Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov

Series VIII: Art • Sport • Vol. 4 (53) No. 1 - 2011

ROMANIAN OCHTOECHOI AND

SIMILARITIES TO MIDDLE EASTERN MODES
AND PRACTICES: A CASE STUDY (PART I)

B. SCURTU1 C. ŢUŢU2

Abstract: This two-part article will try to capture, trace and analyze the
Byzantine musical modes, as they appeared at a brief moment, some nineteen
hundred years later, in a specific geographical place, a former part of the
Byzantium Empire. We will try to compare the Church modes, as they appear
in two Romanian Seminary textbooks, published one in 1900 and the other
one in 1939 to other modal structures developed in the heartland of Eastern
Christianity, the Middle East.

Key words: Ochtoechoi, Maqamat, Makamlar, diatonic, chromatic,

enharmonic

1. Introduction elements were there when the religion

started, in the times of Jesus, as it is the
Orthodox Christians proud themselves case with music. Tight rules and practices
and distinguish themselves from other kept the tradition intact from generation to
Christian denominations by the direct generation, with minimal changes and
unbroken lineage from Jesus and His adaptation. But did indeed this Art go
Apostles, with unchanged doctrine and the unchanged for two thousand years?
original practices of worship. It is also said
that Eastern Orthodox Christianity is the 2. Diachronic perspective on Middle
only Christian denomination that has a Eastern musical system
complete philosophical system. Although
it claims to be profoundly a-political, it The Byzantine system of modes is called
was at the center of an Empire, by which Ochtoechoi and it is comprised of eight
name it is known today: Byzantium. The modes called Echoi. The system was
vast areas the Empire comprised helped thought to have originated from the Greek
crystallize and develop a unique style of modes (due to the Eastern Orthodox post
Painting, a unique style of Architecture, Byzantine center, in Greece). After the
religious poetry and music system, which conquest of Constantinople, Greece
today are known as Byzantine Art. Some established itself as the main center of

1
Stony Brook University, New York.
2
Faculty of Music, Transilvania University, Braşov.
70 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov. Series VIII • Vol. 4 (53) No. 1 - 2011

Eastern Orthodoxy especially due to the the Echoi lost some of the tradition is the
center of Orthodox monasticism of Mount Russian Orthodox Church, were cultural
Athos where other Eastern European imports brought in by Peter the Great
countries (besides Greece, of course), such determined a Westernization of the modal
as Romania, Serbia, Georgia and Russia structures, simplifying the chants and
have monasteries; however the Patriarch of eliminating the un-tempered scale degrees.
Constantinople (modern Istanbul) is still Due to these facts, we will limit our
considered today the “First Among research to Romanian Ochtoechoi as they
Equals” in between the Patriarchs of appear in treatises at the beginning of the
different National Churches. 20th century.
Today it’s widely accepted in Byzantine In the realm of creativity and the
music scholarship that the Ochtoechoi relationship between composer –
have originated from the old Temple performer – listener, the Middle Eastern
Jewish Chant and were later influenced by music and the Byzantine one differ
(pre-Islamic) Syriac Music. radically one from another and from the
Byzantine music has only one purpose, Western classical ideal. While writing
and that is to serve the religious texts, to music, the Middle Eastern composers
mold to the syllables, without interfering merely suggest a line; it is then for the
and at the most to emphasize certain words performer to perfect and adjust it in each
or phrases. Islamic music and in particular performance, based on the input from the
that of certain Sufi orders, work exactly in audience. The audience is an active
the same way, where music will support participant, they approve or disapprove
and enhance the meaning of the religious phrases, they can request repetition of
poems. favourite phrases, and the performer can
Due to the modern organization of the accommodate some of the request.
Eastern Orthodoxy in National In the Byzantine modal system, the
autocephalous and autonomous Churches composers are usually anonymous, and I
in communion with each other, and to the would draw a comparison with another Art
functionality of Byzantine music that is (I’m using this word in this context only
applied to the text, each National Church for convention) in the Eastern Church – the
developed a tradition of slightly different Ikon painting. Just like the music, the Ikon
chants but in the same system of modes. serves a specific purpose and function in
The continuity, development and the Eastern Church: Ikons are to be
perfection of Byzantine Art tradition over venerated and the Ikon Are the Holy
the ages occurred in the monastic Person they depict; the painters of Ikons
environment. In the case of music, the are trained anonymous monks free and
National languages influenced the actual devoid of any artistic individuality. The
chants, as the focus would switch to music Ikon is not Art and should not be
instead of the words, if hymns would be comprehended in terms of Art. The music
translated on the same melody from one for the service and for other religious
language to another. The functions of the poems is composed in the same way, with
Echoi, their astral correspondent and their a few exceptions of recent (from the late
rotation into the Orthodox service based on 1800s) classical trained composers.
calendar days could be the subject of an Traditionally, performing Byzantine and
entire paper, although enough research has Middle Eastern music is done mainly in a
already been done on the topic. The only heterophonical style, the most with some
exception, the only National Church were sustaining pedal tones. While Makamlar
B. SCURTU et al.: Romanian Ochtoechoi and similarities to Middle Eastern modes and … 71

can be performed in laic environments Unfortunately, the equal temperament of

with instruments as well, Byzantine music the Ochtoechoi is a reality in today’s
is sung traditionally almost exclusively by Romanian Orthodox Music. A modern
male voices. textbook published in 1997 [4] to be used
But the most important issue is the in seminaries across the country compares
tuning of these systems of modes. While the modes with the neumatic notation with
there has been some scholarship in this modern linear notation in equal
field in Byzantine music, it’s been temperament. Indeed, while listening to a
surpassed by far by the amount of research recording over the Internet of the chant
performed in the Middle Eastern modes, Ceea ce eşti bucuria (Romanian for “The
which doesn’t mean it’s a bad thing in One that are the Joy”) by the Choir of the
itself after all. The multitude of research Bucharest Seminary, everything is sung in
into Maqamat (the system of Middle equal temperament.
Eastern Modes) and Makamlar (the system
of Ottoman Modes) established an 3. Romanian Byzantine music textbooks
conventional nomenclature in describing
the modes in quarter tones, although most As we wrote before, the two earlier
Treatises in the field acknowledge that Romanian textbooks for seminaries,
theory is different from practice and that Popescu-Pasărea (1939) [2] and Severeanu
there are finer tunings than that: “pitches in (1900) [5] describe the modes in
performance vary from the theoretical microtonal tuning.
pitches (…) in makam saba, for example, Before going into more details, we feel
the fourth degree consistently measures an obliged to draw attention to the title
average of 29 cents higher in practice than employed by these two older treatises, of
in theory” [1]; parts of it had to do with the Oriental Psaltic Church Music. Both of
desire and search of explaining the them use the term Oriental, which might
Maqamat and Makamlar with Greek be an indicator showing the belonging of
Pythagorean theory; one of the approaches the Romanian Orthodox Music practice to
in explaining intervals in Ottoman and the Middle Eastern style as opposed to the
Middle Eastern music has been by giving Russian (Westernized) style; it might as
fractions of string vibrations using a long well be an indicator opposing the Greek
necked fretted lute such as the Ottoman origin of the modes (in the late 1800s and
tanbur, and event that method in itself is early 1900s it had just been proven that the
debatable. Byzantine modes are traced from the
But in the case of Byzantine Music Middle East Jewish chants from the
theory, where there are no instruments Temple and the Syriac chant, as we
allowed (although in the distant past, the mentioned before, and not from the Greek
organ was used in the Orthodox Church; modes).
the organ was also used in the Jewish The interesting aspect in both of these
temple and in the early Syriac Christian treatises is that although their authors show
Church) [2], it is even harder to determine the structure of the Echoi while using the
the exact pitches for each individual modal word “quarter tone”, when summed up, the
structure, and we will have to rely on the quarter tones of each Byzantine scale sum
tradition: “Fetis shows us on Western up to only 22 units to an octave. Did they
notation these formulas; but they don’t just forget to add one half tone (or two
correspond with those that were more quarters) or was there a different
transmitted to us through tradition.” [3] division employed by the practice of
72 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov. Series VIII • Vol. 4 (53) No. 1 - 2011

singing the Orthodox hymns? Or does it structure, for which we are using our own
really matter, are the results still the same or linear notation using neutral pitches and no
about the same? To allow our reader to take finer tuning than the standard quartertone.
this decision, we are showing in our The Ochtoechoi is a collection of eight
comparison charts the number of cents that modes formed by four authentic modes and
result from these “quarter tones” as 22 to an their plagal versions. The term Echoi
octave (and therefore divided 1200 cents to appears in Byzantine music in the 6th
an octave to 22) next to the numbers of cents century (sever from Antiohia) [9], but Ioan
if this would indeed be quarter tones (24 to Damaschinul is considered the one who
an octave). We are also converting the systematized the Ochtoechoi – “the book
results to comas, where 1 coma equals 23 used for the religious services for each day
cents (as Signell has in his book of Makamat of the week.”[10] Each mode has one or
[6]), to ease the comparison with the several (usually two) different tonics and
Ottoman pentachords [7]. Besides even more dominants (or cadenzas)
comparing them to Ottoman Makamlar according to the Rhythmic Style (usually
pentachord structures, we will also show one either Sticheraic, Heirmologic and Papadic).
correspondent with Arab Maqams, as they According to Constantin Râpă, “Sticheraic
appear in the Volume 5 of the Arab Music Style is the one which establishes the
treaty by D’Erlanger [8]. modal features of byzantine music
(functionalities, formulas, interior and final
4. Comparative study cadences, etc.) […], mean while the
melodies in Heirmologic Style are
We have made the choices of frequently consisting of four, five, six
comparison modes in a somewhat arbitrary sounds, using small intervals, and usually
way, sometimes looking at the coma pre-octaviant ambitus […] The Papadic
structure, sometimes looking at the Style allows more liberties in using
“quarter tone” structure or even due the melodic formulas, cadences and tonics,
homonymic term of scales. We will state being the most apprehensive one regarding
that all notations, in quarter tones, comas Turkish and Arabian influences”.[11]
etc. in all books that we are using have These rhythmic styles have to do more
shortcomings, and the results or even the with text painting and the use of syllables
premises are debatable, therefore we are per note than with actual tempi, thus the
doing an exercise of imagination in difference and the uniqueness of chants in
bringing these together at a common various National languages, for the various
denominator or on a common ground. The autonomous Churches.
numbers will prove and show the degree of The Byzantine system of modes actually
adjusting that we have made or the uses three structure scales, as opposed to
differences in the existing notation that we the Western Music system which uses only
are starting from. Our interpretation can be one (the tempered scale) and the Maqamat
challenged and debated, and not once did and Makamlar systems which use several.
we have to choose from several An article by Takis [12] clarifies the
possibilities, especially while choosing a distribution of the scales to the eight
comparison Maqam from D’Erlanger’s modes, and his explanation is
treaty. In the lower corner we are also corresponding perfectly with the
showing the transcription in linear notation nomenclature from all the three Romanian
as it appears in Lungu et al (1997), with books (1900, 1939 and 1997). The three
the exception of the Diatonic Scale scales are the DIATONIC one, the
B. SCURTU et al.: Romanian Ochtoechoi and similarities to Middle Eastern modes and … 73

CHROMATIC one and the emphasize the significance of certain

ENHARMONIC one. passages in the religious text. The chart is
The structure of the Diatonic scale not complete for the Echoi and has some
resembles the Western scale except the E omissions in respect to a few other variants
and the B are neutral pitches about half of certain modes, due to different other
way between E flat and E natural and issues such as combinations between
respectively B flat and B natural; the Echoi, text setting, tempo and religious
descending Diatonic scale uses the B flat motivical use. The fact that these variants
instead of the neutral B; Echoi VIII (or use the same modal structure spares the
plagal IVth), I, IV and the Vth (or plagal authors of this article from a lengthy
Ist) use this scale. argument.
Takis writes that the Enharmonic scale
has tempered intonation and is exactly the in tempered tuning by Lungu et al. (1997)
like Western Major scale; Echoi III and
VII (or plagal IIIrd) are using this scale.
The Chromatic scale contains augmented
seconds and it is used for the Echoi II and
its plagal version, VI. He identifies a Soft
Chromatic and a Hard Chromatic Scale
and argues that some of the modes VI use
the Hard Chromatic Scale, while some of
the Modes II use the Soft Chromatic Scale.
He describes the Soft Chromatic Scale as
being based on G and having the A above
slightly flatted. Additionally, if the melody
goes above C, the high E is flat, but if the
melody goes to the lower C, then the low
D is also flatted. The Hard Chromatic
Scale is based on D followed by Eb, a very
sharpened F#, G, A, Bb, C# (very sharp as
well) and D, as seen in figure no.1:

Fig. 1. Hard Chromatic Scale

(by Takis)
Far on we are showing a chart of
Byzantine Ochtoechoi as they appear in the
Romanian 1997 textbook by Lungu,
Costea and Croitoru, with the tonic and
dominants for each mode in each rhythmic
style. The chart does not include the other
scales of Nisabur, Hisar and Mustar. The
authors write that these three extra scales
do not make up independent modes or
Echoi, but rather are used as passing scales
in modulation, only when needed to Fig. 2. Byzantine Modes
74 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov. Series VIII • Vol. 4 (53) No. 1 - 2011

The byzantine modes are grouped in two with the Husayini mode in D’Erlanger
categories: the first four are authentic scales instead of Bayati, due to several reasons.
(dorios, lydios, phrygios, mixolydios), the First of all, this byzantine mode
other four are plagal hypodorios, hypolydios, represents a landmark for the Ochtoechoi,
hypophrygios, hypomixolydios). [13] One as Victor Giuleanu affirms in his treaty:
can observe that some of these scales are “The first mode is – in theoretical order –
similar or even identical. But the differences the first diatonic system of byzantine
between them will appear concerning their melody. The prototypical modal formulas,
inner characteristics: the type of structure, its cadences, the processes used in melodic
formulas and modal cadences, the configuration, the composition diversity of
functionality of the sounds in the system, etc. the three rhythmic styles – sticheraic,
heirmologic and papadic – and its
4.1 The Diatonic scale characteristic expressivity make this scale
the starting and orientation point for the
The scale structure used by the largest entire byzantine diatonism”. [14]
number of Echoi is the Diatonic scale. Also we want to underline the pitch of B
Four Echois are using it: 1, 4, 5, 8. Even if neutral in the ascending scale versus the
the diatonic scale contains tones and Bb in the descending scale (although the
semitones, these intervals, from the 1900 and 1939 don’t show the descending
byzantine modal concept, have different scale structure there are plenty of sources,
sizes. Originally the byzantine scale is including Lungu et al. (1997) to convince
divided into 68 micro-intervals, but later, us of the lowering of the B in the
Anton Pann simplified it by using only 22 descending scale); according to
“divisions” of the octave, as follows: D’Erlanger, Bayati Maqam uses the Bb in
the ascending scale as well as in the
Byzantine octave: 68 descending one; only the Husayini Maqam
pa vu ga di ke zo ni pa has the neutral B in the ascending mode.
3 7 12 12 9 7 12 While analyzing the structure of the
Byzantine Diatonic scale, the question that
Anton Pann octave: 22 arouses in the case of the authors of the
pa vu ga di ke zo ni pa 1900 and 1939 is why are there only two
3 2 4 4 3 2 4 so-called “quarter tones” between E and F
and B and C? Did the authors start from
Fig. 4. Divisions of the octave the assumption that between E and F and B
Thus, in the byzantine diatonic scale and C there is only a half step, and
Anton Pann uses three sizes of intervals: therefore 2 “quarter tones”? Are they
- Hard tone (4 quarter tones); forgetting that E and B are neutral pitches
- Soft tone (3 quarter tones); and therefore there should be added 1
- Semitone (2 quarter tones). quarter tones to these intervals (like
Further on we are choosing to compare D’Erlanger does for the Husayini
the 1st Diatonic scale from the Byzantine structure)?
system: But that would add the sum of the
quarter tones up to 24, and all other scales
in Popescu-Pasărea and Severeanu add up
to only 22. We are so convinced that the
Fig. 3. First Echoi (dorean) Diatonic scale structure has E neutral and
B neutral that in the lower right hand
B. SCURTU et al.: Romanian Ochtoechoi and similarities to Middle Eastern modes and … 75

corner of the Diatonic Comparison Chart, the early Romanian textbooks were
we are showing our transcription into published. Rather they were written based
linear notation (in all other charts we are on previous treatises and transmitted
using the tempered tuning linear notation knowledge and practice. Even like that, the
as it appears in Lungu et al.). human voices that might be measured are
subject to external influences.
Unfortunately, today’s Westerner has lost
the sensitivity to microintervals and fine-
tuning, but maybe it wasn’t during the time
of Severeanu and Popescu-Pasărea.
Maybe a better method of tracing the
Ochtoechoi structures and exact pitch
location would start by analyzing the
construction of the early Organs used in
the Jewish Temple and in the Syriac
Church. By comparing the results to the
structures, as they appear in theory and
Byzantine music practices today, one
might be able to trace better the evolution
of the modes in time.
Unfortunately the contemporary
Romanian Orthodox churches practices of
singing, in urban environments changed,
and are moving towards the Western style
equal temperament. The only places where
Fig. 4. Byzantine Diatonic Scale the traditions are well conserved are the
Structure enclosed communities of the monasteries.
For space editing reasons regarding our References
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scales comparative discussions. We will Maqam Practice. In: Garland
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modern theories based on Paolo Ferreti’s 2002, pp. 47-58.
views on centonization [15], and look at 2. Zannos, I.: Intonation in Theory and
the melodic formulas that comprise the Practice of Greek and Turkish Music.
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(which is the traditional mode of thought 22 (1990), pp. 42-59.
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Muzica Bisericească – Orientală
5 Conclusions (Psaltică). Bucharest, Religious Book
Tipography, 1939, p. 20.
It is very hard to calculate the exact 4. Lungu, N.; Costea, Gr.; Croitoru, I.:
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Makamlar. Exact electronic measurements notaţia liniară. Bucharest, 1997.
have certainly not been made by the time
76 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov. Series VIII • Vol. 4 (53) No. 1 - 2011

5. Severeanu, N.: Curs elementar de 11. Râpă, C.: Teoria superioară a muzicii,
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