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"Computer sciences" redirects here. For the American corporation, see Computer Sciences Corporation.

Computer science is the study of algorithmic processes, computational

machines and computation itself.[1] As a discipline, computer science spans a range
of topics from theoretical studies of algorithms, computation and information to
the practical issues of implementing computational systems
in hardware and software.[2][3]

Computer science deals with the theoretical foundations of information, algorithms and the architectures
of its computation as well as practical techniques for their application.

Its fields can be divided into theoretical and practical disciplines. For example,
the theory of computation concerns abstract models of computation and general
classes of problems that can be solved using them, while computer
graphics or computational geometry emphasize more specific
applications. Algorithms and data structures have been called the heart of
computer science.[4] Programming language theory considers approaches to the
description of computational processes, while computer programming involves the
use of them to create complex systems. Computer architecture describes
construction of computer components and computer-operated
equipment. Artificial intelligence aims to synthesize goal-orientated processes such
as problem-solving, decision-making, environmental
adaptation, planning and learning found in humans and animals. A digital computer
is capable of simulating various information processes.[5] The fundamental concern
of computer science is determining what can and cannot be
automated.[6] Computer scientists usually focus on academic research. The Turing
Award is generally recognized as the highest distinction in computer sciences.
HistoryEdit
Main article: History of computer science

Charles Babbage, sometimes referred to as the "father of computing". [7]

Ada Lovelace published the first algorithm intended for processing on a computer.[8]

The earliest foundations of what would become computer science predate the
invention of the modern digital computer. Machines for calculating fixed numerical
tasks such as the abacus have existed since antiquity, aiding in computations such
as multiplication and division. Algorithms for performing computations have
existed since antiquity, even before the development of sophisticated computing
equipment.
Wilhelm Schickard designed and constructed the first working mechanical
calculator in 1623.[9] In 1673, Gottfried Leibniz demonstrated a digital mechanical
calculator, called the Stepped Reckoner.[10] Leibniz may be considered the first
computer scientist and information theorist, for, among other reasons,
documenting the binary number system. In 1820, Thomas de Colmar launched
the mechanical calculator industry[note 1] when he invented his
simplified arithmometer, the first calculating machine strong enough and reliable
enough to be used daily in an office environment. Charles Babbage started the
design of the first automatic mechanical calculator, his Difference Engine, in 1822,
which eventually gave him the idea of the first programmable mechanical
calculator, his Analytical Engine.[11] He started developing this machine in 1834,
and "in less than two years, he had sketched out many of the salient features of the
modern computer".[12] "A crucial step was the adoption of a punched card system
derived from the Jacquard loom"[12] making it infinitely programmable.[note 2] In
1843, during the translation of a French article on the Analytical Engine, Ada
Lovelace wrote, in one of the many notes she included, an algorithm to compute
the Bernoulli numbers, which is considered to be the first published algorithm ever
specifically tailored for implementation on a computer. [13] Around 1885, Herman
Hollerith invented the tabulator, which used punched cards to process statistical
information; eventually his company became part of IBM. Following Babbage,
although unaware of his earlier work, Percy Ludgate in 1909 published [14] the 2nd
of the only two designs for mechanical analytical engines in history. In 1937, one
hundred years after Babbage's impossible dream, Howard Aiken convinced IBM,
which was making all kinds of punched card equipment and was also in the
calculator business[15] to develop his giant programmable calculator,
the ASCC/Harvard Mark I, based on Babbage's Analytical Engine, which itself used
cards and a central computing unit. When the machine was finished, some hailed it
as "Babbage's dream come true".[16]
During the 1940s, with the development of new and more
powerful computing machines such as the Atanasoff–Berry computer and ENIAC,
the term computer came to refer to the machines rather than their human
predecessors.[17] As it became clear that computers could be used for more than
just mathematical calculations, the field of computer science broadened to
study computation in general. In 1945, IBM founded the Watson Scientific
Computing Laboratory at Columbia University in New York City. The renovated
fraternity house on Manhattan's West Side was IBM's first laboratory devoted to
pure science. The lab is the forerunner of IBM's Research Division, which today
operates research facilities around the world.[18] Ultimately, the close relationship
between IBM and the university was instrumental in the emergence of a new
scientific discipline, with Columbia offering one of the first academic-credit courses
in computer science in 1946.[19] Computer science began to be established as a
distinct academic discipline in the 1950s and early 1960s. [20][21] The world's first
computer science degree program, the Cambridge Diploma in Computer Science,
began at the University of Cambridge Computer Laboratory in 1953. The first
computer science department in the United States was formed at Purdue
University in 1962.[22] Since practical computers became available, many
applications of computing have become distinct areas of study in their own rights.
See also: History of computing and History of informatics

EtymologyEdit
See also: Informatics § Etymology

Although first proposed in 1956,[23] the term "computer science" appears in a 1959
article in Communications of the ACM,[24] in which Louis Fein argues for the
creation of a Graduate School in Computer Sciences analogous to the creation
of Harvard Business School in 1921,[25] justifying the name by arguing that,
like management science, the subject is applied and interdisciplinary in nature,
while having the characteristics typical of an academic discipline.[24] His efforts,
and those of others such as numerical analyst George Forsythe, were rewarded:
universities went on to create such departments, starting with Purdue in
1962.[26] Despite its name, a significant amount of computer science does not
involve the study of computers themselves. Because of this, several alternative
names have been proposed.[27] Certain departments of major universities prefer
the term computing science, to emphasize precisely that difference. Danish
scientist Peter Naur suggested the term datalogy,[28] to reflect the fact that the
scientific discipline revolves around data and data treatment, while not necessarily
involving computers. The first scientific institution to use the term was the
Department of Datalogy at the University of Copenhagen, founded in 1969, with
Peter Naur being the first professor in datalogy. The term is used mainly in the
Scandinavian countries. An alternative term, also proposed by Naur, is data science;
this is now used for a multi-disciplinary field of data analysis, including statistics
and databases.
In the early days of computing, a number of terms for the practitioners of the field
of computing were suggested in the Communications of the ACM—
turingineer, turologist, flow-charts-man, applied meta-mathematician,
and applied epistemologist.[29] Three months later in the same
journal, comptologist was suggested, followed next year by hypologist.[30] The
term computics has also been suggested.[31] In Europe, terms derived from
contracted translations of the expression "automatic information" (e.g.
"informazione automatica" in Italian) or "information and mathematics" are often
used, e.g. informatique (French), Informatik (German), informatica (Italian,
Dutch), informática (Spanish, Portuguese), informatika (Slavic
languages and Hungarian) or pliroforiki (πληροφορική, which means informatics)
in Greek. Similar words have also been adopted in the UK (as in the School of
Informatics of the University of Edinburgh).[32] "In the U.S., however, informatics is
linked with applied computing, or computing in the context of another domain."[33]
A folkloric quotation, often attributed to—but almost certainly not first formulated
by—Edsger Dijkstra, states that "computer science is no more about computers
than astronomy is about telescopes." [note 3] The design and deployment of
computers and computer systems is generally considered the province of
disciplines other than computer science. For example, the study of computer
hardware is usually considered part of computer engineering, while the study of
commercial computer systems and their deployment is often called information
technology or information systems. However, there has been much cross-
fertilization of ideas between the various computer-related disciplines. Computer
science research also often intersects other disciplines, such as
philosophy, cognitive science, linguistics, mathematics, physics, biology, Earth
science, statistics, and logic.
Computer science is considered by some to have a much closer relationship with
mathematics than many scientific disciplines, with some observers saying that
computing is a mathematical science. [20] Early computer science was strongly
influenced by the work of mathematicians such as Kurt Gödel, Alan Turing, John
von Neumann, Rózsa Péter and Alonzo Church and there continues to be a useful
interchange of ideas between the two fields in areas such as mathematical
logic, category theory, domain theory, and algebra.[23]
The relationship between Computer Science and Software Engineering is a
contentious issue, which is further muddied by disputes over what the term
"Software Engineering" means, and how computer science is defined. [34] David
Parnas, taking a cue from the relationship between other engineering and science
disciplines, has claimed that the principal focus of computer science is studying the
properties of computation in general, while the principal focus of software
engineering is the design of specific computations to achieve practical goals,
making the two separate but complementary disciplines.[35]
The academic, political, and funding aspects of computer science tend to depend on
whether a department is formed with a mathematical emphasis or with an
engineering emphasis. Computer science departments with a mathematics
emphasis and with a numerical orientation consider alignment with computational
science. Both types of departments tend to make efforts to bridge the field
educationally if not across all research.
PhilosophyEdit
Main article: Philosophy of computer science

A number of computer scientists have argued for the distinction of three separate
paradigms in computer science. Peter Wegner argued that those paradigms are
science, technology, and mathematics. [36] Peter Denning's working group argued
that they are theory, abstraction (modeling), and design. [37] Amnon H. Eden
described them as the "rationalist paradigm" (which treats computer science as a
branch of mathematics, which is prevalent in theoretical computer science, and
mainly employs deductive reasoning), the "technocratic paradigm" (which might
be found in engineering approaches, most prominently in software engineering),
and the "scientific paradigm" (which approaches computer-related artifacts from
the empirical perspective of natural sciences, identifiable in some branches
of artificial intelligence).[38] Computer science focuses on methods involved in
design, specification, programming, verification, implementation and testing of
human-made computing systems.[39]
FieldsEdit

Computer science is no more about computers than astronomy is about

telescopes.

— Edsger Dijkstra
Further information: Outline of computer science

As a discipline, computer science spans a range of topics from theoretical studies of

algorithms and the limits of computation to the practical issues of implementing
computing systems in hardware and software. [40][41]CSAB, formerly called
Computing Sciences Accreditation Board—which is made up of representatives of
the Association for Computing Machinery (ACM), and the IEEE Computer
Society (IEEE CS)[42]—identifies four areas that it considers crucial to the discipline
of computer science: theory of computation, algorithms and data
structures, programming methodology and languages, and computer elements and
architecture. In addition to these four areas, CSAB also identifies fields such as
software engineering, artificial intelligence, computer networking and
communication, database systems, parallel computation, distributed computation,
human–computer interaction, computer graphics, operating systems, and
numerical and symbolic computation as being important areas of computer
science.[40]
Theoretical computer scienceEdit
Main article: Theoretical computer science
Theoretical Computer Science is mathematical and abstract in spirit, but it derives
its motivation from the practical and everyday computation. Its aim is to
understand the nature of computation and, as a consequence of this understanding,
provide more efficient methodologies.
Theory of computationEdit
Main article: Theory of computation

According to Peter Denning, the fundamental question underlying computer

science is, "What can be automated?" [20] Theory of computation is focused on
answering fundamental questions about what can be computed and what amount
of resources are required to perform those computations. In an effort to answer the
first question, computability theory examines which computational problems are
solvable on various theoretical models of computation. The second question is
addressed by computational complexity theory, which studies the time and space
costs associated with different approaches to solving a multitude of computational
problems.
The famous P = NP? problem, one of the Millennium Prize Problems,[43] is an open
problem in the theory of computation.

Formal Computability Computational

Automata theory
languages theory complexity theory

Quantum
Models of Logic circuit
computing Cellular automata
computation theory
theory
Information and coding theoryEdit
Main articles: Information theory and Coding theory

Information theory, closely related to probability and statistics, is related to the

quantification of information. This was developed by Claude Shannon to find
fundamental limits on signal processing operations such as compressing data and
on reliably storing and communicating data. [44] Coding theory is the study of the
properties of codes (systems for converting information from one form to another)
and their fitness for a specific application. Codes are used for data
compression, cryptography, error detection and correction, and more recently also
for network coding. Codes are studied for the purpose of designing efficient and
reliable data transmission methods. [45]
 Algorithmic Signal
Channel Kolmogorov
Coding theory information detection
capacity complexity
theory theory
Data structures and algorithmsEdit
Main articles: Data structure and Algorithm

Data structures and algorithms are the studies of commonly used computational
methods and their computational efficiency.

O(n2)

Analysis
Algorithm Data Combinatorial Computational Randomized
of
design structures optimization geometry algorithms
algorithms
Programming language theory and formal methodsEdit
Main articles: Programming language theory and Formal methods

Programming language theory is a branch of computer science that deals with the
design, implementation, analysis, characterization, and classification
of programming languages and their individual features. It falls within the
discipline of computer science, both depending on and affecting mathematics,
software engineering, and linguistics. It is an active research area, with numerous
dedicated academic journals.
Formal methods are a particular kind of mathematically based technique for
the specification, development and verification of software
and hardware systems.[46] The use of formal methods for software and hardware
design is motivated by the expectation that, as in other engineering disciplines,
performing appropriate mathematical analysis can contribute to the reliability and
robustness of a design. They form an important theoretical underpinning for
software engineering, especially where safety or security is involved. Formal
methods are a useful adjunct to software testing since they help avoid errors and
can also give a framework for testing. For industrial use, tool support is required.
However, the high cost of using formal methods means that they are usually only
used in the development of high-integrity and life-critical systems, where safety
or security is of utmost importance. Formal methods are best described as the
application of a fairly broad variety of theoretical computer science fundamentals,
in particular logic calculi, formal languages, automata theory, and program
semantics, but also type systems and algebraic data types to problems in software
and hardware specification and verification.
 Automated
Formal Type Compiler Programming Formal
theorem
semantics theory design languages verification
proving
Computer systems and computational processesEdit
Artificial intelligenceEdit
Main articles: Artificial intelligence and Bio-inspired computing

Artificial intelligence (AI) aims to or is required to synthesize goal-orientated

processes such as problem-solving, decision-making, environmental adaptation,
learning, and communication found in humans and animals. From its origins
in cybernetics and in the Dartmouth Conference (1956), artificial intelligence
research has been necessarily cross-disciplinary, drawing on areas of expertise
such as applied mathematics, symbolic logic, semiotics, electrical
engineering, philosophy of mind, neurophysiology, and social intelligence. AI is
associated in the popular mind with robotic development, but the main field of
practical application has been as an embedded component in areas of software
development, which require computational understanding. The starting point in
the late 1940s was Alan Turing's question "Can computers think?", and the
question remains effectively unanswered, although the Turing test is still used to
assess computer output on the scale of human intelligence. But the automation of
evaluative and predictive tasks has been increasingly successful as a substitute for
human monitoring and intervention in domains of computer application involving
complex real-world data.

Computational
Computer Neural Planning and
learning
vision networks scheduling
theory

Natural
Computational Evolutionary Autonomic
language
game theory computation computing
processing
Representation Pattern Swarm
Robotics
and reasoning recognition intelligence
Computer architecture and organizationEdit
Main articles: Computer architecture, Computer organisation, and Computer engineering

Computer architecture, or digital computer organization, is the conceptual design

and fundamental operational structure of a computer system. It focuses largely on
the way by which the central processing unit performs internally and accesses
addresses in memory.[47] Computer engineers study computational logic and
design of computer hardware, from
individual processor components, microcontrollers, personal
computers to supercomputers and embedded systems. The term “architecture” in
computer literature can be traced to the work of Lyle R. Johnson and Frederick P.
Brooks, Jr., members of the Machine Organization department in IBM's main
research center in 1959.

Processing Processor
Microarchitecture Multiprocessing
unit design

Ubiquitous Systems Operating

Input/output
computing architecture systems

Embedded Real-time
Dependability Interpreter
system computing
Concurrent, parallel and distributed computingEdit
Main articles: Concurrency (computer science) and Distributed computing

Concurrency is a property of systems in which several computations are executing

simultaneously, and potentially interacting with each other. [48] A number of
mathematical models have been developed for general concurrent computation
including Petri nets, process calculi and the Parallel Random Access
Machine model.[49] When multiple computers are connected in a network while
using concurrency, this is known as a distributed system. Computers within that
distributed system have their own private memory, and information can be
exchanged to achieve common goals.[50]
Computer networksEdit
Main article: Computer network

This branch of computer science aims to manage networks between computers

worldwide.

Computer security and cryptographyEdit

Main articles: Computer security and Cryptography

Computer security is a branch of computer technology with the objective of

protecting information from unauthorized access, disruption, or modification while
maintaining the accessibility and usability of the system for its intended
users. Cryptography is the practice and study of hiding (encryption) and therefore
deciphering (decryption) information. Modern cryptography is largely related to
computer science, for many encryption and decryption algorithms are based on
their computational complexity.
Databases and data miningEdit
Main articles: Database and Data mining

A database is intended to organize, store, and retrieve large amounts of data easily.
Digital databases are managed using database management systems to store,
create, maintain, and search data, through database models and query languages.
Data mining is a process of discovering patterns in large data sets.
Computer graphics and visualizationEdit
Main article: Computer graphics (computer science)

Computer graphics is the study of digital visual contents and involves the synthesis
and manipulation of image data. The study is connected to many other fields in
computer science, including computer vision, image processing, and computational
geometry, and is heavily applied in the fields of special effects and video games.

2D computer Computer
Rendering Mixed reality Virtual reality Solid modeling
graphics animation
Image and sound processingEdit
Main article: Information processing

Information can take the form of images, sound, video or other multimedia. Bits of
information can be streamed via signals. Its processing is the central notion
of informatics, the European view on computing, which studies information
processing algorithms independently of the type of information carrier - whether it
is electrical, mechanical or biological. This field plays important role in information
theory, telecommunications, information engineering and has applications
in medical image computing and speech synthesis, among others. What is the lower
bound on the complexity of fast Fourier transform algorithms? is one of unsolved
problems in theoretical computer science.

Image Speech Data Medical image Speech

FFT algorithms
processing recognition compression computing synthesis
Applied computer scienceEdit
Computational science, finance and engineeringEdit
Main articles: Computational science, Computational finance, and Computational engineering

Scientific computing (or computational science) is the field of study concerned with
constructing mathematical models and quantitative analysis techniques and using
computers to analyze and solve scientific problems. A major usage of scientific
computing is simulation of various processes, including computational fluid
dynamics, physical, electrical, and electronic systems and circuits, as well as
societies and social situations (notably war games) along with their habitats,
among many others. Modern computers enable optimization of such designs as
complete aircraft. Notable in electrical and electronic circuit design are
SPICE,[51] as well as software for physical realization of new (or modified) designs.
The latter includes essential design software for integrated circuits.[citation needed]

Medica Computat Computat

Computat Computat
Numerica Bioinform Neuroinfor Psychoinfor l ional ional
ional ional
l analysis atics matics matics inform engineeri musicolo
physics chemistry
atics ng gy
Social computing and human-computer interactionEdit
Main articles: Social computing and Human-computer interaction

Social computing is an area that is concerned with the intersection of social

behavior and computational systems. Human-computer interaction research
develops theories, principles, and guidelines for user interface designers.

Software engineeringEdit
Main article: Software engineering

See also: Computer programming

Software engineering is the study of designing, implementing, and modifying the

software in order to ensure it is of high quality, affordable, maintainable, and fast to
build. It is a systematic approach to software design, involving the application of
engineering practices to software. Software engineering deals with the organizing
and analyzing of software—it doesn't just deal with the creation or manufacture of
new software, but its internal arrangement and maintenance. For example software
testing, systems engineering, technical debt and software development processes.
DiscoveriesEdit
The philosopher of computing Bill Rapaport noted three Great Insights of Computer
Science:[52]
• Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz's, George Boole's, Alan Turing's, Claude Shannon's,
and Samuel Morse's insight: there are only two objects that a computer has to deal
with in order to represent "anything".[note 4]

All the information about any computable problem can be represented using only 0
and 1 (or any other bistable pair that can flip-flop between two easily
distinguishable states, such as "on/off", "magnetized/de-magnetized", "high-
voltage/low-voltage", etc.).
See also: Digital physics

• Alan Turing's insight: there are only five actions that a computer has to perform in
order to do "anything".

Every algorithm can be expressed in a language for a computer consisting of only

five basic instructions:[53]
• move left one location;
• move right one location;
• read symbol at current location;
• print 0 at current location;
• print 1 at current location.

See also: Turing machine

• Corrado Böhm and Giuseppe Jacopini's insight: there are only three ways of
combining these actions (into more complex ones) that are needed in order for a
computer to do "anything".[54]

Only three rules are needed to combine any set of basic instructions into more
complex ones:

• sequence: first do this, then do that;

• selection: IF such-and-such is the case, THEN do this, ELSE do that;
• repetition: WHILE such-and-such is the case, DO this.

Note that the three rules of Boehm's and Jacopini's insight can be further simplified
with the use of goto (which means it is more elementary than structured
programming).
See also: Structured program theorem

Programming paradigmsEdit
Main article: Programming paradigm

Programming languages can be used to accomplish different tasks in different

ways. Common programming paradigms include:
 • Functional programming, a style of building the structure and elements of computer
programs that treats computation as the evaluation of mathematical functions and
avoids state and mutable data. It is a declarative programming paradigm, which
means programming is done with expressions or declarations instead of
statements.[55]
• Imperative programming, a programming paradigm that uses statements that change
a program's state.[56] In much the same way that the imperative mood in natural
languages expresses commands, an imperative program consists of commands for
the computer to perform. Imperative programming focuses on describing how a
program operates.
• Object-oriented programming, a programming paradigm based on the concept of
"objects", which may contain data, in the form of fields, often known as attributes;
and code, in the form of procedures, often known as methods. A feature of objects
is that an object's procedures can access and often modify the data fields of the
object with which they are associated. Thus object-oriented computer programs
are made out of objects that interact with one another.[57]
• Service-oriented programming, a programming paradigm that uses "services" as the
unit of computer work, to design and implement integrated business applications
and mission critical software programs

Many languages offer support for multiple paradigms, making the distinction more
a matter of style than of technical capabilities. [58]
AcademiaEdit
Further information: List of computer science conferences and Category:Computer science journals

Conferences are important events for computer science research. During these
conferences, researchers from the public and private sectors present their recent
work and meet. Unlike in most other academic fields, in computer science, the
prestige of conference papers is greater than that of journal
publications.[59][60] One proposed explanation for this is the quick development of
this relatively new field requires rapid review and distribution of results, a task
better handled by conferences than by journals.[61]
EducationEdit
Main article: Computer science education

Computer Science, known by its near synonyms, Computing, Computer Studies,

has been taught in UK schools since the days of batch processing, mark sensitive
cards and paper tape but usually to a select few students.[62] In 1981, the BBC
produced a micro-computer and classroom network and Computer Studies became
common for GCE O level students (11–16-year-old), and Computer Science to A
level students. Its importance was recognised, and it became a compulsory part of
the National Curriculum, for Key Stage 3 & 4. In September 2014 it became an
entitlement for all pupils over the age of 4.[63]
In the US, with 14,000 school districts deciding the curriculum, provision was
fractured.[64] According to a 2010 report by the Association for Computing
Machinery (ACM) and Computer Science Teachers Association (CSTA), only 14 out
of 50 states have adopted significant education standards for high school computer
science.[65]
Israel, New Zealand, and South Korea have included computer science in their
national secondary education curricula, [66][67] and several others are following.[68]
See alsoEdit
Main articles: Glossary of computer science and Outline of computer science

• Computer Science and Engineering

• Computer engineering
• Information technology
• List of computer scientists
• List of computer science awards
• List of important publications in computer science
• List of pioneers in computer science
• List of unsolved problems in computer science
• List of terms relating to algorithms and data structures
• Digital Revolution
• Software engineering
• Programming language
• Algorithmic trading
• Information and communications technology

NotesEdit
1. ^ In 1851
2. ^ "The introduction of punched cards into the new engine was important not only
as a more convenient form of control than the drums, or because programs could
now be of unlimited extent, and could be stored and repeated without the danger
of introducing errors in setting the machine by hand; it was important also because
it served to crystallize Babbage's feeling that he had invented something really
new, something much more than a sophisticated calculating machine." Bruce
Collier, 1970
3. ^ See the entry "Computer science" on Wikiquote for the history of this quotation.
4. ^ The word "anything" is written in quotation marks because there are things that
computers cannot do. One example is: to answer the question if an arbitrary given
computer program will eventually finish or run forever (the Halting problem).

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16. ^ Brian Randell, p. 187, 1975
17. ^ The Association for Computing Machinery(ACM) was founded in 1947.
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Further readingEdit
OverviewEdit
• Tucker, Allen B. (2004). Computer Science Handbook (2nd ed.). Chapman and
Hall/CRC. ISBN 978-1-58488-360-9.
o "Within more than 70 chapters, every one new or significantly revised,
one can find any kind of information and references about computer
science one can imagine. […] all in all, there is absolute nothing about
Computer Science that can not be found in the 2.5 kilogram-
encyclopaedia with its 110 survey articles […]." (Christoph
Meinel, Zentralblatt MATH)
• van Leeuwen, Jan (1994). Handbook of Theoretical Computer Science. The MIT
Press. ISBN 978-0-262-72020-5.
o "[…] this set is the most unique and possibly the most useful to the
[theoretical computer science] community, in support both of teaching
and research […]. The books can be used by anyone wanting simply to
gain an understanding of one of these areas, or by someone desiring to
be in research in a topic, or by instructors wishing to find timely
information on a subject they are teaching outside their major areas of
expertise." (Rocky Ross, SIGACT News)
• Ralston, Anthony; Reilly, Edwin D.; Hemmendinger, David (2000). Encyclopedia of
Computer Science (4th ed.). Grove's Dictionaries. ISBN 978-1-56159-248-7.
o "Since 1976, this has been the definitive reference work on computer,
computing, and computer science. […] Alphabetically arranged and
classified into broad subject areas, the entries cover hardware, computer
systems, information and data, software, the mathematics of computing,
theory of computation, methodologies, applications, and computing
milieu. The editors have done a commendable job of blending historical
 perspective and practical reference information. The encyclopedia
remains essential for most public and academic library reference
collections." (Joe Accardin, Northeastern Illinois Univ., Chicago)
• Edwin D. Reilly (2003). Milestones in Computer Science and Information Technology.
Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 978-1-57356-521-9.

Selected literatureEdit
• Knuth, Donald E. (1996). Selected Papers on Computer Science. CSLI
Publications, Cambridge University Press.
• Collier, Bruce (1990). The little engine that could've: The calculating machines of
Charles Babbage. Garland Publishing Inc. ISBN 978-0-8240-0043-1.
• Cohen, Bernard (2000). Howard Aiken, Portrait of a computer pioneer. The MIT
press. ISBN 978-0-262-53179-5.
• Tedre, Matti (2014). The Science of Computing: Shaping a Discipline. CRC Press, Taylor
& Francis.
• Randell, Brian (1973). The origins of Digital computers, Selected Papers. Springer-
Verlag. ISBN 978-3-540-06169-4.
o "Covering a period from 1966 to 1993, its interest lies not only in the
content of each of these papers – still timely today – but also in their
being put together so that ideas expressed at different times complement
each other nicely." (N. Bernard, Zentralblatt MATH)

ArticlesEdit
• Peter J. Denning. Is computer science science?, Communications of the ACM, April
2005.
• Peter J. Denning, Great principles in computing curricula, Technical Symposium on
Computer Science Education, 2004.
• Research evaluation for computer science, Informatics
Europe report Archived October 18, 2017, at the Wayback Machine. Shorter journal
version: Bertrand Meyer, Christine Choppy, Jan van Leeuwen and Jorgen
Staunstrup, Research evaluation for computer science, in Communications of the
ACM, vol. 52, no. 4, pp. 31–34, April 2009.

Curriculum and classificationEdit

• Association for Computing Machinery. 1998 ACM Computing Classification System.
1998.
• Joint Task Force of Association for Computing Machinery (ACM), Association for
Information Systems (AIS) and IEEE Computer Society (IEEE CS). Computing
Curricula 2005: The Overview Report. September 30, 2005.
• Norman Gibbs, Allen Tucker. "A model curriculum for a liberal arts degree in
computer science". Communications of the ACM, Volume 29 Issue 3, March 1986.

External links

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