter position. Some
CR scanners give logarithmic images directly. For those scanners and DDA systems that provide non-
logarithmic response images, an appropriate look-up table (LUT) can be used to obtain a digital image
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with a logarithmic response.
If this interactive on-screen measurement method is used, it shall be first checked for acceptable accuracy
using the current contrast and brightness settings of the displayed image, by application to a section of the
pipe with known wall thickness (e.g. known to be uncorroded or not eroded).
7.7.2 Grey-level profile analysis methods
In addition to on screen measurements, covered in 7.7.1, many CR/DDA systems also allow wall thickness
measurement methods based on analysis of a grey level profile taken in a direction orthogonal to the pipe wall
axis. The software extracts a grey-level profile along this line, which is then generally presented on-screen,
superimposed on the image, as illustrated in Figure 8.
a) Automated routines
Automated analysis routines can increase the reliability of the measured wall thickness values, unless the
maximum tangential penetrated thickness, wmax, is approaching the maximum possible, given the radiation
source in use (see 7.2). In addition, other factors such as the presence of external scale, corrosion products or
irregular internal/external corrosion may affect the accuracy of these automated routines.
In these cases, the automated routines are subject to uncertainties, and the operator should check the
consistency of the derived values with the density profile and the digital radiographic image.
b) Interactive methods
As an alternative to automated routines for wall thickness analysis, the operator can use available interactive
facilities for analysis of the grey level profile. Accuracy is likely to be improved, especially for pipes having
larger wmax values, if the digital images have a logarithmic response and are high-pass filtered.
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Figure 8 shows an example of interactive measurement of wall thickness, using cursors on a grey level profile
across the pipe wall, after applying a logarithmic look-up table to the CR image, and high-pass filtering to
enhance details. The position of the outer diameter corresponds to a clear peak in the profile, and the location
of the inner diameter is given by the minimum and pronounced change in gradient of the profile.
This method, combined with a visual assessment of the image, can in some circumstances give higher
measurement accuracy than the automated routines described above.
Figure 8 — Example of interactive wall thickness measurement using cursors superimposed on a grey
level profile taken across the pipe wall
The accuracy of all measurement methods decrease as the tangential penetrated thickness, wmax,
approaches the maximum value recommended for the isotope in use (see Table 1), since the location of the
inner wall becomes increasingly difficult to determine with any reliability due to lack of contrast and increased
noise.
8 Digital image recording, storage, processing and viewing
8.1 Scan and read out of image
Detectors or scanners are used in accordance with the conditions recommended by the detector and scanner
manufacturer to obtain the selected image quality. The digital radiographs should be free from artefacts due to
processing and handling or other causes which would interfere with interpretation.
8.2 Multi radiograph technique
Different digital radiographs at different exposure conditions may be used to optimise the SNR of the outer
wall in one exposure and to optimise the SNR of the inner wall in a second exposure. The source and detector
position shall not be changed for these exposures. The distance between the inner and outer surface may be
27
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determined from the different exposures in analogy to multi film viewing. A software tool may be used to
measure the wall thickness from the different images or from an overlaid image. The performance of this
technique and any applied software shall be demonstrated with an exposure of a reference pipe sample with
known dimensions.
8.3 Calibration of DDAs
If using DDAs the detector calibration procedure as recommended by the manufacturer shall be applied. The
detector shall be calibrated with a background image (without radiation) and at least with one gain image
(radiation on and homogeneously exposed). Multi gain calibration will increase the achievable SNRN and
linearity but takes more time. All calibration images shall be taken at least with two times larger exposure dose
(mA ⋅ min or GBq ⋅ min) as finally used for the production radiographs to minimize the noise introduction of the
calibration procedure. Calibrated images should be treated as unprocessed raw images for quality assurance
if the procedure has been documented. The calibration and a bad pixel interpolation shall be performed
periodically and if the exposure conditions are changed significantly.
8.4 Bad pixel interpolation
Bad pixels are underperforming detector elements of DDAs. They are described in ASTM E2597. If using
DDAs the detector shall be mapped to determine the bad pixel map in accordance with the manufacturer
guideline. This bad pixel map shall be documented. The bad pixel interpolation is acceptable and an essential
procedure of radiography with DDAs. It is recommended to apply only detectors which have no cluster kernel
pixels (CKP) in the region of interest (ROI).
8.5 Image processing
The digital data of the radiographic detector shall be evaluated with linearized grey value representation which
is directly proportional to the radiation dose for determination of SNR, SRb and SNRN. For optimal image
display, contrast and brightness should be interactively adjustable. Optional filter functions, profile plots and
an SNR, SNRN tool should be integrated into the software for image display and evaluation. For critical image
analysis the operator shall interpret the image with a zoom factor between 1:1 (meaning 1 pixel of the digital
radiograph is presented by one monitor pixel) and 1:2 (meaning 1 pixel of the digital radiograph is presented
by four monitor pixels).
Further means of image processing applied on the stored raw data (e.g. high pass filtering for image display)
shall be documented, be repeatable and be agreed between the contracting parties.
8.6 Digital image recording and storage
CR/DDA images should be stored in a file format which supports a minimum of 12-bits/pixel.
The original images shall be stored in full resolution as delivered by the detector system. Only image
processing connected with the detector calibration (e.g. off-set correction, gain calibration for detector
equalization and bad pixel correction (see also ASTM E2597) to provide artefact free detector images shall be
applied before storage of the raw data.
The data storage shall be redundant and be supported by suitable back-up strategies to ensure “loss-less”
data storage.
Any data compression techniques used in the storage of these files shall be “loss-less”, i.e. it shall be possible
to reconstruct the exact original data from the compressed data.
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8.7 Monitor viewing conditions
The digital radiographs shall be examined in a dimmed room. The monitor setup shall be verified with a
suitable test image.
The display for image evaluation shall fulfil the following minimum requirements:
2
a) minimum brightness of 250 cd/m ;
b) display of at least 256 shades of grey;
c) minimum displayable light intensity ratio of 1:250; and
d) display of at least 1 megapixel resolution, with a pixel pitch of < 0,3 mm.
9 Test report
For each exposure, or set of exposures, a test report shall be made giving information on the radiographic
technique used, and on any other special circumstances which would allow a better understanding of the
results.
The test report shall include as a minimum the following information:
a) reference to this standard;
b) name of the examination body;
c) object and pipe isometric and pipe content;
d) material type, outer diameter De and nominal wall thickness t of pipe;
e) material, thickness and condition of insulation;
f) material, dimension and position of the comparator C;
g) specification of examination including requirements for acceptance;
h) radiographic technique and class;
i) test arrangement in accordance with 6.1;
j) system of marking used;
k) detector position plan;
l) radiation source, type and size of focal spot and identification of equipment used;
m) detector, screens and filters;
n) used tube voltage and current or source activity;
o) time of exposure, SDD and PDD;
p) film type, film system and film processing;

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BS EN 16407-1:2014
EN 16407-1:2014 (E)
q) CR system, IP type, scanner model, scanner parameters e.g. scan speed, gain, laser intensity, laser spot
size, pixel size;
r) DDA type, operating parameters, pixel size;
s) basic spatial resolution of digital detectors;
t) measured image parameters:
1) film densities measured at pipe centre (if applicable), in the pipe wall and outside pipe;
2) SNRN, achieved at the pipe centre (if applicable) and in the free beam;
u) measured wall thicknesses, including minimum measured wall thickness and its location;
v) material loss: inside, outside, pitting or generalized;
w) additional observations;
x) any deviation from this standard, by special agreement;
y) name, certification and signature of the operator;
z) date(s) of exposure and test report.

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BS EN 16407-1:2014
EN 16407-1:2014 (E)
Annex A
(normative)
Determination of basic spatial resolution
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Linearized grey levels are the precondition for the measurement of correct basic spatial resolution values. This
means the grey values need to be proportional to the radiation exposure at a given location of the image. This
is typically supported by the manufacturer software.
The duplex wire IQI shall be positioned directly on the detector surface or cassette surface and shall be read
in accordance with EN ISO 19232-5 for determination of the detector basic spatial resolution SRb.
NOTE If the duplex wire IQI is positioned on a test object, instead of directly on the detector, a measurement of
image detector
image basic spatial resolution SRb is then obtained, not detector basic spatial resolution SRb (or SRb ).
If the first unsharp wire pair cannot be recognized clearly (see EN ISO 19232-5), the 20 % dip method shall be
applied as follows:
On the digital radiograph, the first wire pair giving a modulation (dip) of less than 20 % in relation to the double
peak size (see Figure A.1) shall be documented as the result of the IQI test (e.g. D8 as shown in Figure A.1a).
A profile function of the image processing software shall be used to recognize the first wire pair with a dip of
less than 20 % (when averaged over both minima – see Figure A.1(d)). The profile shall also be averaged
(see Figure A.1 b-c) over at least 21 single line profiles to improve the SNR in the profile plot.
By usage of the duplex wire IQI, conforming to EN ISO 19232-5, the inherent image unsharpness ui shall be
determined and the basic spatial resolution SRb of the detector shall be calculated with:
1
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SRb = ui (A.1)
2
The duplex wire IQI shall be positioned at an angle of approximately 2° to 5° towards the pixel line or column
orientation in order to avoid aliasing effects as shown in Figure A.1.
The determination of the basic spatial resolution for a digital detector system (SRb) shall be performed under
one of the following exposure conditions without object:
a) Inspection of light alloys:
1) Tube voltage 90 kV;
2) prefilter 1 mm Al.
b) Inspection of steel and copper alloys ≤ 20 mm penetrated thickness:
2) prefilter 1 mm Cu.
c) Inspection of steel and copper alloys > 20 mm penetrated thickness:
2) prefilter 2 mm Cu.

31
BS EN 16407-1:2014
EN 16407-1:2014 (E)
d) Gamma radiography or high energy radiography:
1) Use the gamma source as specified or X-ray source > 1 MV;
2) prefilter 2 mm Cu or 4 mm steel for Se 75, Ir 192, and 4 mm Cu or 8mm steel for Co 60 or X-ray
voltage > 1 MV.
The duplex wire shall be positioned directly on the detector surface or cassette surface. The source to
detector distance shall be (1 000 ± 50) mm. The mean grey value in the digital image shall exceed 50 % of the
maximum grey value or the SNR shall exceed 100 for standard systems with pixel size ≥ 80 µm or 70 for high
resolution systems with pixel size < 80 µm in the reference radiograph. The basic spatial resolution (see
Formula A.1) as measured in the reference radiograph for the used digital system and the system settings
shall be documented in the examination report.
The detector basic spatial resolution of CR systems shall be measured both perpendicular and parallel to the
scanning direction of the laser. The higher value of the two SRb-values shall be used as resulting detector
detector
basic spatial resolution (SRb or SRb ).
a) Image of the duplex wire IQI as shown in a radiograph

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b) Profile of the duplex wire IQI averaged from at least 21 lines
32
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BS EN 16407-1:2014
EN 16407-1:2014 (E)
c) Zoomed profile of wire pair D7 and D8 d) Scheme for calculation of the dip value
(in %) with: dip = 100 x (A+B-2C)/(A+B)
Key
D7, D8 duplex wire IQI values
X distance
Y amplitude
Figure A.1 — Example for duplex wire IQI evaluation with resulting IQI value D8, being the first one
with a dip < 20 %
image
For improved accuracy in the measurement of the SRb or SRb value, the 20 % dip value should be
interpolated from the modulation depth (dip) of the neighbour duplex wire modulations. Figure A.2 represents
the corresponding procedure for a high resolution CR system.
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33
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BS EN 16407-1:2014
EN 16407-1:2014 (E)
a) Profile plot of measured profile of a high resolution system with determined modulation depths
(dips)
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b) Interpolation of modulation depth vs. duplex wire diameter
NOTE The 20 % value is determined from the intersection with the 20 % line resulting in iSRb = 66 µm.
Figure A.2 — Example for determination of the interpolated basic spatial resolution (iSRb) by
interpolation from the measured modulation (dip) of the neighbour duplex wire elements
The dependence of modulation (dip) from wire diameter should be fitted with a polynomial of second order for
calculation of the intersection with the 20 % line as indicated in Figure A.2. Modulation values greater than
zero shall be used for the interpolation only.
The interpolated SRb value (see Figure A.2) shall be documented as “interpolated SRb value” or iSRb. This
value may be used instead of the non-interpolated value SRb by agreement of contracting parties.
34
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BS EN 16407-1:2014
EN 16407-1:2014 (E)
Annex B
(informative)
Choice of radiation source for different pipes
Figure B.1 shows the maximum penetrated steel thickness, wmax, as a function of pipe wall thickness for
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different pipe outside diameters, derived using Formula (1). The recommended limits on wmax are also shown
for the application of the different radiation sources, which allows the appropriate source to be selected for a
particular pipe, given the outside diameter and wall thickness.
Dimensions in millimetres
Figure B.1 — Maximum penetrated steel thickness, wmax, as a function of wall thickness, tact
The curves in Figure B.1 show the values for pipes of differing outside diameters, De, with dimensions given
in millimetres and nominal bore, NB, according to ANSI B36.1. The limits for different radiation sources given
in Table 1 for class TA are also illustrated. These limits can be increased if digital radiography is used.
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35
BS EN 16407-1:2014
EN 16407-1:2014 (E)
Bibliography
[1] EN 444, Non-destructive testing — General principles for radiographic examination of metallic
materials by X- and gamma-rays
[2] EN 12543-1, Non-destructive testing — Characteristics of focal spots in industrial X-ray systems for
use in non-destructive testing — Part 1: Scanning method
use in non-destructive testing — Part 2: Pinhole camera radiographic method
use in non-destructive testing — Part 3: Slit camera radiographic method
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use in non-destructive testing — Part 4: Edge method
use in non-destructive testing — Part 5: Measurement of the effective focal spot size of mini and micro
focus X-ray tubes
[7] EN 12679:1999, Non-destructive testing — Determination of the size of industrial radiographic sources
— Radiographic method
[8] EN 14096-2:2003, Non-destructive testing — Qualification of radiographic film digitisation systems —

Part 2: Minimum requirements
[9] EN 25580, Non-destructive testing — Industrial radiographic illuminators — Minimum requirements

(ISO 5580:1985)
[10] EN ISO 9712, Non-destructive testing — Qualification and certification of NDT personnel (ISO 9712)
[11] EN ISO 19232-1, Non-destructive testing — Image quality of radiographs — Part 1: Determination of
the image quality value using wire-type image quality indicators (ISO 19232-1)
[12] EN ISO 19232-2, Non-destructive testing — Image quality of radiographs — Part 2: Determination of
the image quality value using step/hole-type image quality indicators (ISO 19232-2)
[13] EN ISO 19232-3, Non-destructive testing — Image quality of radiographs — Part 3: Image quality
classes (ISO 19232-3)
[14] EN ISO 19232-4, Non-destructive testing — Image quality of radiographs — Part 4: Experimental
evaluation of image quality values and image quality tables (ISO 19232-4)
[15] ISO 5576, Non-destructive testing — Industrial X-ray and gamma-ray radiology — Vocabulary
[16] ASTM E1000, Standard Guide for Radioscopy
[17] ASTM E2597, Standard Practice for Manufacturing Characterization of Digital Detector Arrays
[18] ASTM E2736, Standard Guide for Digital Detector Array Radiology
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BS EN 16407-1:2014

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EUROPEAN STANDARD EN 16407-1

ICS 19.100; 23.040.01

Non-destructive testing - Radiographic inspection of corrosion

Essais non destructifs - Examen radiographique de la Zerstörungsfreie Prüfung - Durchstrahlungsprüfung auf

This European Standard was approved by CEN on 26 October 2013.

EUROPEAN COMMITTEE FOR STANDARDIZATION

CEN-CENELEC Management Centre: Avenue Marnix 17, B-1000 Brussels

Copyright British Standards Institution

7.1.1 General ................................................................................................................................................. 22

7.5.4 Dimensional comparator .................................................................................................................... 25

Copyright British Standards Institution

— Part 1: Tangential radiographic inspection;

— Part 2: Double wall radiographic inspection.

a) with the source on the pipe centre line, and

b) with the source offset from it by the pipe radius.

Copyright British Standards Institution

3 Terms and definitions

digital detector array system

[SOURCE: EN 14096-2:2003, 3.2]

[SOURCE: EN 12679:1999, 2.1]

Copyright British Standards Institution

4 Classification of radiographic techniques

The tangential radiographic techniques are divided into two classes:

— basic technique TA;

— improved technique TB.

5.1 Protection against ionising radiation

Copyright British Standards Institution

5.2 Personnel qualification

5.3 Identification of radiographs

5.5 Overlap of films or digital images

5.6 Types and positions of image quality indicators (IQI)

5.6.1 Single wire or step hole IQIs

5.6.2 Duplex wire IQI (digital radiographs)

Copyright British Standards Institution

6 Recommended techniques for making radiographs

6.1 Test arrangements

6.1.2 Radiation source located on the pipe centre line

a) non insulated pipe

Copyright British Standards Institution

a) non insulated pipe

pipe centre line

6.1.4 Alignment of beam and film/detector

Other ways of radiographing may be agreed between contracting parties.

6.2 Choice of radiation source

Figure 3 — Maximum penetrated thickness, wmax, for the tangential technique

The maximum penetrated thickness, wmax, is given by:

t is the nominal thickness of the pipe;

Copyright British Standards Institution

Radiation source Limits on maximum penetrated thickness

6.3 Film systems and metal screens

Radiation source Film system class a Type and thickness of metal

X-ray 0,02 mm to 0,15 mm front and back

Up to 1 mm front screen of copper,

a Better film system classes may also be used.

Copyright British Standards Institution

Radiation source Film system class a Type and thickness of