1

TRIGONOMETRIC AND HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS

DR B MENGE

Solving Trigonometric Equations With Identities

Identities enable us to simplify complicated expressions. They are the basic tools of trigonom-
etry used in solving trigonometric equations, just as factoring, finding common denominators,
and using special formulas are the basic tools of solving algebraic equations. In fact, we use
algebraic techniques constantly to simplify trigonometric expressions. Basic properties and for-
mulas of algebra, such as the difference of squares formula and the perfect squares formula, will
simplify the work involved with trigonometric expressions and equations. We already know that
all of the trigonometric functions are related because they all are defined in terms of the unit
circle. Consequently, any trigonometric identity can be written in many ways.
To verify the trigonometric identities, we usually start with the more complicated side of
the equation and essentially rewrite the expression until it has been transformed into the same
expression as the other side of the equation. Sometimes we have to factor expressions, expand
expressions, find common denominators, or use other algebraic strategies to obtain the desired
result.

1. Pythagorean identities
These are equations involving trigonometric functions based on the properties of a right angled
triangle.
The Pyhagorean identities are;

sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1 1 + cot2 θ = csc2 θ 1 + tan2 θ = sec2 θ

The second and third identities can be obtained by manipulating the first. The identity
1 + cot2 θ = csc2 θ is found by rewriting the left side of the equation in terms of sine and cosine.
The solution for 1 + cot2 θ = csc2 θ is;

cos2 θ
1 + cot2 θ = (1 + ) Rewrite the left side
sin2 θ
sin2 θ cos2 θ
= ( 2 ) + ( 2 ) Write both terms with the common denominator.
sin θ sin θ
sin2 θ + cos2 θ
=
sin2 θ
1
=
sin2 θ
= csc2 θ.

1Department of Mathematics and Physics, Technical University of Mombasa, P.O. Box 90420, 80100 Mombasa,
Kenya.
1
2 DR B MENGE

Similarly, 1 + tan2 θ = sec2 θ can be obtained by rewriting the left side of this identity in
terms of sine and cosine. This gives
sin θ 2
1 + tan2 θ = 1 + ( ) Rewrite the left side
cos θ
cos θ 2 sin θ 2
= ( ) +( ) Write both terms with the common denominator.
cos θ cos θ
cos2 θ + sin2 θ
=
cos2 θ
1
=
cos2 θ
= sec2 θ.

2. Even and Odd identities

The next set of fundamental identities is the set of even-odd identities. The even-odd identities
relate the value of a trigonometric function at a given angle to the value of the function at the
opposite angle and determine whether the identity is odd or even.

tan(−θ) = − tan θ sin(−θ) = − sin θ cos(−θ) = cos θ

cot(−θ) = − cot θ csc(−θ) = − csc θ sec(−θ) = sec θ

Recall that an odd function is one in which f (−x) = −f (x) for all x in the domain of f . The
sine function is an odd function because sin(−θ) = − sin θ. The graph of an odd function is
symmetric about the origin. For example, consider corresponding inputs of π2 and − π2 .
The output of sin( π2 ) is opposite the output of sin(− π2 ). Thus,
π π π
sin( ) = 1 and sin(− ) = − sin( ) = −1
2 2 2
The graph of y = sin θ was already illustrated earlier on.
Recall that an even function is one in which f (−x) = f (x) for all x in the domain of f .
The graph of an even function is symmetric about the y-axis. The cosine function is an even
function because cos(−θ) = cos θ.
For example, consider corresponding inputs π4 and − π4 . The output of cos( π4 ) is the same as
the output of cos(− π4 ). Thus,
π π
cos(− ) = cos( ) h 0.707.
4 4
The graph of y = cos θ was illustrated earlier on.
For all θ in the domain of the sine and cosine functions, respectively, we can state the following:
• Since sin(−θ) = − sin θ, sine is an odd function.
• Since, cos(−θ) = cos θ, cosine is an even function.
The other even-odd identities follow from the even and odd nature of the sine and cosine
functions. For example, consider the tangent identity, tan(−θ) = − tan θ. We can interpret the
sin(−θ)
tangent of a negative angle as tan(−θ) = cos(−θ) = sin(−θ)
cos(θ) = − tan θ. Tangent is therefore an odd
function, which means that tan(−θ) = − tan θ for all θ in the domain of the tangent function.
The cotangent identity, cot(−θ) = − cot θ, also follows from the sine and cosine identities.
We can interpret the cotangent of a negative angle as cot(−θ) = cos(−θ) cos(θ)
sin(−θ) = sin(−θ) = − cot θ.
Cotangent is therefore an odd function, which means that cot(−θ) = − cot θ for all θ in the
domain of the cotangent function.
 TRIGONOMETRIC AND HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS 3

The cosecant function is the reciprocal of the sine function, which means that the cosecant
1 1
of a negative angle will be interpreted as csc(−θ) = sin(−θ) = − sin θ = − csc θ. The cosecant
function is therefore odd.
Finally, the secant function is the reciprocal of the cosine function, and the secant of a negative
1
angle is interpreted as sec(−θ) = cos(−θ) = cos1 θ = sec θ. The secant function is therefore even.
To sum up, only two of the trigonometric functions, cosine and secant, are even. The other
four functions are odd, verifying the even-odd identities.
The next set of fundamental identities is the set of reciprocal identities, which, as their name
implies, relate trigonometric functions that are reciprocals of each other. They are:

1 1
sin θ = csc θ =
csc θ sin θ
1 1
cos θ = sec θ =
sec θ cos θ
1 1
tan θ = cot θ =
cot θ tan θ
The final set of identities is the set of quotient identities, which define relationships among
certain trigonometric functions and can be very helpful in verifying other identities. They are
given by;

sin θ cos θ
tan θ = cot θ =
cos θ sin θ
The reciprocal and quotient identities are derived from the definitions of the basic trigono-
metric functions.
Exercises

(1) Plot the graph of y = cot θ and y = tan1 θ .

(2) Verify that tan θ cos θ = sin θ.
(3) Verify the identity csc θ cos θ tan θ = 1.
(4) Verify the following equivalency using the even-odd identities:
(1 + sin x)[1 + sin(−x)] = cos2 x
.
2 θ−1
(5) Verify the identity sec
sec2 θ
= sin2 θ.
(6) Show that cot θ
csc θ = cos θ.
(7) Create an identity for the expression 2 tan θ sec θ by rewriting strictly in terms of sine.
(8) Verify the identity:
sin2 (−θ) − cos2 (−θ)
= cos θ − sin θ
sin(−θ) − cos(−θ)
2
(9) Verify the identity tan θsin θ−1 sin θ+1
sin θ−tan θ = tan θ .
(10) Verify the identity: (1 − cos x)(1 + cot2 x) = 1.
2

(11) Write the following trigonometric expression as an algebraic expression: 2cos2 θ+cos θ−1.
(12) Rewrite the trigonometric expression: 4cos2 θ − 1.
(13) Rewrite the trigonometric expression: 25 − 9 sin2 θ.
(14) Simplify the expression by rewriting and using identities:
csc2 θ − cot2 θ
.
4 DR B MENGE

cos θ 1−sin θ
(15) Use algebraic techniques to verify the identity: 1+sin θ = cos θ (Hint: Multiply the
numerator and denominator on the left side by 1 − sin θ).

3. Hyperbolic Functions
Hyperbolic functions are analogues of the standard trigonometric functions. For each trig
function there is an associated hyperbolic function, given an extra letter h:
ex − e−x
sinh(x) = ,
2
ex + e−x
cosh(x) = ,
2
sinh(x) ex − e−x e2x − 1
tanh(x) = = x = ,
cosh(x) e + e−x e2x + 1
1 cosh(x) ex + e−x e2x + 1
coth(x) = = = x = ,
tanh(x) sinh(x) e − e−x e2x − 1
1 2 2ex
csch(x) = = x = ,
sinh(x) e − e−x e2x − 1
1 2 2ex
sech(x) = = x = .
cosh(x) e + e−x e2x + 1
From their definitions we see the following:
• The functions cosh(x) and sech(x) are even.
The other hyperbolic functions are odd.
• ex = cosh(x) + sinh(x), e−x = cosh(x) − sinh(x).
• The functions sinh(x), cosh(x), tanh(x) and sech(x) are defined for all real x.
The functions coth(x) and csch(x) are undefined at x = 0 and their graphs have vertical
asymptotes there; their domains are all of R except for the origin.
• We have hyperbolic function identities like the trigonometric identities:
– The analogue of cos2 (x) + sin2 (x) = 1 is:
cosh2 (x) − sinh2 (x) = 1,
cosh2 (x) − sinh2 (x) = (cosh(x) − sinh(x))(cosh(x) + sinh(x)) = e−x ex = 1.
– Dividing this identity by cosh2 (x) gives:
1 − tanh2 (x) = sech2 (x).
– The addition formulas:
sinh(x + y) = sinh(x) cosh(y) + cosh(x) sinh(y) = A,
cosh(x + y) = cosh(x) cosh(y) + sinh(x) sinh(y) = B.
tanh(x) + tanh(y)
tanh(x + y) = .
1 + tanh(x) tanh(y)
Proof:
B + A = (cosh(y) + sinh(y))(cosh(x) + sinh(x)) = ey ex = ex+y ,
B − A = (cosh(y) − sinh(y))(cosh(x) − sinh(x)) = e−y e−x = e−(x+y) ,
1
B = (ex+y + e−(x+y) ) = cosh(x + y),
2
1
A = (ex+y − e−(x+y) ) = sinh(x + y).
2
The derivatives are very similar to their trigonometric analogues:
 TRIGONOMETRIC AND HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS 5

– sinh(x)0 = cosh(x),
d 1 x 1
sinh(x)0 = ( (e − e−x )) = (ex + e−x ) = cosh(x).
dx 2 2
– cosh(x)0 = sinh(x),
d 1 x 1
cosh(x)0 = ( (e + e−x )) = (ex − e−x ) = sinh(x).
dx 2 2
– tanh(x)0 = sech2 (x),
sinh(x)0 cosh(x) − cosh(x)0 sinh(x)
tanh(x)0 =
cosh2 (x)
cosh(x) cosh(x) − sinh(x) sinh(x)
= 2 = sech2 (x).
cosh (x)
– coth(x)0 = −csch2 (x),
1 sech2 (x) 1
coth(x)0 = ( )0 = − 2 =− = −csch2 (x).
tanh(x) tanh (x) sinh2 (x)
– csch(x)0 = −csch(x) coth(x),
cosh(x)
csch(x)0 = − = −csch(x) coth(x).
sinh2 (x)
– sech(x)0 = −sech(x) tanh(x),
sinh(x)
sech(x)0 = − = −sech(x) tanh(x).
cosh2 (x)
• As x → ±∞, we have:
– limx→±∞ sinh(x) = ±∞,
– limx→±∞ cosh(x) = ∞,
– limx→±∞ tanh(x) = ±1,
– limx→±∞ csch(x) = 0,
– limx→±∞ sech(x) = 0,
– limx→±∞ coth(x) = ±1.
• The function cosh(x) has an absolute minimum at x = 0:
cosh(x)0 = sinh(x) = 0 at x = 0 only and cosh(x)00 = cosh(x) = 1 > 0 at x = 0.
The function sech(x) has an absolute maximum at x = 0:
sech(x)0 = −sech(x) tanh(x) = 0 at x = 0 only and sech(x)00 = sech(x) tanh2 (x) −
sech(x)sech2 (x) = −1 < 0 at x = 0.
The other hyperbolic function have no critical points.
• The functions sinh(x) and tanh(x) have inflection points at the origin only:
sinh(x)00 = sinh(x) and tanh(x)00 = −2sech2 (x) tanh(x).
We√have sech(x)00 = sech3 (x)(sinh2 (x) − 1) = 0 when √ sinh(x) = ±1, so when x =
ln( 2 ± 1), and sech(x) has inflection points at x = ln( 2 ± 1) only.
The other hyperbolic functions have no inflection points.
• The function sinh(x) has domain and range the whole real line and is everywhere in-
creasing, so has an inverse function denoted sinh−1 (x).
We can get a formula for this function as follows:
Let y = sinh−1 (x), so sinh(y) = x, so ey − e−y = 2x.
Put z = ey .
6 DR B MENGE

Then z − z1 = 2x, so z 2 − 1 = 2xz, so z 2 − 2xz − 1 = 0.

By the quadratic formula, we have:
1 p p
z = (2x ± 4x2 + 4) = x ± x2 + 1.
2
But z = ey is positive, so we need the plus sign:
p
z = x + x2 + 1,
p
y = ln(x + x2 + 1),
p
sinh−1 (x) = ln(x + x2 + 1).
√
In particular if we put x = ±1, we find that sinh−1 (±1) = ln( 2 ± 1).
• We can do y = tanh−1 (x) similarly:
Let y = tanh−1 (x).
2y
Then x = tanh(y) = ee2y −1+1
,
(e2y + 1) + e2y − 1 2e2y
1+x= = ,
e2y + 1 e2y + 1
(e2y + 1) − (e2y − 1) 2
1−x= 2y
= 2y ,
e +1 e +1
1+x
= e2y ,
1−x
1 1+x
y = ln( ),
2 1−x
1 1+x
tanh−1 (x) = ln( ).
2 1−x
The function tanh(x) has domain R and range (−1, 1).
The function tanh−1 (x) has domain (−1, 1) and range R.

• The function coth−1 (x) has domain |x| > 1 and range all of R except for the origin. We
have:
1 1 x+1
coth−1 (x) = tanh−1 ( ) = ln( ).
x 2 x−1
• Similarly we have:
r
−1 −1 1 1 1
csch (x) = sinh ( ) = ln( + + 1).
x x x2
This function has domain and range all non-zero reals.
• The function x = cosh(y) is increasing for y ≥ 0, so has an inverse function, written
y = cosh−1 (x).
We have 2x = ey + e−y = z + z1 , where z = ey .
Then:
2xz = z 2 + 1, 0 = z 2 − 2xz + 1,
p
z = x ± x2 − 1.
We want z ≥ 1.√ √
Now if a = x − x2 − 1 and b = x + x2 − 1, then 0 < a ≤ b and ab = x2 − (x2 − 1) = 1,
so b2 ≥ ab = 1, so b ≥ 1 and a ≤ 1, so z is b.
So we take the plus sign, giving:
p
cosh−1 (x) = ln(x + x2 − 1).
This function has domain all x ≥ 1 and range all non-negative reals.
 TRIGONOMETRIC AND HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS 7

• Finally we have, for the domain (0, 1]:

√
−1 −1 1 1 + 1 − x2
sech (x) = cosh ( ) = ln( ).
x x
• The derivatives of the inverse hyperbolics are easily obtained:
– y = sinh−1 (x), x = sinh(y),
q p
1 = cosh(y)y = y 1 + sinh2 (y) = y 0 1 + x2 ,
0 0

d 1
sinh−1 (x) = √ .
dx 1 + x2
– y = csch−1 (x) = sinh−1 ( x1 ),
1 1
y0 = − 2
q ,
x 1+ 1
x2

d 1
csch−1 (x) = − √ .
dx |x| 1 + x2
– y = cosh−1 (x), x = cosh(y),
q p
1 = sinh(y)y 0 = y 0 cosh2 (y) − 1 = y 0 x2 − 1,

d 1
cosh−1 (x) = √ .
dx 2
x −1
– y = sech−1 (x) = cosh−1 ( x1 ),
1 1
y0 = − 2
q ,
x 1
− 1
x2

d 1
sech−1 (x) = − √ .
dx x 1 − x2
– y = tanh−1 (x), tanh(y) = x,
1 = sech2 (y)y 0 = (1 − tanh2 (y))y 0 = (1 − x2 )y 0 .

d 1
tanh−1 (x) = .
dx 1 − x2
– y = coth−1 (x) = tanh−1 ( x1 ),
1 1
y0 = − ,
x 1 − x12
2

d 1
coth−1 (x) = .
dx 1 − x2
Note that tanh−1 (x) and coth−1 (x) both have formally the same derivative, but they do
not differ by a constant.
This is because they have different, non-overlapping domains.
8 DR B MENGE

3.1. Problems.
• Use hyperbolic functions to parametrize both arcs of the hyperbola with equation y 2 −
x2 = 1.
• Calculate the quartic expansions around the origin of the hyperbolic functions: sinh(x),
cosh(x), tanh(x), sech(x), sinh−1 (x) and tanh−1 (x).
• Find the possible values of the non-zero constant a such that y = sinh(at) obeys the
2
equation ddt2y = 9y.
Can you find another solution of this equation not proportional to this one?
00
• Show that y = cosh(x) obeys the equation √ y 0 2 = 1.
1+(y )
• If x = ln(sec(t) + tan(t)), show that sec(t) = cosh(x) and tan(t) = sinh(x).
• Find the derivatives of sinh(t2 ) and sinh−1 (t2 ).