UNIT IV – MICROPROGRAMMED CONTROL –

10 HRS

Notes By: Raju Poudel (Mechi Multiple Campus)

Microprogrammed vs Hardwired Control

Notes By: Raju Poudel (Mechi Multiple Campus)

Terminologies
Hardwired Control Unit:
When the control signals are generated by hardware using conventional logic design
techniques, the control unit is said to be hardwired.
Micro programmed control unit:
A control unit whose binary control variables are stored in memory is called a micro
programmed control unit.
Control Memory:
Control Memory is the storage in the microprogrammed control unit to store the
microprogram.
Control Word:
The control variables at any given time can be represented by a control word string of
1 's and 0's called a control word.

Notes By: Raju Poudel (Mechi Multiple Campus)

Terminologies
Microoperations:
Micro-operations perform basic operations on data stored in one or more registers,
including transferring data between registers or between registers and external buses
of the central processing unit (CPU), and performing arithmetic or logical operations
on registers.
Microcode:
A very low-level instruction set which is stored permanently in a computer or
peripheral controller and controls the operation of the device.
Microinstruction
A single instruction in microcode. It is the most elementary instruction in the computer,
such as moving the contents of a register to the arithmetic logic unit (ALU).
Microprogram
A set or sequence of microinstructions.

Notes By: Raju Poudel (Mechi Multiple Campus)

Design of Basic Computer
The basic computer consists of the following hardware components:
 A memory unit with 4096 words of 16 bits each.
 Nine registers: AR(Address Reg.), PC (Program Counter), DR(Data
Reg.), AC (Accumulator), IR (Instruction Reg.), TR (Temp. Reg.),
OUTR (Output Reg.), INPR (Input Reg.), and SC (Sequence Counter).
 Flip-flops: lEN (Interrupt Enable), FGI (Input Flag), and FGO (Output
Flag).
 Two decoders: a 3 x 8 operation decoder and a 4 x 16 timing decoder
 A 16-bit common bus.
 Control logic gates.
 Adder and logic circuit connected to the input of AC.

Notes By: Raju Poudel (Mechi Multiple Campus)

Design of Accumulator Logic
 The circuits associated with the AC
register are shown in Fig. The adder and
logic circuit has three sets of inputs.
 One set of 16 inputs comes from the
outputs of AC.
 Another set of 16 inputs comes from the
data register DR.
 A third set of eight inputs comes from
the input register INPR.
 The outputs of the adder and logic
circuit provide the data inputs for the
register. In addition, it is necessary to
include logic gates for controlling the LD,
INR, and CLR in the register and for
controlling the operation of the adder
and logic circuit.
Notes By: Raju Poudel (Mechi Multiple Campus)
Control of AC Register – Gate Structure
 The gate structure that controls the LD,
INR, and CLR inputs of AC is shown in
Fig.
 The output of the AND gate that generates
this control function is connected to the
CLR input of the register.
 Similarly, the output of the gate that
implements the increment micro operation
is connected to the INR input of the
register.
 The other seven micro operations are
generated in the adder and logic circuit
and are loaded into AC at the proper time.
 The outputs of the gates for each control
function is marked with a symbolic name.
These outputs are used in the design of
the adder and logic circuit.
Notes By: Raju Poudel (Mechi Multiple Campus)
ALU Organization
 Various circuits are required to process
data or perform arithmetical operations
which are connected to microprocessor's
ALU.
 Accumulator and Data Buffer stores data
temporarily. These data are processed as
per control instructions to solve problems.
Such problems are addition, multiplication
etc.

Notes By: Raju Poudel (Mechi Multiple Campus)

Functions of ALU:
Functions of ALU or Arithmetic & Logic Unit can be categorized into following 3
categories:
1. Arithmetic Operations:
Additions, multiplications etc. are example of arithmetic operations. Finding greater than
or smaller than or equality between two numbers by using subtraction is also a form of
arithmetic operations.

2. Logical Operations:
Operations like AND, OR, NOR, NOT etc. using logical circuitry are examples of logical
operations.

3. Data Manipulations:
Operations such as flushing a register is an example of data manipulation. Shifting binary
numbers are also example of data manipulation.
Notes By: Raju Poudel (Mechi Multiple Campus)
Control Memory
 A computer that employs a microprogrammed control unit will have two separate
memories: a main memory and a control memory.
 The main memory is available to the user for storing the programs. The contents
of main memory may alter when the data are manipulated and every time that the
program is changed. The user's program in main memory consists of machine
instructions and data.
 In contrast, the control memory holds a fixed microprogram that cannot be altered
by the occasional user. The microprogram consists of microinstructions that specify
various internal control signals for execution of register microoperations.
 Each machine instruction initiates a series of microinstructions in control memory.
These microinstructions generate the microoperations to fetch the instruction from
main memory; to evaluate the effective address, to execute the operation specified
by the instruction, and to return control to the fetch phase in order to repeat the
cycle for the next instruction.

Notes By: Raju Poudel (Mechi Multiple Campus)

Control Memory
 The control unit initiates a series of sequential steps of rnicrooperations. During
any given time, certain microoperations are to be initiated, while others remain
idle. The control variables at any given time can be represented by a string of
1's and 0's called a control word.

 As such, control words can be programmed to perform various operations on

the components of the system.

 The microinstruction specifies one or more microoperations for the system.

A sequence of microinstructions constitutes a microprogram.

Notes By: Raju Poudel (Mechi Multiple Campus)

Microprogrammed Control Organization
 The general configuration of a microprogrammed control unit is demonstrated in
the block diagram of Fig. The control memory is assumed to be a ROM, within
which all control information is permanently stored.

 The control memory address register specifies the address of the

microinstruction, and the control data register holds the microinstruction read
from memory.

Notes By: Raju Poudel (Mechi Multiple Campus)

Address Sequencing
 Microinstructions are stored in control memory in groups, with each group
specifying a routine.
 Each computer instruction has its own microprogram routine in control memory to
generate the microoperations that execute the instruction.
 To appreciate the address sequencing in a microprogram control unit, let us
enumerate the steps that the control must undergo during the execution of a single
computer instruction.
 An initial address is loaded into the control address register when power is turned
on in the computer. This address is usually the address of the first microinstruction
that activates the instruction fetch routine. At the end of the fetch routine, the
instruction is in the instruction register of the computer.
 The control memory next must go through the routine that determines the effective
address of the operand. When the effective address computation routine is
completed, the address of the operand is available in the memory address register.

Notes By: Raju Poudel (Mechi Multiple Campus)

Address Sequencing
 The next step is to generate the microoperations that execute the instruction
fetched from memory. The microoperation steps to be generated in processor
registers depend on the operation code part of the instruction.
 When the execution of the instruction is completed, control must return to the
fetch routine. This is accomplished by executing an unconditional branch
microinstruction to the first address of the fetch routine.
 In summary, the address sequencing capabilities required in a control memory
are:
1. Incrementing of the control address register.
2. Unconditional branch or conditional branch, depending on status bit conditions.
3. A mapping process from the bits of the instruction to an address for control
memory.
4. A facility for subroutine call and return.

Notes By: Raju Poudel (Mechi Multiple Campus)

Conditional Branching
 The branch logic provides decision-making capabilities in the control unit.
 The status conditions are special bits in the system that provide parameter
information such as the carry-out of an adder, the sign bit of a number, the mode
bits of an instruction, and input or output status conditions.

 Information in these bits can be tested and actions initiated based on their
condition: whether their value is 1 or 0.
 The status bits, together with the field in the microinstruction that specifies a branch
address, control the conditional branch decisions generated in the branch logic.

 The branch logic hardware may be implemented in a variety of ways. The simplest
way is to test the specified condition and branch to the indicated address if the
condition is met; otherwise, the address register is incremented.

Notes By: Raju Poudel (Mechi Multiple Campus)

Mapping of Instruction
 Each instruction has its own microprogram routine stored in a given location of control
memory. The transformation from the instruction code bits to an address in control
memory where the routine is located is referred to as a mapping process.
 A mapping procedure is a rule that transforms the instruction code into a control
memory address.
 For example, a computer with a simple instruction format as shown in Fig. 7-3 has an
operation code of four bits. Assume further that the control memory has 128 words,
requiring an address of seven bits. For each operation code there exists a
microprogram routine in control memory that
executes the instruction.

Notes By: Raju Poudel (Mechi Multiple Campus)

Mapping of Instruction
 One simple mapping process that converts the 4-
bit operation code to a 7-bit address for control
memory.
 This mapping consists of placing a 0 in the most
significant bit of the address, transferring the four
operation code bits, and clearing the two least
significant bits of the control address register. This
provides for each computer instruction a
microprogram routine with a capacity of four
microinstructions.
 If the routine needs more than four
microinstructions, it can use addresses 1000000
through 1111111.
 If it uses fewer than four microinstructions, the
unused memory locations would be available for
other routines.

Notes By: Raju Poudel (Mechi Multiple Campus)

Subroutines
 Subroutines are programs that are used by other routines to accomplish a particular
task.
 A subroutine can be called from any point within the main body of the microprogram.
 Frequently, many microprograms contain identical sections of code. Microinstructions
can be saved by employing subroutines that use common sections of microcode.
 For example, the sequence of microoperations needed to generate the effective
address of the operand for an instruction is common to all memory reference
instructions. This sequence could be a subroutine that is called from within many other
routines to execute the effective address computation.
 Microprograms that use subroutines must have a provision for storing the return
address during a subroutine call and restoring the address during a subroutine return.
This may be accomplished by placing the incremented output from the control address
register into a subroutine register and branching to the beginning of the subroutine.
The subroutine register can then become the source for transferring the address for the
return to the main routine.

Notes By: Raju Poudel (Mechi Multiple Campus)

Microprogram
 Microprogram is a sequence of microinstructions that controls the operation of an
arithmetic and logic unit so that machine code instructions are executed.
 It is a microinstruction program that controls the functions of a central processing unit or
peripheral controller of a computer.
Microinstruction Format
The microinstruction format for the control memory is shown in Fig. The 20 bits of the
microinstruction are divided into four functional parts. The three fields F1, F2, and F3
specify microoperations for the computer. The CD field selects status bit conditions. The
BR field specifies the type of branch to be used. The AD field contains a branch address.
The address field is seven bits wide, since the control memory has 128 = 27 words.

Notes By: Raju Poudel (Mechi Multiple Campus)

Symbols & Binary Code for Microoperations

Notes By: Raju Poudel (Mechi Multiple Campus)

Description
 Each microoperation in Table is defined with a register transfer statement and is assigned a
symbol for use in a symbolic microprogram. All transfer-type microoperations symbols use
five letters. The first two letters designate the source register, the third letter is always a T,
and the last two letters designate the destination register. For example, the microoperation
that specifies the transfer AC <-DR (F1 = 100) has the symbol DRTAC, which stands for a
transfer from DR to AC.
 The CD (condition) field consists of two bits which are encoded to specify four status bit
conditions as listed in Table. The first condition is always a 1, so that a reference to CD = 00
(or the symbol U) will always find the condition to be true. We will use the symbols U, I, S,
and Z for the four status bits when we write microprograms in symbolic form.
 The BR (branch) field consists of two bits. It is used, in conjunction with the address field
AD, to choose the address of the next microinstruction. As shown in Table, when BR = 00,
the control performs a jump GMP) operation (which is similar to a branch), and when BR =
01, it performs a call to subroutine (CALL) operation. The return from subroutine is
accomplished with a BR field equal to 10. This causes the transfer of the return address
from SBR to CAR. The mapping from the operation code bits of the instruction to an
address for CAR is accomplished when the BR field is equal to 11.
Notes By: Raju Poudel (Mechi Multiple Campus)
Symbolic Vs Binary Microprogram
Symbolic Microprogram Binary Microprogram
1. It is a set of microinstructions written in a symbolic form. 1. It is a set of microinstructions written in a binary form.

2. It is a convenient form for writing microprograms in a 2. It is written in binary form so can be difficult for people to
way that people can read and understand. read and understand.
3. To be stored in memory symbolic microprogram must be 3. Translation is not required for storing in memory because it is
translated to binary either by means of an assembler already written in binary form.
program or by the user if the microprogram is simple
enough.
4. The symbolic representation is useful for writing 4. The binary representation is the actual internal content that
microprograms in an assembly language format. must be stored in control memory.

5. Example: Symbolic microprogram for fetch routine: 5. Example: Translation of symbolic microprogram to binary
microprogram.

Each line of the assembly language microprogram defines

a symbolic microinstruction. Each symbolic
microinstruction is divided into five fields: label,
microoperations, CD, BR, and AD. Here ORG 64 refers to
the origin address or staring address.

Notes By: Raju Poudel (Mechi Multiple Campus)

Design of Control Unit/Structure of CU
 Control unit generates timing and control
signals for the operations of the computer.
The control unit communicates with ALU
and main memory. It also controls the
transmission between processor, memory
and the various peripherals. It also
instructs the ALU which operation has to
be performed on data.

 Control unit can be designed by two

methods:
1. Hardwired control Unit
2. Micro programmed Control Unit

Notes By: Raju Poudel (Mechi Multiple Campus)

Basic Requirement of Control Unit
 The functional requirements of control unit are those functions that the control unit
must perform and these are the basis for the design and implementation of the
control unit.
 A three step process that lead to the characterization of the Control Unit:
1. Define the basis elements of the processor
2. Describe the micro-operations that the processor performs
3. Determine the functions that the control unit must perform to cause the micro-
operations to be performed.

1. Basic Elements of Processor

The following are the basic functional elements of a CPU:
 ALU: is the functional essence of the computer.
 Registers: are used to store data internal to the CPU.

Notes By: Raju Poudel (Mechi Multiple Campus)

Basic Requirement of Control Unit
2. Types of Micro-operation
These operations consist of a sequence of micro operations. All micro instructions fall
into one of the following categories:
 Transfer data between registers
 Transfer data from register to external
 Transfer data from external to register
 Perform arithmetic or logical operations

3. Functions of Control Unit

The control unit perform two tasks:
 Sequencing: The control unit causes the CPU to step through a series of micro-
operations in proper sequence based on the program being executed.
 Execution: The control unit causes each micro-operation to be performed.

Notes By: Raju Poudel (Mechi Multiple Campus)

Microprogram Sequencer
 The basic components of a microprogrammed control unit are the control memory
and the circuits that select the next address. The address selection part is called a
microprogram sequencer.
 The purpose of a microprogram sequencer is to present an address to the control
memory so that a microinstruction may be read and executed.
 The next-address logic of the sequencer determines the specific address source to
be loaded into the control address register. The choice of the address source is
guided by the next-address information bits that the sequencer receives from the
present microinstruction.
 Commercial sequencers include within the unit an internal register stack used for
temporary storage of addresses during microprogram looping and subroutine calls.
Some sequencers provide an output register which can function as the address
register for the control memory.

Notes By: Raju Poudel (Mechi Multiple Campus)

Microprogram Sequencer
 The control memory is included in the diagram to
show the interaction between the sequencer and
the memory attached to it.
 There are two multiplexers in the circuit.
 The first multiplexer selects an address from one of
the four sources and routes it into the CAR(Control
Address Register).
 The second multiplexer tests the value of a
selected status bit and the result of the test is
applied to an input logic circuit.
 The output from CAR provides the address for the
control memory.
 The contents of CAR is incremented and applied to
one of the multiplexer inputs and to the SBR.
 The other three input come from the address field
of the present microinstruction, from the output of
SBR(Subroutine Register) and from an external
source that maps the instruction.

Notes By: Raju Poudel (Mechi Multiple Campus)