ECH 3023 (Chemical Heat Transfer)

LO2: Heat Convection

2.1 PHYSICAL MECHANISM OF CONVECTION

Conduction and convection both

require the presence of a material
medium but convection requires
fluid motion.
Convection involves fluid motion as
well as heat conduction.
Heat transfer through a solid is
always by conduction.
Heat transfer through a fluid is by
convection in the presence of bulk
fluid motion and by conduction in
the absence of it.
Therefore, conduction in a fluid can
be viewed as the limiting case of
convection, corresponding to the
case of quiescent fluid.

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The fluid motion enhances heat transfer, since it brings warmer and
cooler chunks of fluid into contact, initiating higher rates of conduction
at a greater number of sites in a fluid.
The rate of heat transfer through a fluid is much higher by convection
than it is by conduction.
In fact, the higher the fluid velocity, the higher the rate of heat transfer.

Heat transfer through a

fluid sandwiched between
two parallel plates.

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Convection heat transfer strongly depends on the fluid properties
dynamic viscosity, thermal conductivity, density, and specific heat, as
well as the fluid velocity. It also depends on the geometry and the
roughness of the solid surface, in addition to the type of fluid flow (such
as being streamlined or turbulent).

Newton’s
law of
cooling

Convection heat transfer coefficient, h: The rate of heat

transfer between a solid surface and a fluid per unit surface
area per unit temperature difference.

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No-slip condition: A fluid in direct contact with a solid “sticks” to the surface
due to viscous effects, and there is no slip.
Boundary layer: The flow region adjacent to the wall in which the viscous
effects (and thus the velocity gradients) are significant.
The fluid property responsible for the no-slip condition and the development
of the boundary layer is viscosity.

A fluid flowing over a stationary surface

comes to a complete stop at the surface
The development of a velocity because of the no-slip condition.
profile due to the no-slip condition
as a fluid flows over a blunt nose.
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An implication of the no-slip condition is that heat transfer from the solid
surface to the fluid layer adjacent to the surface is by pure conduction,
since the fluid layer is motionless, and can be expressed as

The determination of the convection heat transfer coefficient

when the temperature distribution within the fluid is known

The convection heat transfer coefficient, in general, varies along the flow
(or x-) direction. The average or mean convection heat transfer coefficient
for a surface in such cases is determined by properly averaging the local
convection heat transfer coefficients over the entire surface area As or
length L as

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Reynolds Number At large Reynolds numbers, the inertial
The transition from laminar to turbulent forces, which are proportional to the
flow depends on the geometry, surface fluid density and the square of the fluid
roughness, flow velocity, surface velocity, are large relative to the viscous
temperature, and type of fluid. forces, and thus the viscous forces
cannot prevent the random and rapid
The flow regime depends mainly on the fluctuations of the fluid (turbulent).
ratio of inertia forces to viscous forces
At small or moderate Reynolds
(Reynolds number).
numbers, the viscous forces are large
enough to suppress these fluctuations
and to keep the fluid “in line” (laminar).

Critical Reynolds number, Recr: The

Reynolds number at which the flow
becomes turbulent.
The value of the critical Reynolds
number is different for different
geometries and flow conditions.

The Reynolds number can be

viewed as the ratio of inertial
forces to viscous forces
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acting on a fluid element. 9
2. Nusselt Number
In convection studies, it is common practice to nondimensionalize the governing
equations and combine the variables, which group together into dimensionless
numbers in order to reduce the number of total variables.
Nusselt number: Dimensionless convection heat transfer coefficient

Lc characteristic length

The Nusselt number represents the

enhancement of heat transfer through
a fluid layer as a result of convection
relative to conduction across the same
fluid layer.
The larger the Nusselt number, the
more effective the convection.
A Nusselt number of Nu = 1 for a fluid
Heat transfer through a fluid layer layer represents heat transfer across
of thickness L and temperature the layer by pure conduction.
difference T. 10
3. Prandtl Number
The relative thickness of the velocity and the thermal boundary layers
is best described by the dimensionless parameter Prandtl number

The Prandtl numbers of gases are

about 1, which indicates that both
momentum and heat dissipate
through the fluid at about the same
rate.
Heat diffuses very quickly in liquid
metals (Pr << 1) and very slowly in
oils (Pr >> 1) relative to momentum.
Consequently the thermal boundary
layer is much thicker for liquid metals
and much thinner for oils relative to
the velocity boundary layer.

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EXAMPLE 6– 1 Heat Transfer Calculation from Temperature Profile
During the flow of air at T∞ = 20° C over a plate surface maintained at a constant temperature
of Ts =160° C, the dimensionless temperature profile within the air layer over the plate is
determined to be
𝑇 𝑦 − 𝑇∞
= 𝑒 −𝑎𝑦
𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞
- 1
where a =3200 m and y is the vertical distance measured from the plate surface in m ( Fig.
6– 8). Determine the heat flux on the plate surface and the convection heat transfer
coefficient.

Properties: The thermal conductivity of air at the film temperature of

Tf =(Ts + T∞) / 2 = ( 160° C +20° C)/ 2 = 90° C is k = 0.03024 W/ m K ( Table A– 15).

Ans: q. = 1.35x104 W/m2 , h = 96.8W/m2.K

Figure 6.8

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• For cross flow over a cylinder, use equation 7-35, where
Re Pr >0.2 and the fluid properties are evaluated at the
average film temperature Tf =(Ts + T∞) / 2 (Otherwise use
table 7-1)

• For flow over a sphere, use equation 7-36 . It is valid for

3.5≤Re ≤80000 , 0.7≤Pr≤380 and m∞/ms ≤3.2

• For Forced Convection across Circular and Non-circular

conduits use the general equation
Nu = hD/k = CRem Prn, where C, m, and n are given in
Table 7-1 .
For flow over a cylinder

The fluid properties are evaluated at the film temperature

For flow over a sphere

The fluid properties are evaluated at the free-stream temperature T,

except for ms, which is evaluated at the surface temperature Ts.

Constants C and m are

given in the table.
The relations for cylinders above are for single cylinders or
cylinders oriented such that the flow over them is not affected by
the presence of others. They are applicable to smooth surfaces. 17
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EXAMPLE 7– 5: Heat Loss from a Steam Pipe in Windy Air
A long 10- cm- diameter steam pipe whose external surface temperature is 110 C passes through some
open area that is not protected against the winds ( Fig. 7– 23). Determine the rate of heat loss from the
pipe per unit of its length when the air is at 1 atm pressure and 10 C and the wind is blowing across the
pipe at a velocity of 8 m/ s.
Solution
Assumptions:
1 Steady operating conditions exist.
2 Radiation effects are negligible.
3 Air is an ideal gas.
Properties: The properties of air at the average film temperature Tf =(Ts+T∞)/2 = ( 110 +10)/ 2 = 60 C
and 1 atm pressure are read from ( Table A– 15) k = 0.02808 W/ m. K Pr = 0.7202, n =1.896 x10 -5 m2/ s

Re = VD/n = ( 8 m/ s)( 0.1 m) /(1.896 x10 -5 m2/ s) = 4.219 x104

Substituting in Equation 7-35 we get,

Nu = 124 → h = kNu/D = 0.02808x124/0.1 = 34.8 W/m2K

Then, the rate of heat transfer from the pipe per unit of its length can be found as follows:

As = pL = pDL = p( 0.1 m)( 1 m) = 0.314 m2

P = dQ/dt = hAs ( Ts - T∞) = ( 34.8 W/ m2. K)( 0.314 m2)( 110 -10) C =1093 W

Exercise: Show that we can get Nu = 128 by using table 7-1.

Figure 7.23

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EXAMPLE 7– 6: Cooling of a Steel Ball by Forced Air.
A 25- cm- diameter stainless steel ball ( r =8055 kg/ m3, cp = 480 J/ kg. K) is removed from the oven at a uniform
temperature of 300 C ( Fig. 7– 24). The ball is then subjected to the flow of air at 1 atm pressure and 25 C with a velocity
of 3 m/ s. The surface temperature of the ball eventually drops to 200 C. Determine the average convection heat transfer
coefficient during this cooling process and estimate how long the process will take.
SOLUTION
Assumptions
1- Steady operating conditions exist. 2- Radiation effects are neg-ligible.
3- Air is an ideal gas. 4- The outer surface temperature of the ball is uniform at all times.
5- The surface temperature of the ball during cooling is changing. Therefore, the convection heat transfer coefficient
between the ball and the air will also change. To avoid this complexity, we take the surface temperature of the ball to be
constant at the average temperature of ( 300 +200)/ 2= 250 C in the evaluation of the heat transfer coefficient and use
the value obtained for the entire cooling process.
Properties: The dynamic viscosity of air at the average surface temperature is ms = m @ 250 C =2.76 x10 -5 kg/ m. s. The
properties of air at the free- stream temperature of 25 C and 1 atm from( Table A– 15) are
k = 0.02551 W/ m. K, n =1.562 x10 -5 m2/ s, m =1.849 x10 -5 kg/ m. s , Pr = 0.7296

Re = VD/n = 4.802x104 ,
Nu = hD/k = 2 + [0.4Re1/2+ 0.06Re 2/3 ]Pr0.4 (m ∞ /ms)1/4 = 135
Therefore, h = 13.8 W/m2.K
In order to estimate the time of cooling of the ball from 300 C to 200 C, we divide the total heat transferred from the ball
by the average rate of heat transfer.
As= pD2 =p( 0.25 m) 2 =0.1963 m2 , Average dQ / dt.= hAs ( Ts, avg- T∞ ) = ( 13.8 W/ m2. K)( 0.1963 m2)( 250 -25) C = 610 W
Next we determine the total heat transferred from the ball, which is simply the change in the energy of the ball as it
cools from 300 C to 200 C: m = rV = rpD3/6 =( 8055 kg/ m3) x p( 0.25 m) 3 /6 = 65.9 kg
Qtotal = mcp ( T2- T1) = ( 65.9 kg)( 480 J/ kg. K)( 300- 200) C = 3,163,000 J
In this calculation, we assumed that the entire ball is at 200 C, which is not necessarily true. The inner region of the ball
will probably be at a higher temperature than its surface.
With this assumption, the time of cooling is determined to be t = Q/P= 3,163,000J/(610J/s) = 5185 s = 1 h 26 min
Figure 7.24

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EXAMPLE 8– 5: Heating of Water by Resistance Heaters in a Tube.
Water is to be heated from 15 C to 65 C as it flows through a 3- cm- internal-diameter 5- m- long tube (
Fig. 8– 32). The tube is equipped with an electric resistance heater that provides uniform heating
throughout the surface of the tube. The outer surface of the heater is well insulated, so that in steady
operation all the heat generated in the heater is transferred to the water in the tube. If the system is to
provide hot water at a rate of 10 L/ min, determine the power rating of the resistance heater. Also,
estimate the inner surface temperature of the tube at the exit.
Properties: The properties of water at the bulk mean temperature Tb = (Ti+Te)/2= (15+65)/2 =40oC. The
properties are read from table A-9 as:
r = 992.1kg/m3, Cp = 4179 J/kg.K, k = 0.631 W/m.K, Pr = 4.32, n = m/r = 0.658x10-6m2/s
The cross sectional area and heat transfer area are (pD2/4) and pDL , respectively.
i.e Ac = 7.069x10-4m2 and As = 0.471 m2
Mass flow rate, m= rxVolume flow rate
= (992.1kg/m3)(0.01m3/min)= 9.921 kg/min = 0.1654 kg/s
To heat the water at this mass flow rate from 15 C to 65 C, heat must be supplied to the water at a rate
of
P = dQ/dt= m . cp( Te – Ti)= ( 0.1654 kg/ s)( 4.179 kJ/ kg K)( 65 – 15) C = 34.6 kJ/ s = 34.6 kW
All of this energy must come from the resistance heater. Therefore, the power rating of the heater must
be 34.6 kW.
The surface temperature Ts of the tube at any location can be determined from (dq/dt)s = h( Ts – Tm)
→Ts =Tm+(dq/dt) s where h is the heat transfer coefficient and Tm is the mean temperature of the fluid
at that location. The surface heat flux is constant in this case, and its value can be determined from
(dq /dt)s = (dQ/dt)/As = 34.6 kW /0.471 m 2 =73.46 kW/ m2
Figure 8.32

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To determine the heat transfer coefficient, we first need to find the mean
velocity of water and the Reynolds number:
V avg = (Volume flowrate)/Ac= (0.01m3/min)/ (7.069x10-4m2) =14.15 m/ min
=0.236 m/ s
Re = V avg xD/n = 10,760 which is greater than 10,000.
Therefore, the flow is turbulent and the entry length is roughly
Lh ≈ = Lt ≈ 10D =10x 0.03= 0.3 m which is much shorter than the total length of
the tube. Therefore, we can assume fully developed turbulent flow in the entire
tube and determine the Nusselt number from
Nu =0.023 Re0.8 Pr0.4 = 0.023( 10,760) 0.8 ( 4.32) 0.4 =69.4
Therefore, h =kNu/D = (0.631W/mK)x( 69.4)/0.03m = 1460 W/ m2 K
The surface temperature of the pipe at the exit becomes
Ts = Tm + (dq /dt)s /h = 65oC + (73460 W/ m2)/ (1460 W/ m2 K) = 115oC
 Solve the following problems in your textbook

• 6-78, 6-83, 6-81, 7-119, 7-125, 7-127, 8-37, 8-

116, 8-117,
Table 9-1 in your text book
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EXAMPLE 9– 1 Heat Loss from Hot- Water Pipes
A 6- m- long section of an 8- cm- diameter horizontal hot- water pipe shown in Fig. 9– 16 passes
through a large room whose temperature is 20 C. If the outer surface temperature of the pipe is
70 C, determine the rate of heat loss from the pipe by natural convection.
SOLUTION
A horizontal hot- water pipe passes through a large room. The rate of heat loss from the pipe by
natural convection is to be determined.
Assumptions
1 Steady operating conditions exist.
2 Air is an ideal gas.
3 The local atmospheric pressure is 1 atm.
Properties The properties of air at the film temperature of Tf =(Ts+T∞)/2 =( 70 + 20)/ 2 = 45 C and
1 atm are ( Table A– 15) k =0.02699 W/ m, Pr= 0.7241 n =1.750x 10- 5 m2/ s b = 1/Tf = 1/318K
Analysis The characteristic length in this case is the outer diameter of the pipe, Lc = D = 0.08 m.
Then the Rayleigh number becomes,
RaD = gb(Ts-T∞)D3Pr/n2 = 1.867x106
The Natural Convection Nu in this case can be determined from Equation 9-25 (table 9-1) = 17.39.
Then h = kNu/D = 0.02699(17.39)/0.08 = 5.867 W/m2.K,
As = pDL = p(0.08m)(6m) = 1.508 m2
P =dQ/dt = hAs(Ts-T∞)= (5.867 W/m2.K)(1.508 m2 )(70-20)oC = 442 W
Figure 9.16

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Solve the following Problems in your textbook:
9-20, 9-22

9– 20 Flue gases from an incinerator are released to atmosphere using a

stack that is 0.6 m in diameter and 10.0 m high. The outer surface of the
stack is at 40 C and the surrounding air is at 10 C. Determine the rate of
heat transfer from the stack assuming ( a) there is no wind and ( b) the
stack is exposed to 20 km/ h winds.

9– 22 A 12- m- long section of a 5- cm- diameter horizontal hot-water

pipe passes through a large room whose temperature is 27 C. If the
temperature and the emissivity of the outer surface of the pipe are 73 C
and 0.8, respectively, determine the rate of heat loss from the pipe by (
a) natural convection and ( b) radiation.