JANUARY 2021

Navigating the Deepening

Russia-China Partnership
Andrea Kendall-Taylor and David Shullman
About the Authors About the CNAS Transatlantic Security
Dr. Andrea Kendall-Taylor is a Senior Program
Fellow and Director of the Transatlantic
The mission of the Transatlantic Security Program (TSP)
Security Program at CNAS. Formerly she
is to strengthen transatlantic relations and help decision
served as Deputy National Intelligence
makers understand, anticipate, and respond to challenges
Officer for Russia and Eurasia at the
in Europe and Russia. Key among these challenges is the
National Intelligence Council and as a
rise of China, an increasingly assertive Russia, threats
senior intelligence officer at the CIA.
to democracy, and other changes in Europe’s security
landscape that will require NATO to adapt. TSP addresses
Dr. David Shullman is Senior Advisor at
these issues by working closely with our network of current
the International Republican Institute
and former U.S. and European government officials, private
and an Adjunct Senior Fellow in the
sector partners, and academic experts to translate cutting-
Transatlantic Security Program at CNAS.
edge research into policy solutions. We foster high-level
Formerly he served as Deputy National
U.S.-European dialogue, convene seminars and public
Intelligence Officer for East Asia at the
forums, and engage with media and citizens to shape the
National Intelligence Council and as a
context in which policies are made.
senior intelligence officer at the CIA.

Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank Samuel Bendett, Edward
Chow, Jeff Edmonds, Kristen Gunness, Jonathan Hillman,
Elsa Kania, Michael Kofman, Marisol Maddox, Adam Segal,
Pranay Vaddi, and Rachel Ziemba for their expertise, review,
and contributions to this project. These scholars and all
the participants in the working groups provided valuable
insights that helped shape this report. Dan McCormick,
Jeff Cirillo, and Carisa Nietsche provided excellent research
support. Thanks also goes to Maura McCarthy and Melody
Cook, who provided feedback and assistance in editing and
graphic design. CNAS is grateful to the Smith Richardson
Foundation for supporting this project.

The statements made and views expressed are solely the

responsibility of the authors and do not represent those of
the Biden transition or administration.

Cover art: Duke & Duck

TABLE OF CONTENTS

01 Executive Summary

03 Introduction

04 The Future of Russia-China Relations

06 Defense
09 Democracy and Human Rights
13 Technology and Cyber
18 Economy

23 Implications for U.S. Policy

26 Recommendations

31 Conclusion
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Navigating the Deepening Russia-China Partnership

Executive Summary States out of its backyard. The two countries are also
increasing their technology cooperation, which could

T
ies between China and Russia have grown. In eventually allow them to innovate collectively faster than
virtually every dimension of their relationship— the United States can on its own, straining an already-
from the diplomatic to defense and economic to stressed U.S. defense budget. Ultimately, sustained—and
informational realms—cooperation between Beijing and more problematically, deepening—Sino-Russian cooper-
Moscow has increased. Political observers in Washington ation would put at risk America’s ability to deter Chinese
and beyond have noted their alignment, yet they remain aggression in the region and uphold its commitment to
divided over what these growing ties portend. maintaining a free and open Indo-Pacific.
Perhaps the most concerning—and least understood—
aspect of the Russia-China partnership is the synergy Democracy and human rights. Russia-China alignment
their actions will generate. Analysts understand well poses significant risks to liberal democracy and the
the challenges that Russia and China each pose to the American way of life. The two countries have long sought
United States. But little thought has been given to how to push back against Western democracy promotion,
their actions will combine, amplifying the impact of both but since 2014 and again in the wake of COVID-19, it is
actors. As this report highlights, the impact of Russia- apparent that China and Russia are doing much more
China alignment is likely to be far greater than the sum of than countering perceived support for “color revolu-
its parts, putting U.S. interests at risk globally. tions” in their respective peripheries. They have gone
The synergy between Russia and China will be on the offensive to undermine democracy and universal
most problematic in the way that it increases the rights as the foundation of the current liberal order,
challenge that China poses to the United States. and are learning from each other how to increase the
Already, Beijing is working with Moscow to fill gaps efficacy of their tactics. Already, Russia and China are
in its military capabilities, accelerate its technological popularizing authoritarian governance, exporting their
innovation, and complement its efforts to undermine best practices, watering down human rights norms,
U.S. global leadership. Simply put, Russia is ampli- backing each other up to defend strategic interests in
fying America’s China challenge. multilateral forums, creating norms around cyber and
Russia’s amplification of the China challenge will be internet sovereignty, and bolstering illiberal leaders and
most consequential for the United States on two fronts: helping them stay in power. Some of this is more align-
the defense domain and the democracy and human rights ment than coordination. But the point is that they are
domain. There are also several broader implications their singing from the same sheet of music, which increases
cooperation will create for U.S. global influence: the dose of their messaging. They legitimize each other’s
actions, making them more persuasive with swing
Defense. Looking across all dimensions of their relation- states, which will be crucial in determining the future
ship, Russia-China cooperation is likely to create the trajectory of democracy.
most significant challenges for the United States in the Looking forward, policymakers should expect their
defense domain. China is leveraging its relationship with anti-democratic synergy to continue. Washington will
Moscow to fill gaps in its capabilities. Deepening Sino- need to remain vigilant against the countries’ overlap-
Russian defense relations amplify Russia and China’s ping and potentially compounding efforts to interfere in
ability to project power and more visibly and credibly America’s domestic politics. As Russia remains persistent
signal to onlooking countries their willingness to chal- in its drive to undermine U.S. democracy, China grows
lenge U.S. dominance in key regions. Their joint naval increasingly bold, and U.S.-China relations remain
maneuvers with countries like Iran allow competitors to fraught. Beyond the United States, Russian narratives
increase their power projection and force U.S. strategists designed to undermine trust in institutions will create
to account for new scenarios. fertile ground for Chinese narratives about the failings of
Their cooperation accelerates their efforts to erode democracy and the superiority of authoritarian systems
U.S. military advantages—a dynamic that is especially to take root. Beyond polluting the global information
problematic for U.S. strategic competition with China in environment, Beijing and Moscow are likely to set forth
the Indo-Pacific. Russia already provides China advanced alternative platforms by which information can be
weapons systems that enhance China’s air defense, disseminated. This type of synergy is also likely to move
anti-ship, and submarine capabilities and better equip into new spaces like artificial intelligence (AI) and other
the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) to keep the United emerging technologies. In particular, Russia and China

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both offer models and different approaches to digital The United States should not write off Russia-China
authoritarianism. Although they are pursuing different relations as just an uncomfortable or unnatural partner-
paths to utilizing technology to more effectively control ship. But nor should Washington seek to counter their
their people, together they offer an array of options that cooperation in every dimension of their partnership or
make digital control more accessible and flexible for a compete intensely in every region. Instead, policymakers
broader swath of countries. Working together, they may must be equipped with a more concrete understanding
also make advances in approaches to surveillance and of how Russia-China relations are likely to evolve, an
predictive analysis. understanding of those areas where their cooperation (or
even their aligned independent policy) would be most
Global influence. Russia and China are aligned in their damaging to U.S. security and foreign policy interests,
efforts to weaken cohesion among U.S. allies and partners and a plan for navigating and disrupting the challenge.
and dilute U.S. sway with countries and international This report addresses these critical gaps in U.S. foreign
institutions. Moreover, Russia and China are working to policy thinking and planning.
reduce the centrality of the United States in the global
economic system. Already, Moscow and Beijing are
cooperating to obviate U.S. sanctions and export controls,
mitigating the effects of U.S. economic pressure. If their
partnership deepens, or even if each country individually
builds up resilience to U.S. pressure, it would have the
potential to dilute the efficacy of U.S. coercive financial
tools, especially sanctions and export controls, which
have been a key part of the U.S. foreign policy arsenal. The
United States would have less ability to use such financial
measures to isolate and constrain the unwanted actions
of not just China and Russia, but other countries that
could tap into their networks to bypass U.S pressure. If
their efforts at de-dollarization accelerate, for example, it
would weaken Washington’s ability to enforce sanctions
globally and impair U.S. anti-corruption, anti-money laun-
dering, and other efforts that strengthen the global system.
To be successful in meeting this challenge, Washington
will need to prioritize and advance several actions
designed to collectively limit the depth of Russia and
China’s partnership and mitigate the challenges their
cooperation poses to U.S. interests and values. First, the
United States should seek to change Russia’s calculus
such that Moscow views some cooperation with the
United States and Europe as possible and preferable to its
growing subservience to China. The current realities in
U.S.-Russia relations mean that moving in this direction
would take time. Russian actions, including the Kremlin’s
persistent efforts to target U.S. elections, amplify U.S.
social divisions, and undermine U.S. faith in democratic
institutions, will be the key factor limiting what is possible
in the near term. The difficulties of lifting U.S. sanctions
on Russia in the event that Moscow changes its policy
course will be another obstacle. In the meantime, then,
the United States should monitor and plan for, create
headwinds to, and—where possible—pull at the seams in
Russia-China relations. This report identifies policy rec-
ommendations in each of these categories.

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Navigating the Deepening Russia-China Partnership

Introduction America’s competition with an adversarial Communist

Party-led China. Simply put, Russia is amplifying

T
ies between China and Russia have grown. In America’s China challenge.
virtually every dimension of their relationship— Russia, too, is using its growing ties with Beijing to
from the diplomatic to defense and economic to offset vulnerabilities in its relationship with the United
informational realms—cooperation between Beijing and States. Already, Moscow has worked with Beijing to
Moscow has increased. Political observers in Washington mitigate the effects of U.S. and European sanctions and
and beyond have noted their alignment. Yet policymakers other efforts to isolate the Kremlin in the wake of its
and pundits remain divided over what these growing ties illegal annexation of Crimea and subsequent occupation
portend. Skeptics argue that relations between China and of Ukraine in 2014. Russia is also likely to look to China to
Russia are simply a marriage of convenience—that Beijing legitimize Moscow’s role as a great power on the global
and Moscow self-interestedly work together where their stage. As the two countries work to advance shared goals,
interests align, but there is little that positively unites even if uncoordinated, their alignment constitutes a more
them. The skeptics cite a litany of barriers—deep-seated potent force working in opposition to the United States
mistrust, Russian insecurity about its territory in the Far and its values and interests.
East, economic asymmetry, and a lack of cultural con- The United States should not write off Russia-China
sonance—that make the Sino-Russian partnership an relations as just an uncomfortable or unnatural partner-
unnatural and unlikely one. According to this view, there ship. But Washington also should not seek to counter their
is little that Washington needs to do to address their deep- cooperation in every dimension of their partnership or
ening partnership, as it is likely to be limited and fleeting. compete intensely in every region. Instead, policymakers
This report argues that this line of thinking is misguided must be equipped with a more concrete understanding
and ahistorical. Already, the trajectory of Russia-China of how Russia-China relations are likely to evolve, an
relations demonstrates that the obstacles to their cooper- understanding of those areas where their cooperation
ation have not prevented their ties from growing. Instead, would be most damaging to U.S. security and foreign
the extent of their policy interests, and
cooperation has Simply put, Russia is amplifying America’s a plan for navigating
far surpassed China challenge. and disrupting the
what anyone challenge. This
thought was possible just five years ago. In the defense report addresses these critical gaps in U.S. foreign policy
realm, Russia continues to sell increasingly sophisticated thinking and planning.
weapons systems to Beijing, including the S-400 missile This report is premised on the assessment that Russia-
defense system, that enhance China’s military capabilities China relations will continue, if not deepen, over the next
and ability to keep the United States out of its backyard. five to ten years. This assessment recognizes that Russia
The two countries also have increased technology coop- and China are not fully aligned in all areas. Moscow and
eration, aligned their efforts in the information domain, Beijing compete in areas like arms sales and nuclear
used their partnership in efforts to obviate U.S. sanctions energy, for example, and their interests diverge in key
and export controls, and worked in unison in multilateral places like India, the Arctic, and Central Asia. Some
organizations to water down human rights norms and foreign policy thinkers in Moscow are also increasingly
rewrite norms and standards in areas like the internet and attuned to the risk that Russia may become overly reliant
cyber to advance their authoritarian worldview. on Beijing and are considering approaches for Moscow to
Sustained—and more problematically, deepening— hedge against this possibility. Yet despite their differences
Russia-China cooperation would have real implications and concerns in Moscow, the two countries are unlikely to
for the United States. In particular, their cooperation diverge in the foreseeable future as the factors facilitating
would amplify the challenge that each country poses their alignment are poised to persist over the horizon. In
to the United States. The implications would be most other words, even if diverging interests push Russia and
profound in the case of China, which is likely to continue China apart in the long term, their continued collabora-
to look to Moscow to fill gaps in its military capabilities, tion—if left unaddressed—has the potential to undermine
accelerate its technological innovation, and complement U.S. influence and interests in the near term. This report
its efforts to undermine U.S. global leadership. Beijing’s is designed to equip policymakers to prepare for, mitigate,
ability to maintain and benefit from partnerships with and where possible disrupt the risks this growing align-
like-minded countries like Russia will only intensify ment would pose to the United States.

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The Future of Russia-China Relations Personal rapport and shared regime type. The cama-
raderie between Vladimir Putin and Xi Jinping has

C
ooperation between Russia and China has been provided much of the impetus for cooperation.2 The two
deepening since the waning days of the Cold War. leaders have a close personal relationship—Xi has called
During this period, Russia and China steadily Putin his “best and bosom friend”3—and they meet with
eliminated territorial disputes, signed military cooper- remarkable frequency. As both leaders are positioned to
ation agreements, inked policy alignment frameworks, remain in power for some time, their personal affinity is
and increased defense cooperation. Both Moscow and likely to continue to drive deeper engagement. Moreover,
Beijing were intent on avoiding confrontation that would the growing similarity between the Putin and CCP
undermine both of their prospects for development and regimes is also likely to provide a basis for growing coop-
limit their ability to focus their efforts on other fronts.1 eration. Xi has consolidated power and dismantled the
Ties between Moscow and Beijing have only continued consensus-based decision-making that has characterized
to expand across key dimensions of their partnership, China’s post-Mao political system. While meaningful
including in the defense, democracy and human rights, distinctions between the governments remain, Xi’s
technology and cyber, and economic realms. Below, we increasingly personalistic dictatorship has come to more
identify the factors that have driven their closer coor- closely resemble the Putin-dominated Russian regime.
dination and that are likely to sustain their partnership Research suggests that shared regime type enhances
moving forward. cooperation between states.4

Desire to counterbalance U.S. global influence. Russian and U.S. posture toward China and Russia. U.S. actions have
Chinese values and views of the way the world should be reinforced Russia and China’s readiness to align. This
ordered have converged. Russian and Chinese interests has been true both at the geopolitical level and in more
converge most prominently on their desire to serve as a practical ways, as both sides have sought ways to work
counterweight to what they perceive as a preponderance of around and/or mitigate U.S. pressure. For example, the
U.S. influence and to constrain U.S. power. Both countries two countries seek to reduce Washington’s centrality
see the United States as their most significant security chal- in global trade and finance and identify opportunities
lenge. But they also perceive that U.S. power is declining to obviate U.S. sanctions and export controls. Similarly,
and seek to accelerate the shift to a multipolar world and current geopolitical conditions have convinced Russia
reshape international rules and norms in ways that are and China of their need to decrease their reliance on the
more advantageous to their interests. Especially as U.S.- West, creating incentive to work together to produce
China relations continue to deteriorate, Russia and China their own indigenous replacements for foreign, partic-
are likely to lean into—and increasingly coordinate—their ularly American, technologies. For Russia, in particular,
efforts to accelerate that change. Putin and the elite around him anticipate prolonged
confrontation with the West, making Russian actors ever
Efforts to counter Western democracy promotion. Russia more likely to concede to Chinese interests to maintain
and China view efforts to support democracy, especially a strong relationship with Beijing. As U.S. tensions with
U.S. efforts, as thinly veiled attempts to expand U.S. influ- China grow, the CCP too will view Moscow as an increas-
ence and as threatening their power. Moscow and Beijing ingly valuable partner.
consider criticism of their domestic political arrangements
as interference in their internal affairs. They have found Repeated interaction. Russia and China may have initially
common cause in convincing other countries that U.S. banded together in discontent with the United States and
efforts to support democratic governance are destabilizing its dominant position, but their repeated interactions
and a pretext for U.S. geopolitical expansion. Although are fostering a deeper and enduring partnership. As they
their efforts to counter democracy promotion are not continue to work together on mutual areas of interest,
new, they are changing in scope and intensity. Since 2014, from North Korea to Iran and in international institu-
Russia in particular has been taking the fight to Western tions, they are building a foundation that will support
democracies. Chinese leaders, too, blame the United States a strong partnership. Even at the more micro level,
as the instigator of massive pro-democracy protests in exchanges between the two countries are growing. As
Hong Kong—a rationale more palatable than the reality of they increase their number of technology exchanges and
popular distaste for the Chinese Communist Party’s (CCP) engagements at the local government level, and as more
dismantling of the last vestiges of Hong Kong’s autonomy. students study in each other’s universities, the prospects

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Navigating the Deepening Russia-China Partnership

increase that the two countries can overcome histor- Pew poll that found only 51 percent of Chinese viewed
ical mistrust and negative perceptions of each other, Russia favorably. A sustained increase in interactions
as described in greater depth below. between the two countries—including through tech-
Not only are the key drivers of bilateral relations nology dialogues, academic exchanges, and lower-level
strengthening, but many of the factors that observers government interactions—could also, over time, help
long assessed would constrain the relationship overcome the negative views they hold of each other.
are eroding.
Economic and military asymmetry. As strongmen, Putin
Russian concerns about insecurity. Analysts have long and Xi prioritize their survival in office above all else.
held that Russian concerns about insecurity in its far For Putin, this means that a far-off and uncertain threat
east would stymie cooperation. However, the Kremlin’s from a more powerful China is more acceptable than
concerns about insecurity have diminished, in part due the immediate and certain threat he perceives from
to the two states having settled their territorial disputes. Washington or the instability that could stem from
According to Alexander Gabuev, senior fellow and chair Russia’s own stagnant economy. China helps Putin on
of the Russia in the Asia-Pacific Program at Carnegie’s both accounts. In his State of the Nation address in
Moscow Center, the Russian government conducted a February 2019, Putin underscored that ties with China
confidential interagency process in 2014 reviewing chal- help bolster Russian security and prosperity, in partic-
lenges to deeper engagement with China. Gabuev states ular through “harmonizing” his Eurasian Economic
that the Kremlin concluded that “although China would Union (EAEU) plan with China’s massive Belt and
ultimately be more powerful than Russia, its rise does Road Initiative (BRI). Although China’s Belt and Road
not pose an immediate challenge to Russian interests.”5 infringes on Russian economic interests, Moscow
Ultimately, Putin views the United States as a far more appears to calculate that it cannot turn it back, and
immediate threat to his hold on power. In particular, he instead seeks benefit where it can, even if Beijing benefits
views the United States as intent on regime change in more. This type of thinking stands in stark contrast to
Russia. He fears that U.S. support for democracy and the the more zero-sum calculus that the Kremlin applies
universality of human rights may embolden sympathetic to its relationship with the United States. Instead, the
constituencies with Russia and ultimately weaken his prevailing trend shows Moscow becoming ever more
grip on power. Therefore, he is intent on working with dependent on and accommodating of China and its
China to oppose this more urgent challenge from the concerns. Concurrently, Beijing has carefully avoided a
United States, while calculating that he will ultimately be direct challenge to the Kremlin’s conception of itself as a
able to manage the more distant threat that China poses. great power as it works together with Moscow on a wide
range of common concerns.
Lack of cultural consonance. Cultural factors and his-
torical enmity are likely to be enduring constraints on For Putin, a far-off and
Russia-China relations. However, Xi and Putin dominate uncertain threat from a
the media environments in their countries and are
more powerful China is more
capable of slowly turning public opinion over time.
Such a process would be hard and slow, but Beijing and acceptable than the immediate
Moscow have the capacity to reshape public attitudes, and certain threat he perceives
including through amplification of positive narratives from Washington.
about the countries’ growing partnership, should they
decide to.6 Already, Russian attitudes toward China For its part, Beijing may downgrade its relationship
have changed. According to Levada polling, in 2010 only with an unpredictable and increasingly dependent
16 percent of Russians considered China a close ally. Moscow in the long term. China’s companies still benefit
As of August 2020, 40 percent do.7 In a different poll from access to U.S. capital markets and rely on U.S.
conducted by Ipsos in September 2020, more than 80 demand in a way Russian companies do not, and Beijing
percent of Russians think China will have a positive influ- remains less interested in antagonizing the United States
ence on global affairs in the next decade—the highest than Moscow. Ultimately, however, China’s leadership
share among the 28 countries surveyed.8 A 2019 YouGov appreciates Putin as an immediate partner in its oppo-
poll found 71 percent of Chinese viewed Russia as having sition to U.S. attempts to impede China’s rise, efforts to
a positive impact on world affairs, compared to a 2015 reform global governance, and undermining of the values

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that underpin the existing liberal order. The downturn in (PLA) capabilities. While Russian arms sales to China
U.S.-China relations is likely to endure, raising the like- declined in the 2000s—in part due to Kremlin fears
lihood of Chinese approval of aggressive Russian tactics that weapons sold might one day be used against it
against the United States. and concerns about China’s tendency to reverse-engi-
Beyond these broad, overarching drivers of Russia- neer Russian equipment—arms sales have rebounded,
China relations, there are several more pragmatic factors especially in the wake of the Ukraine crisis. Since then,
that facilitate cooperation in the different domains of Russian fears of insecurity in its far east have dimin-
their relationship. The next section describes the current ished, paving the way for Russia to provide Beijing
state of Russia-China relations in four key dimensions with increasing lyadvanced weapons systems. Between
of their relationship: defense, democracy and human 2014 and 2018, Russia provided Su-27 and Su-35 fighter
rights, technology and cyber, and the economic realm. aircrafts (it is notable that Beijing was the first foreign
Each subsection identifies the drivers and constraints customer for this advanced system), S-300 and S-400
on their cooperation in that area and sketches out how air defense systems, and anti-ship missiles. Russian
their cooperation could evolve in the coming years. arms now account for 70 percent of China’s total arms
The goal is to make more concrete the risks that U.S. imports and have played a meaningful role in the
policymakers would confront if current trends in PLA’s efforts to augment its air defense, anti-ship, and
Russia-China relations persist. submarine capabilities.11 Russian missile and fighter
technology, in particular, enhances the PLA’s readiness
Defense through better strategic air defense capability and
Looking across all dimensions of their relationship, improved ability to contest U.S. superiority, which is
Russia-China cooperation is likely to create the most critical in a Taiwan or South China Sea scenario.
significant challenges for the United States in the defense Since 2014, Russian-Chinese defense-industrial
domain. Already, there is clear evidence that Russia- cooperation has also become more of a two-way street
China defense cooperation has deepened, including than it has been historically.12 Western sanctions
in ways that are detrimental to U.S. interests. Today’s imposed on Russia in the wake of its illegal annex-
trend toward deeper cooperation dates back to the ation of Crimea and subsequent occupation of eastern
end of the Cold War, when the two countries initiated Ukraine limited Russia’s access to Western technology,
efforts to overcome long-standing tensions and reduce on which Moscow depended. Instead, Russia has
the potential for conflict along their shared border.9 turned to China for electronic components and naval
Since then, the two countries have engaged in confi- diesel engines that it previously bought in the West,
dence-building measures, built consultative mechanisms blunting the impact of Western sanctions.13
and defense cooperation frameworks, and looked to
reduce competition between them. Cooperation dra- EXERCISES AND MILITARY EXCHANGES
matically accelerated in 2014, when U.S-Russia relations Russian and Chinese joint military exercises have
turned overtly adversarial. For Russia, the Ukraine grown in frequency, scope, and complexity.14 Russia’s
crisis increased the importance the Kremlin placed on first large-scale exercise with China was Peace
China as a market for arms exports, a supplier of com- Mission 2005, which became a recurring air and
ponents it could no longer access in the West, and a ground exercise, usually held under the auspices of
partner in opposing the United States. Today, Putin and the Shanghai Cooperation Organization. In 2012,
Xi describe the bilateral relationship as a “comprehen- this exercise regimen was bolstered by Joint Sea,
sive strategic partnership.”10 Although this partnership an annual naval exercise used in part for geopolit-
falls short of a traditional military alliance, the two ical signaling. In recent years, Joint Sea has taken
countries are engaging in militarily meaningful coop- place in the Mediterranean and the South China Sea,
eration that creates challenges the United States must with Chinese ships visiting the Black Sea and the
navigate. This section outlines the current status of their Baltics. In 2016, the two countries also began sim-
defense partnership in two key areas: arms sales and ulated missile defense drills and added an exercise
joint military exercises. for internal security forces. That regimen intensified
with Chinese participation in Russia’s annual strategic
ARMS SALES AND DEFENSE TECHNICAL COOPERATION command-staff exercises, starting with Vostok-2018
Since the late 1990s, Russian military technology has and Tsentr-2019—both significant developments from
flowed into China, enhancing People’s Liberation Army the Russian standpoint.

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These joint exercises provide benefits to both coun- U.S. deployment of Terminal High Altitude Area Defense
tries that contribute to their security partnership. First (THAAD) and long-range strike capabilities, U.S. surveil-
and foremost, the exercises enable Russia and China lance flights along the Russian and Chinese borders, and
to illustrate that U.S. efforts have not isolated either U.S. Navy Freedom of Navigation Operations. Moreover,
country. Instead, the two countries use exercises to both countries share concerns about the militarization
signal their willingness and capacity to stand together, of space, transnational terrorism, and regional security
including in opposition to the United States. In August challenges such as the Korean Peninsula. Even in Central
2019, for example, Russia and China conducted a joint Asia—a region that appears ripe for competition between
strategic bomber patrol in the Indo-Pacific, signaling them—Russia and China both prioritize ensuring the
their political convergence and willingness to push stability of countries in the region. Russia and China
back against U.S. influence in the region. The recently share concerns that terrorism and instability in Central
expanded geographic scope of Sino-Russian military Asia could spill over and destabilize their own countries.
exercises suggests the two governments are more Moreover, as China’s economic interests in Central Asia
openly signaling support for each other’s security prior- have grown through its BRI, Beijing is committed to
ities, both to each other and to third parties.15 ensuring the security of its BRI investments, including by
More practically, Russia-China joint exercises help working with Russia.19 The growing alignment of Russian
the Chinese and Russian armed forces improve their and Chinese security interests and the likely persistence
tactical and operational capabilities and enhance their of their view of the United States as an adversary will
ability to pursue unilateral and joint operations.16 And be the most significant factors driving their future
although Russia and China are unlikely to seek interop- defense cooperation.
erability in the traditional sense, the two countries are
working together in ways that enable them to divide Complementary needs and capabilities. More practically,
a military theater of operations into fronts and deploy China and Russia have complementary capabilities and
two separate operational combat groupings to fight in interests in the defense domain. As discussed above,
their preferred manner but toward the same goal.17 The the PLA benefits from the advanced weapons systems it
exercises also signal mutual trust and build defense-mil- receives from Russia, as well as the operational experi-
itary contacts that are important for mil-mil cooperation ence it gains by exercising with Russia’s combat-tested
to gain traction at senior levels and serve as important forces. Conversely, Russia benefits from Chinese capital,
expositions for future potential arms sales. including investments needed to finance major Russian
Finally, China’s participation in Russian exercises projects, and Beijing’s purchase of energy products
also confers benefits to Chinese officers, who have no and military equipment that U.S. sanctions prevent
real combat experience. These officers gain valuable Russia from selling elsewhere. In some areas, such as
operational experience through exercising with and shipbuilding and unmanned aerial vehicles, China has
learning from Russian counterparts who have now seen strengths where Russia has weaknesses or is behind.
combat in Ukraine and Syria, potentially offsetting one Russia has also turned to China in the wake of Western
of the PLA’s most significant weaknesses relative to the sanctions to access technology like electronic components
United States. In addition to the exercises, Russia has that it previously obtained from the West. Moreover, both
invited several thousand PLA service members to train countries likely view cross-collaboration on a number
at Russian Ministry of Defense universities.18 of fronts—such as guided missile technology, unmanned
systems, and training data for artificial intelligence (AI)—
DRIVERS OF DEFENSE ALIGNMENT as opportunities to fill gaps and accelerate progress.
Looking forward, two sets of drivers are likely to facili- Despite these drivers, however, there are limits to
tate, if not deepen, Russia-China defense cooperation. how far Russia-China defense cooperation will develop.
The two powers, for example, are unlikely to enter a
Convergence of threat perceptions. Russia and China formal military alliance. This is in part because, as Mike
view the United States as their primary geopolitical Kofman has noted, the two powers’ ambitions are not
threat, and the persistence—if not escalation—of their aligned geographically. Moreover, as two military super-
antagonistic relationship with Washington will fuel powers, they have no need to provide each other with
their future defense cooperation. Both Putin and Xi extended security guarantees. In addition, the following
view the U.S. military presence on their respective more tactical constraints are likely to bind their future
peripheries as a threat and share concerns about the defense cooperation.

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and deeper engagement. In both cases, domestic actors

The PLA benefits from the are likely to be willing to invest outsized resources
advanced weapons systems it to maintain autonomy in certain sectors rather
receives from Russia, as well as than seek efficiencies. Ultimately, domestic stake-
holders who want the procurement dollars will serve
the operational experience it
as important constraints.24
gains by exercising with Russia’s
combat-tested forces. SCENARIOS FOR GREATER DEFENSE COOPERATION
The factors fueling Russia-China defense coopera-
Mistrust. Although defense cooperation has deepened, tion are likely to persist over the next five to ten years,
Russia-China defense cooperation is still characterized creating conditions conducive to their deepening defense
by distrust. Some analysts have highlighted Russian relations. Although Beijing and Moscow are unlikely to
frustration with China’s intellectual property (IP) enter into a formal military alliance, their cooperation is
theft, especially concerning weapons systems.20 The likely to evolve in ways that will create challenges for the
fact that Russia continues to sell advanced weapons to United States. Russia-China defense cooperation would
China, however, indicates that IP concerns are unlikely be most likely to develop in the following ways:
to be deterministic of the relationship. For Russia, the
benefits of access to Chinese markets will likely continue Expanded technology exchanges and joint development.
to outweigh the detriment of potential design theft.21 Russia and China have already worked together in
Moreover, arms sales between Russia and China are more ways that enhance their military capabilities, especially
heavily focused on things that would make them more Beijing’s. Looking forward, the United States should
capable against their primary adversary—the United expect such cooperation to continue and eventually to
States—rather than items that would be of major signifi- move into increasingly sensitive domains. Most immedi-
cance in a conflict against each other. Russia and China, ately, Russia is likely to look to China for ship production
in other words, will find ways to work together that do and naval capabilities, as the Russian Navy will face hull
not aggravate historical mistrust, although some distrust shortages in the near future and the PLA will increase
remains and will likely continue to place constraints on its expeditionary maritime forces. Russia has also
the depth of their defense cooperation. expressed interest in Chinese unmanned aerial vehicle
technology.25 China is likely to seek further air defense
China’s own military modernization. The more advanced and missile deals with Russia, and the continued provi-
the Chinese military becomes, the more challenging it sion of jet engines—at least until China learns to make its
will be for Russia to offer Beijing anything new.22 Russia own—would positively shape Chinese capabilities in the
is already finding it increasingly difficult to sell military aerospace domain.26 Other, more sensitive joint develop-
technology to China given the substantial increase in ment projects could include counter-stealth technology,
PLA capabilities and Chinese technical knowledge. For improved undersea detection, submarine quieting, and/
example, China now has its own fifth-generation stealth or anti-satellite capabilities.27 Cooperation in these
fighter, the J-20, which is more technologically advanced domains could further erode U.S. military advantages,
than the Russian SU-35s. Given that for decades the flow but because they are more sensitive they are less likely
of military technology has been from Moscow to Beijing, than the other types of cooperation described above.
it remains to be seen whether the two countries can find
other ways to collaborate in the military capabilities Expanded joint exercises. Russia and China are likely
arena. Looking forward, China’s growing defense-in- to conduct future exercises that signal their intentions
dustrial potential is likely to change the nature of its and capabilities to challenge regional balances of power
cooperation with Russia, from transactional arms sales or that support each other’s regional objectives. For
to greater joint development and technology transfer.23 example, Russia and China conducted joint naval drills
with Iran in the Indian Ocean in 2019. The exercise took
Nationalism within defense industries. Russian and place amid escalating tensions between the United States
Chinese defense industries are largely autarkic and and Iran and were almost certainly intended to signal the
the military establishments deeply nationalistic, countries’ alignment and protect their shared interests
which means they will seek, where possible, to protect in the Indian Ocean.28 The United States should expect
defense-related technologies and limit co-development increasingly complex naval and combined arms exercises

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that occur further afield from either Russian or Chinese conventional campaign. In the event of a crisis, either
coastal waters. While China and Russia are unlikely Russia or China could take actions in a given domain to
to seek the level of interoperability the United States free up its counterpart’s resources. For example, if the
enjoys with its allies, expanded joint exercises would United States intervened in a Taiwan crisis, Russia could
signal both states’ abilities to project power and could provide support to China by interfering with U.S. space
advance their great-power claims. Moreover, exercises surveillance capabilities or providing China with Russian
will likely involve more advanced capabilities. Russia intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance assets,
and China already shared command and control infor- without contributing combat forces. Alternatively, China
mation during the 2017 Aerospace Security exercise, and could leverage its growing ownership of European infra-
they are likely to expand on signaling new counter-space structure to slow a NATO response to Russian aggression.
and anti-access/area denial (A2AD) capabilities that In a crisis, for example, China could assist Russia by
challenge U.S. forces.29 finding “technical reasons” for a port to be unusable for
cargo operations, thereby slowing U.S. reinforcements.32
Joint operations. Russian and Chinese military-to-mil- Both Russia and China have incentives to see the United
itary exchanges, exercises, and training programs are States pay a maximum cost in a conflict, even if they are
ultimately likely to permit Russia and China to execute not necessarily committed to seeing their counterpart
three potential contingencies: a joint intervention in win or lose. The possibility that Russia and China will
Central Asia, a joint expeditionary operation in Africa act jointly to counter the United States presents major
or the Middle East, and a coordinated deployment of challenges to American strategic planners.
forces along separated operational fronts in the event of
a military crisis in the Asia-Pacific region. While the U.S. Democracy and Human Rights
may be least concerned about a joint Russian-Chinese Beyond the defense realm, Russia-China cooperation
operation in Central Asia, in other contexts China brings is likely to have the most profound implications for
resources and scalability that when combined with the United States in the democracy and human rights
Russian experience could change the regional impact domain. Much of the recent acceleration of Russia-
of such an operation.30 China relations stems from the countries’ increasingly
shared vision of a less democratic world more hospitable
Aligning efforts to challenge U.S. policy. In regions or to the continued rule of each country’s authoritarian
countries where Russian and Chinese interests align, regime and its expanding global interests. Russia’s illegal
Moscow and Beijing could eventually coordinate their annexation of Crimea in 2014 and subsequent occupation
combined capabilities to challenge U.S. foreign policy. of Ukraine drove Russia toward a China increasingly
Already, China and Russia combined their efforts to concerned about Western efforts to foment “color rev-
oppose U.S. pressure on Venezuela. Russia provided arms olutions” in the wake of the Arab Spring and growing
transfers on credit that gave Venezuela updated armored international criticism of the People’s Republic of China
and air capabilities, while China provided some arms, (PRC) efforts to undermine the autonomy of Hong Kong.
surveillance technology, and capital investment to keep Putin and Xi both judge that the United States and
Nicolás Maduro’s regime in power.31 Going forward, its efforts to support democratic political processes,
Russia and China could increase their efforts to combine transparent and pluralistic institutions, the rule of law,
their complementary capabilities to oppose U.S. inter- and access to information present a threat to their hold
ventions and signal their status as great powers. Africa, on power. Moreover, they have a common interest in
in particular, may be ripe for such alignment given that pushing back against what they see as increasingly
both countries have military footholds and operations assertive efforts by a range of democracies to support a
on the continent. human rights and anti-corruption agenda, including the
use of more coercive policies like the European Union’s
Operations or assistance countering U.S. forces. A less newly created global human rights sanctions regime.
likely but higher-impact scenario for future Russia- More broadly, Beijing and Moscow judge that the U.S.-
China defense cooperation would involve Chinese dominated international order disadvantages them and
and Russian forces cooperating to directly counter the fails to accommodate their interests.
United States in a crisis. A scenario in which Russia and Chinese and Russian collaboration in international
China confront the United States, however, does not institutions and remarkably frequent high-level engage-
need to be as extreme as a two-front, combined-arms ments reflect their growing agreement about how

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the world should be ordered. A central pillar of their Both countries are actively interfering in the polit-
worldview is the shared insistence on the principle of ical processes of countries around the world, even as
sovereignty and non-interference in the domestic affairs China lets Russia take the lead on more aggressive and
of states, at least when it serves each regime’s interests. discoverable measures.
Both Moscow and Beijing judge that weakening democ- The Kremlin seeks to spread disinformation, sow con-
racy can accelerate the decline of Western influence and fusion, and exploit divisions to polarize public debates.
advance both Russia’s and China’s geopolitical goals. The China, in contrast, traditionally has used a subtler and
two countries are finding common cause in undermining more risk-averse strategy, preferring stability that is con-
liberal democratic norms and institutions, weakening ducive to building economic ties and influence. Beijing
cohesion among democratic allies and partners, and has also historically sought to create positive percep-
reducing U.S. global influence. tions of China and to legitimize its form of government.
This section outlines the current status of their coop-
eration in the democracy domain, including their shared While the two countries’
efforts as the leading illiberal powers in the international
system to weaken democratic governance, promote and approaches are different and
sustain authoritarianism, and undermine democratic seemingly uncoordinated,
norms and universal human rights. taken together, they are having
WEAKENING DEMOCRATIC GOVERNANCE
a more corrosive effect on
Russian and Chinese foreign policy tactics are con- democracy than either would
verging in new and synergistic ways to increase have single-handedly.
challenges to democratic actors around the world. While
the two countries’ approaches are different and seem- China’s disinformation during the COVID-19 pandemic,
ingly uncoordinated, taken together, they are having a however, has evinced a newfound willingness to deploy
more corrosive effect on democracy than either would Russian techniques. Beijing has promoted elaborate con-
have single-handedly. Russia’s assaults on democratic spiracy theories to inject confusion into global narratives
institutions, including attacks on elections, the spread about the pandemic’s origins in China.
of corruption, and disinformation campaigns, weaken The two countries are also bolstering the fortunes of
some actors’ commitment to democracy. But it is the aspiring illiberal leaders deemed friendly to Chinese and
alternative model of success that China provides and, Russian interests by indirectly funding their electoral
more importantly, the investment it offers vulnerable campaigns, timing investments to benefit them politi-
governments that give weak democracies the capacity cally, and targeting information operations.
to pull away from the West. Likewise, China’s engage-
ment would likely be less potent without Russian PROMOTING AND SUSTAINING AUTHORITARIANISM
efforts to weaken democratic institutions and loosen Beyond weakening democracy, China and Russia have
commitment to democracy. long pursued a number of direct actions to prop up
This dynamic is most apparent in Eastern Europe friendly dictatorships, enhancing the durability of these
and the Balkans, where long-standing Russian efforts regimes. Most visibly, they use loans and investment
to discredit democracy and the EU exist in tandem to reinforce besieged regimes, as both have done in
with major infrastructure investments from China. Venezuela. They offer no-strings-attached financial aid
For example, Serbia, where Russia has long projected and weapons, diluting Western leverage to press for
influence to undermine democratic progress, now human rights and rule-of-law reform, as with China’s
has a central role in China’s plans to fund transport assistance to Hun Sen’s regime in Cambodia. Russia
projects in Europe as part of the Belt and Road Initiative. fashions itself as a “sovereignty provider,” helping
Serbian leaders view Chinese financing as an opportu- authoritarian states defend themselves from liberal
nity to promote themselves domestically by delivering forces that might cause regime change.
improved infrastructure without abiding by the strict Moreover, the Kremlin and the CCP are collectively
regulations that come with European funds. China is also popularizing authoritarian governance as an alterna-
offering training and technology to enhance the increas- tive to democracy, particularly in developing countries.
ingly illiberal Serbian government’s internal security Chinese President Xi has publicly and repeatedly
and surveillance capabilities. explained that China’s approach to development under

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Navigating the Deepening Russia-China Partnership

authoritarian governance offers a viable alternative human rights abuses. In 2018, for example, China and
model for countries impressed by China’s rapid mod- Russia successfully mobilized UNSC members to prevent
ernization and rise to become the world’s second-largest then-High Commissioner for Human Rights Zeid Ra’ad
economy. China and Russia are offering officials around al-Hussein from addressing the council on Syria.
the world training on authoritarian governance methods
and how to monitor, censor, and control their own DRIVERS OF DEMOCRACY AND
populations. Through such methods, and the provision HUMAN RIGHTS ALIGNMENT
of surveillance and monitoring technology and training Russia and China view democracy—and especially
on internal policing and security, China and Russia are U.S. efforts to support it—as thinly veiled U.S. attempts
also ensuring that illiberal actors have the tools neces- to expand influence and topple their (and other
sary to retain power even in the face of popular pressure. “unfriendly”) regimes. Both countries have consistently
In most cases this is not the result of China and Russia sought to counter Western democracy promotion by
pushing their tactics and methods on others, but rather preventing “Western infiltration” from encouraging
leaders seeking out best practices for shoring up their domestic dissent and by engaging with like-minded dic-
domestic control. In other cases, Russia and China tatorships. These efforts are not new, but several factors
simply offer a model that other leaders seek to emulate. are likely to continue to drive Russia-China alignment,
Moscow and Beijing’s alignment confers greater legiti- if not more overt coordination, going forward:
macy to the authoritarian models they offer.
Shared desire to capitalize on democratic weaknesses and
UNDERMINING DEMOCRATIC NORMS AND UNIVERSAL exacerbate them. Because Moscow and Beijing gauge
HUMAN RIGHTS their status in relation to the United States, they view
Even as their efforts combine to corrode democracy weakening democracy as a means of enhancing their own
in individual countries, Russia and China are together standing and regime legitimacy. The Kremlin’s attack
weakening norms and international institutions central on the 2016 U.S. presidential election, for example, was
to democracy and human rights protections. China and intended, at least in part, to tarnish U.S. democracy and
Russia are bending the United Nations (U.N.) to their allow Moscow to claim that Washington has no right
anti-rights agenda, downplaying individual rights and telling other nations how to conduct their elections. PRC
emphasizing state-led development, national sover- official propaganda and information operations on global
eignty, and nonintervention as norms above protection social media undertaken by entities linked to the PRC
of human rights. The countries have targeted hundreds increasingly highlight the failings of U.S. democratic pro-
of human rights posts spread across numerous U.N. cesses and social divides, seeking to paint as hypocritical
peacekeeping and political missions, for example, U.S. criticism of China’s repressive policies and system
working in the U.N. General Assembly’s budget com- of governance. Both countries have also attempted to
mittee to defund as many posts with the words “human highlight the United States’ and some European coun-
rights” in the job description as possible. U.N. posts in tries’ ineffective responses to COVID-19 as evidence of
Russia’s and China’s crosshairs include those focused the failings of democracy.
on monitoring, investigating, and reporting on the
abuse of women and children and other rights vio- Unseating established norms, legitimizing authoritarianism.
lations in the Democratic Republic of Congo, South Both Beijing and Moscow view eliminating the normative
Sudan, Sudan, Mali, Haiti, and elsewhere. underpinnings of the international system, specifically
China has pressured members of the Human Rights liberal democracy and universal human rights, as critical
Council, especially those economically dependent on to gaining a greater voice in global governance and, in
China, to submit only positive reviews of China during China’s case, smoothing its path to true great-power status
its Universal Periodic Review—a process in which the under CCP leadership. Chinese leaders have sought to
council examines countries’ human rights records every gradually weaken democratic norms to enhance the inter-
five years. China’s growing heft as the second-biggest national legitimacy of China’s Leninist-capitalist brand
contributor is more fundamentally causing U.N. bodies to of governance and enable Beijing’s rise. Each country
remain silent on China’s abuses in Xinjiang and else- expects the United States to cynically use existing norms
where. The countries also routinely use their powerful, and the nature of their regimes as a ploy to prevent them
veto-wielding positions on the U.N. Security Council from having a greater say in international institutions and
(UNSC) to block action to prevent or address gross to preserve a system that advantages Washington.

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Defending against regime change. The CCP and the forward, the longer they are aligned, the more saturated
Kremlin each expect that the United States is bent upon the impact of their alignment will become. Moreover, it
undermining regime control, including through democ- will become increasingly likely that where they see their
racy promotion they view as causing color revolutions in interests overlap, the two countries will explicitly coor-
their regions. Washington’s mounting focus on China’s dinate their actions in the democracy and human rights
repressive human rights policies at home and targeting domain. Their relationship in the democracy and human
of the CCP specifically will further convince Beijing rights space could evolve in the following ways:
that the United States is bent upon regime change as a
solution to containing China’s rising power and emer- Russia and China increase the dose of their shared mes-
gence as a peer competitor. This conviction is likely to saging and extend the reach of their propaganda and
lead Beijing to view Russia as an increasingly valuable disinformation campaigns. Russia and China are likely
partner in pushing back against the United States. To this to increase the coordination of their global efforts at
end, the Chinese and Russian regimes will continue to information manipulation, including through the media.
share tools and best practices on authoritarian control Already there is evidence that Russian outlets in some
and possibly look for opportunities to jointly innovate European media markets amplify CCP messaging. The
new approaches for citizen control. two countries are also institutionalizing their coordi-
While there are numerous constraints on the develop- nation through efforts such as the Media Forum, where
ment of the Russia-China relationship and cooperation they coordinate and share best practices to improve their
in discrete areas such as defense and cyber, there are few capacity to promote their point of view—what China calls
factors limiting their collaboration to undermine democ- “discourse power.” Moreover, Russia and China’s success
racy and universal rights. Russia’s role as a disrupter, in their complementary disinformation campaigns
willing to brazenly undermine democracies and interfere could drive the two actors to coordinate more closely
in their political and intentionally.
processes, and In particular, the
China’s lower risk
The Chinese and Russian regimes will exchange of Russian
tolerance, as it continue to share tools and best practices and Chinese best
seeks the mantle on authoritarian control, and possibly look practices and cross-
of a responsible for opportunities to jointly innovate new border learning on
great power, digital information
remain poten- approaches for citizen control. operations will
tial constraints become increasingly
on their future cooperation in this domain. But the two hardwired into interactions between the countries.
countries have used this difference in tactics to their China will adopt more Russia-style disinformation
advantage, and, as noted above, China is already moving tactics, actively coordinating messages, deploying them
to take a more aggressive approach to advance its inter- selectively in different countries, and benefiting from
ests in ways that undermine democracy abroad. dissemination across mutual platforms. The impact of
Indeed, the common strategic approach to these greater coordination would only be supercharged by the
issues indicates virtually unlimited potential for close dominance of China’s social media applications. Russia
collaboration to refashion an international order less and China could use these platforms, along with the
democratic and more suited to Russia and China’s BRI, to further control the information environment
interests, forming the foundation for a more robust rela- and expand the reach and effect of their disinformation
tionship going forward. campaigns beyond their own borders.

SCENARIOS FOR GREATER COOPERATION More robust support for digital dictatorship. China and
There is little visible evidence to suggest that the Russia are both convinced of the utility of digital tools
Kremlin and Beijing are explicitly coordinating their to increase their control over their citizens. They rec-
influence operations or other efforts to subvert democ- ognize the role that social media and other emerging
racy. But even if there is not intentional coordination technologies have played in overthrowing repressive
between them, the result is much the same. Because of and unaccountable leaders, and proactively sought to
their alignment, they are rowing in the same direction, coopt these same tools and use them in ways that actually
creating a more potent anti-democratic force. Looking tighten their grip on power. But Russia and China have

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Navigating the Deepening Russia-China Partnership

approached digital authoritarianism differently, in large Beijing dramatically accelerated post-2014. Starting with
part because they started from very different places Xi’s state visit to Moscow in May 2015, the two countries
domestically. Beijing is capable of blocking information have signed a series of agreements deepening coopera-
before it ever reaches citizens and is creating a pervasive tion in areas such as AI, 5G, biotechnology, and the digital
system of surveillance that can integrate vast amounts economy. In August 2020, the two countries embarked
of data to aid citizen control. Russia is creating its own on a “Year of Russian-Chinese Scientific, Technical, and
less technologically sophisticated model of digital Innovation Cooperation.” The two countries’ increased
authoritarianism, based in large part on a system of legal focus on science and innovation is due in part to their
mechanisms, discreet online surveillance, and efforts to increasingly antagonistic relationship with the United
alter and manipulate online discourse and narratives. States and Europe—Russia remains under U.S. and
Russia is likely to learn from and adopt Chinese tools, European economic sanctions as a result of its aggres-
further refining its brand of digital dictatorship. But sion in Ukraine, and Beijing faces trade tensions with
just as importantly, the differences in the Chinese and the United States and growing Western concern about
Russian toolkits for digital dictatorship will offer aspiring its tech industry. Deepening cooperation in this domain
autocrats a grab bag of options to tailor an approach to bolsters each country’s ability to compete with U.S. tech-
digital control that is best suited to their own domestic nological developments and alleviates the pressure that
context. In some cases—most likely in full autocracies— the United States and Europe have sought to impose.
China’s model will dominate. In hybrid regimes where Just as Moscow and Beijing recognize the imperative
leaders cannot get away with such blatant repression, to compete with the United States in the technology
leaders may rely more heavily on Russia’s model. Once realm and drive their own domestic development, so
again, the alignment of Russian and Chinese objectives— too do they share a view of the threats that emerging
even when they pursue them differently—is likely to technologies pose. The CCP and Putin regime see the
amplify the effect of their individual actions by making information revolution and spread of digital tools as a
digital authoritarianism more accessible for a broader threat to national sovereignty and their hold on power.
swath of regimes. These governments view the internet and digital tech-
nologies as conduits for the United States to destabilize
Collectively shaping a new normative landscape. China their regimes and as tools for citizens to overthrow
and Russia are already shaping international institutions oppressive and unresponsive regimes. They are there-
and global narratives to undermine the liberal founda- fore taking steps and aligning efforts in the cyber and
tions of the international order. The two countries will digital realms to solidify control over their populations
likely step up these efforts, seeking to dilute commit- internally and use their cyber and digital tools to project
ment to democratic principles, chip away at norms and their influence outward.
standards governing the free flow of information, weaken Although important limits remain on the depth of
rights protections at the U.N. and other institutions, and their technology cooperation, as described below, Russia
fundamentally remove citizen voices from such insti- and China appear to recognize the potential synergies
tutions by freezing out civil society organizations and of joining forces in the technology realm. This section
advocates for individual rights. China and Russia will outlines how Russia and China are joining efforts to
also push ahead with creating alternative cyber, AI, and accelerate their technological innovation, while also
digital economy domains that will not be constrained taking steps in the cyber domain to limit the potentially
by democratic norms, civil liberties, and privacy stan- destabilizing internal effects of these developments.
dards. Lastly, the countries will push a moral equivalence
between traditional Western democracy and governance INNOVATION
assistance and their support for authoritarian solutions, Russia and China view the technology domain as a
with China in particular using new foreign assistance critical battlespace in their competition with the United
institutions to offer competing governance assistance States. Moscow, for its part, is focused on establishing
bereft of democratic principles. Russia as a leader in technology and the digital economy.
In addition to investing in AI, Russian leaders likely
Technology and Cyber view efforts to develop the country’s digital economy
Technology cooperation has become another significant as critical for generating investment, economic growth,
pillar of Russia-China relations. As in the other domains and global prestige in a rapidly digitizing world. China,
of their partnership, cooperation between Moscow and meanwhile, has been acutely focused on accelerating its

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innovation-focused development strategy. Made in China Along with these centers, China and Russia are
2025—a broad umbrella industrial plan China introduced creating joint funds to promote research and facilitate
in 2015—seeks to boost the country’s economic com- their companies’ ability to move away from reliance on
petitiveness by advancing China’s position in the global U.S. technologies.34 The Russia-China Investment Fund,
manufacturing value chain, leapfrogging into emerging for example, was created in 2012 by the Russian Direct
technologies, and reducing reliance on foreign firms.33 Investment Fund and the China Investment Corporation
The plan emphasizes technology advancement and to invest in opportunities linking Russia and China,
innovation as drivers of growth and productivity, calling though actual spending and projects supported have had
for breakthroughs in 10 sectors including aerospace, implementation issues. Since then, Russia and China
robotics, and advanced medical devices. have established several joint funds. The Sino-Russian
Russia and China view each other as useful partners Joint Innovation Investment Fund, for example, was
in advancing their objectives, especially as confrontation established in 2019 with the Russian Direct Investment
with the United States grows. In recent years, the two Fund and the Chinese Investment Corporation financing
countries have launched a number of new forums and the $1 billion project.
mechanisms to promote deeper collaboration and foster Russia and China have also increased the number of
greater joint innovation, including the development of technology dialogues and exchanges between them.
science and technology parks, dialogues and exchanges, These initiatives have the potential to create a network
and expansion of academic cooperation. of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics
(STEM) cooperation that will facilitate even greater
They are taking steps and engagement and information sharing across their
respective scientific communities. The Sino-Russian
aligning efforts in the cyber and Engineering Technology Forum of 2019, for example,
digital realms to solidify control produced 15 agreements on various development
over their populations internally projects, including space debris clearing and unmanned
and use their cyber and digital vehicles, worth more than $1 billion.35 On the academic
front, some of the largest Russian and Chinese academic
tools to project their influence and research institutions have expanded research col-
outward. laboration and personnel exchanges. In July 2018, for
example, the Russian and Chinese academies of sciences
The most tangible area of Russia-China technology agreed to increase engagement, including on brain
cooperation has been the development of science and function research that will be relevant to AI develop-
technology (S&T) parks. Many of these projects are ment. Moreover, as tensions have increased with the
nascent, making it difficult to gauge their progress. United States, students from both countries perceive
Nonetheless, the growing number of these initiatives fewer opportunities to study in the United States and
creates an infrastructure and foundation for sustained instead are increasingly learning and studying in each
cooperation. The research being executed in these tech- other’s universities—a factor likely to fuel their joint
nology parks spans a wide number of areas, including innovation in the future.
AI, information technology, robotics, biomedicine, Finally, Russian and Chinese industries are also
and space. The China-Russia Innovation Park that was deepening their cooperation. In particular, as Huawei
completed in 2018, for example, includes enterprises has faced resistance in the United States, Australia, and
focused on AI, biomedicine, and information tech- some European countries, it has expanded operations
nology, with a particular focus on research aimed at in Russia. Huawei has opened several research and
integrating new tech with the social infrastructure of development (R&D) centers in Russia, making Russia,
both countries. In 2017, S&T parks from China and Russia alongside Europe and the United States, a top-three
agreed to promote the construction of a Sino-Russian destination for R&D. Huawei has engaged closely with
high-tech center at Skolkovo, a high-tech business area Russian universities and other Russian scientific commu-
modeled after Silicon Valley. This high-tech center is nities, and it is particularly focused on AI development.
intended to serve as a platform to promote new startups, Huawei signed a deal with telecom company MTS to
including by attracting promising Chinese companies, develop 5G networks, and the two launched a 5G test
although it remains to be seen how much such ventures zone in Moscow in October 2019. Huawei is planning
actually produce. to invest $7.8 million in training 10,000 Russian 5G

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Navigating the Deepening Russia-China Partnership

specialists over the next five years. The company expects Much of their work has taken place within
to quadruple its R&D personnel in Russia by 2024, the Group of Government Experts (GGE) on the
bringing the total to 2,000 engineers. Huawei has also Developments in the Field of Information and
reportedly advertised to recruit engineers experienced Telecommunications in the Context of International
in offensive skills such as vulnerability exploitation and Security. In 2013, Moscow worked with Beijing in
penetration testing.36 Huawei also recently purchased the GGE to include language in the GGE’s consensus
rights from a Russian startup called Vocord for facial report that “state sovereignty” and the international
recognition technology, agreed to work with a Moscow- norms and principles that flow from sovereignty apply
backed AI research center, and announced its intent to to state conduct in cyberspace. They expanded this
build an AI ecosystem in Russia by 2025.37 Even beyond sovereignty norm in the 2015 report, which stated that
Huawei, cooperation in AI continues to expand. China’s sovereignty applies to states’ “ICT [information and
Vinci Group and Russia’s Jovi Technologies, for example, communications technology]-related activities and
entered an agreement to jointly develop AI products.38 to their jurisdiction over ICT-related infrastructure
China’s Dahua Technology and Russia’s NtechLab have within their territory.”41 After facing pushback from
also released a camera with facial recognition software. the United States in the GGE, Russia and China in 2017
created an Open-Ended Working Group open to all
CYBERSECURITY AND GOVERNANCE member states, where they have advanced a similar
Russia and China are separately and together serious agenda and successfully marshaled U.N. member
competitors to the United States in cyberspace. There states to their cause. In December 2019, Russia led an
is a high degree of overlap between their interests and effort supported by a consortium of illiberal countries,
threat perceptions in this space, although there are limits including China, to replace the Budapest Convention
to how closely the two sides will work together. So far, framework with a new cybercrime treaty. Several
their cooperation has been primarily defensive, focused large democracies, including Nigeria and India, were
on technical exchanges designed to improve controls on persuaded by Russian arguments that a new treaty was
the domestic internet. There is no evidence of the two needed to fight cybercrime and terrorism, even as the
actors coordinating on offensive operations, in large part United States warned the treaty could be a veiled effort
because Russian and Chinese offensive cyber tools are to legitimize internet surveillance and crackdowns
built in the intelligence communities of each country, on online dissent.42
so there is inherent secrecy that stymies cooperation Beijing and Moscow have also cooperated bilaterally
on this front.39 on cybersecurity and governance. In 2015, Putin and
Instead, the thrust of their cooperation in this domain Xi signed a bilateral agreement on cybersecurity that
has been to work together in the United Nations and affirmed shared cyber sovereignty norms, ostensibly
other multilateral organizations to legitimize their shared agreed to mutual nonaggression and cooperation on
interest in imposing greater state control over the internet developing information security tools and promised
and information flows. Russia and China work together a joint response to acts that threaten the territo-
through diplomacy to promote cyber sovereignty—norms rial integrity and stability of either state.43 The two
on cybersecurity, or in their terms “information security,” countries continue to work in the framework of that
that emphasize countries’ “sovereignty” over content and agreement, primarily by jointly developing technology
communication tools that may threaten regime stability. and processes for internet control. In 2019, they
In 2011, China and Russia submitted their first letter entered an agreement on combating illegal internet
promoting cyber sovereignty as an international norm to content, which would enable the leaders to tighten
the U.N. General Assembly. In 2011 and 2015, China and their grip on and control of the internet.44 As Beijing
Russia pushed the International Code of Conduct for and Moscow pursue similar goals, many actions taken
Information Security at the U.N., alongside representa- independently reinforce each other’s interests. Both
tives of Tajikistan and Uzbekistan, which calls on states to are pursuing an independent root server system,
crack down on “dissemination of information” that incites pushing hosts to remove root servers from the United
terrorism or extremism or “undermines other countries’ States to limit America’s ability to cut off internet
political, economic or social stability.” They also proposed access.45 Following China’s lead, Russia recently passed
changes at the International Telecommunications Union a law calling for the creation of “RuNet,” an off switch
that would allow individual governments to take greater for domestic internet networks that analysts have
control over internet regulation functions.40 compared to China’s Great Firewall.46

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DRIVERS OF TECHNOLOGY AND CYBER ALIGNMENT Complementarity. More tactically, Russia and
Russia and China view their coordination in the China bring different capabilities in the technology
technology domain as enhancing their ability to domain, facilitating their cooperation. As a Chinese
compete with the United States, spurring their own spokesman noted in 2019, “[Russia and China] can
domestic development, and better positioning them use our best qualities, expanding our technological
to shape the global governance system. Looking potential and competitiveness.”48 Russia, for its part,
forward, the factors below are likely to facili- has a long history of talent in science and engineering,
tate, if not deepen, Russia-China technology and
cyber cooperation. Russia and China bring
different capabilities in
Sustained confrontation with the United States. Over
the past several years, U.S. policy has increasingly the technology domain,
sought to limit Russian and Chinese access to the facilitating their cooperation.
global technological ecosystem. For China, greater
cooperation with Russia is useful given increasing which Beijing views as valuable for its tech and
U.S. and European efforts to block the access of defense industry giants that are hungry for talent and
Chinese technology firms and research to Western face increasingly unfavorable conditions in the United
markets—which the CCP regards as key to its States and Europe. China’s resources, markets, and
economic development—due to security concerns. It greater proficiency in commercializing its scien-
is important, however, not to overstate the extent to tific developments, in turn, are extremely useful for
which China values the Russian technological eco- Moscow.49
system, as the amount Beijing spends in Russia pales
in comparison to local spending and the importance Despite these drivers, important constraints remain.
for Beijing of China-dominated supply chains. For
Russia, U.S. and European sanctions have restricted Persistent distrust. Despite the close personal rela-
its access to technology markets and constrained tionship between Putin and Xi, mutual distrust lingers
the Russian economy. Beijing, therefore, is useful in at lower levels of their governments. In August 2020,
offsetting these challenges and helping to catalyze for example, the Russian security services announced
the digital development that Putin seeks to increase the arrest of the president of the St. Petersburg Arctic
economic growth. Similarly, both countries view Social Sciences Academy, who was accused of passing
each other as useful in creating their own indigenous classified submarine detection information to Chinese
replacements for foreign, especially American, tech- intelligence. Russians have also expressed concerns
nologies, enabling them to reduce their dependence about China’s IP theft. As in the defense domain,
on the United States and Europe.47 however, these concerns are unlikely to significantly
limit future cooperation. Moreover, as more dialogues
A shared worldview. Not only are Russia and China and exchanges take place and more Russian students
united in their opposition to the United States, and researchers work in Beijing, increasing interac-
but their views in the technology domain increas- tions between Russia and China may help overcome
ingly align. Both governments share a view of the the historical mistrust between them.
information revolution—including a free and open In the cyber domain, however, mistrust is likely
internet—and the spread of digital tools as posing a to be more entrenched. The two countries perceive
threat to their national sovereignty and their hold on each other as potential cyber threats and conduct
power. Both seek to achieve greater sovereign control cyber espionage operations against each other,
over content and communication over networks and including operations focused on obtaining intellectual
to harness digital tools to more effectively maintain property and trade secrets. Russian cybersecurity
regime stability. They view the structure of gover- firm Kasperksy, for example, has noted that Russian
nance and the internet as a source of U.S. power and firms have fallen prey to Chinese cybertheft in recent
influence, and they seek to shape norms around the years.50 Given the strong connection of cyber capa-
internet and other emerging technologies like AI in bilities to each country’s respective intelligence
ways that advance their own illiberal interests—and services, it is unlikely that the two sides would
counter those of the United States. share offensive capabilities.

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Navigating the Deepening Russia-China Partnership

Asymmetries in the relationship. The long-term issue for domain will limit the extent of what is possible, their
Russia is its technological asymmetry with China, espe- technology cooperation nonetheless could evolve in
cially in commercial and communications technologies. the following ways:
China’s technology investments far outweigh Russia’s
investments, in both the government and private sectors. Deepening cooperation on dual-use and military-rele-
For example, the Chinese AI market in 2017 saw more vant technologies. Russia and China will be least likely
than 300 startups and several billion dollars of govern- to deepen cooperation on technologies with dual-use
ment spending, second only to the United States, while applications. Still, as the two countries’ relationship
Moscow invested just over $12 million in AI research.51 deepens, Western policymakers and defense planners
China also generates far more scientific patents than need to understand and plan for those areas where their
combined efforts might lead to new capabilities. Russia-
The Kremlin could grow China cooperation on space-based capabilities illustrates
this dynamic. If Russia-China cooperation in some fields
more reluctant about its of science leads to improvements in microelectronics, this
technology partnership with could directly impact Russian military-related technology.
Beijing, as Chinese leaders For example, the recently announced Russia-China ini-
tiative to create a multi-part interferometer—used in this
view partnership with Russia case to obtain data on astrophysical phenomena such as
in this domain as one of gravitational waves—could provide secondary and tertiary
diminishing utility. advances in technology with implications for military
technology.54
Russia.52 Moreover, there are no Russian companies with
the global reach of the big Chinese firms. Chinese tech Creating a bloc of states that can erode liberal norms
and Beijing—and not Russia—will shape global tech- in international institutions. Russia and China have
nology developments and gain the intelligence benefits. already made progress on this front, and they are likely
Over time, then, the Kremlin could grow more reluctant to continue to push a broader swath of states to back
about its technology partnership with Beijing, as Chinese their idea of internet sovereignty over openness. While
leaders view partnership with Russia in this domain as the Sino-Russian view on internet governance does not
one of diminishing utility. currently enjoy majority support in most institutions, it is
foreseeable that a larger plurality of states could join the
Protectionism and sovereignty concerns limit cross-border cause in the future.
data flows. Prospects for further integration on tech are
hampered by both governments’ preference for tight Accelerating AI innovation, including for surveillance
control of information flows. Both countries’ requirement and predictive policing. Already, engagements and
that all citizens’ personal data be stored domestically and exchanges between Russia and China indicate that their
their visions for “internet sovereignty” create limits on the collaboration in AI is a priority that should be expected
scope for cross-border activity.53 Seven of China’s eight to expand. Advances in AI depend upon massive com-
long-distance international terrestrial cables run through puting capabilities, enough data for machines to learn
Russia, which could otherwise serve as a larger communi- from, and the human talent to operate those systems.55
cations hub between Europe and China. Russia’s networks Complementarity between Russia and China in these
are less centralized and more difficult to censor than areas could allow them to combine their strengths and
China’s, but the Russian government is moving unmis- accelerate progress. Russia and China are already seeking
takably in the direction of greater control. In addition, to expand the sharing of big data, for example, through
the nature of Russia’s patronage network system ensures the Sino-Russian Big Data Headquarters Base Project.
that entities will demand that Chinese ventures in Russia As highlighted earlier, Russia’s NtechLab, one of Russia’s
involve local partnerships that guarantee Russian profits. leading developers in AI and facial recognition, and Dahua
Technology, a Chinese manufacturer of video surveil-
SCENARIOS FOR GREATER COOPERATION lance solutions, jointly produced a wearable camera with
In the years to come, Russia-China scientific and tech- a facial-recognition function. Beyond sharing their best
nological cooperation will likely continue to deepen practices, Sino-Russian cooperation has the potential
and progress. Although constraints in the technology to accelerate the development of illiberal technologies.

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Given Russia’s difficulties in implementing tracking

The economic dimensions of
systems to combat COVID-19, some analysts believe
the Kremlin will look to lean more heavily on Chinese the Russia-China partnership
know-how to develop surveillance techniques.56 remain less substantial than
political messaging would
Increasing opposition to the United States in the cyber
realm. Russia and China are highly unlikely to cooperate
suggest, with significant
on offensive cyber operations. However, as the United structural barriers preventing
States gets more aggressive with the operations of U.S. greater economic integration.
Cyber Command (which includes U.S. efforts to help
allies and partners), Russia and China could step up Despite sharing a 2,600-mile border, China and Russia
similar efforts to work with their “like minded” group to have only a handful of railway crossings and roughly
push and spread their cyber tactics. If Russia and China 25 crossing points in total. The growing economic
increase efforts to share their capabilities with other asymmetry between Russia and China is likely to pose
countries, it would increase the complexity of protecting a particular challenge to their burgeoning partnership.
U.S. interests in this space. To be effective in the cyber More than the imbalance in the size of their econo-
domain, regimes have to be sophisticated in multiple mies, the asymmetries that will likely matter most are
areas, including hacking and electrical engineering Russia’s low economic complexity and dependence on
(knowing how to keep a system down, for example). If resource extraction relative to China’s diverse economy,
Russia and China share capabilities, cyberattacks could desire to maintain an array of energy suppliers, and
get more unpredictable and dangerous. Either China or access to consumer and capital markets. Nonetheless,
Russia could also steal technology from the United States, as long as both countries remain alienated from the
including cyber weapons, via cyber industrial espionage West, they will maintain incentive to overcome the
and proliferate it to the other. barriers between them.
Alternatively, and perhaps more significantly, Russia or
China could use a military contingency between the other EXPANDING BILATERAL TRADE AND INVESTMENT
country and the United States to opportunistically seek to In 2018, bilateral trade between Russia and China sur-
impose greater costs on Washington in the conflict. While passed $100 billion. Last year, Putin and Xi announced
a joint offensive operation remains unlikely, one could a new goal of $200 billion by 2024.60 China has now
conduct an offensive cyber operation on behalf of the surpassed Germany as Russia’s largest trading partner.
other to impair the United States or another adversary. Russia participates in China’s massive BRI, but as with
all BRI statistics, any estimates of Moscow’s participa-
Economy tion require a careful eye. One flagship BRI project, the
China and Russia have sought to portray their expanding Moscow-Kazan high-speed railway, has been repeatedly
economic ties as a key pillar of the countries’ deep- delayed and, like other projects, pre-dates the BRI’s
ening relationship. “Economic cooperation and trade, announcement. The railway’s astronomical price tag,
as a key pillar of our relations, is crucial to the common $22 billion, has inflated overall estimates of BRI project
development and revitalization of China and Russia,” activity in Russia. In March, Russian officials announced
Xi said during a visit to Moscow in June 2019.57 “This is the project would be “postponed,” and it would not be
an allied relationship in the full sense of a multifaceted surprising if the project is delayed indefinitely.61 Russian
strategic partnership. This is reflected in the economy,” and Chinese officials have little incentive to publicly
Putin said several months later.58 Indeed, the two coun- terminate joint projects, especially those that have taken
tries have set and ultimately accomplished goals to on symbolic value.
expand bilateral trade and strike deals for cross-border
infrastructure. In 2019, more than two million Chinese ENERGY
tourists visited Russia, up from 158,000 a decade earlier, Much of Russia and China’s overlapping economic inter-
and spent over $1 billion.59 ests are in oil and gas. Western sanctions deprived Russia
However, the economic dimensions of the Russia- of access to capital for greater investment in the energy
China partnership remain less substantial than political sector, while China’s growing energy demand made
messaging would suggest, with significant structural Russia more attractive as a major supplier, especially
barriers preventing greater economic integration. given Beijing’s desire to diversify its energy sources. The

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Navigating the Deepening Russia-China Partnership

structural increase in oil and gas exports between them and Putin have jointly unveiled a number of infrastruc-
reflects China’s demand and new pipeline and liquefac- ture projects to facilitate greater trade between them
tion infrastructure, as well as Russia’s interest in boosting and among other countries in the region, though projects
its Asian trade at a time when European buyers were often fall short of expectations. Despite more ambitious
more concerned about over-reliance on Russian supplies. promises, only a handful of cross-border infrastructure
The two countries have, with some difficulty, struck deals projects have been completed, most notably the Power of
on infrastructure necessary to grow their trade in fossil Siberia pipeline and two bridges in Russia’s far east.67
fuels. They finished a deal to build the East Siberia Pacific
Ocean (ESPO) oil pipeline in 2009, after difficult nego- FINANCE
tiations characterized by mutual distrust and Russia’s Another growing area of partnership for the two
concerns over dependence on the Chinese market.62 countries is finance. Both are eager to reduce their
Despite difficult negotiations and an early price dispute, dependence on Western financial systems. They began
ESPO ultimately benefited both China and Russia. In using their own currencies for bilateral trade in 2010,
2014, they proceeded with a contract for a gas pipeline though the volume involved remained low, and opened a
called Power of Siberia.63 The gas pipeline project was currency swap line in 2014, though there is little evidence
more economically challenging and prevailed largely it was used. China also extended direct loans pre-paid
because of keen political interest, especially in Moscow, for commodity purchases in 2014 when the U.S. and EU
where leaders had an urgent need to show Russia could sanctions programs came into effect. Russia’s central
not be isolated by Western sanctions imposed after the bank has shifted some reserves from dollars to euros,
illegal annexation of Crimea.64 The Power of Siberia story yuan, and gold, but private companies and households
reveals the inherent difficulty of concluding such deals, in Russia have been less eager to abandon the dollar.
as well as the importance of political will in making them Russia’s official de-dollarization campaign, ongoing since
happen. Russia’s Gazprom, which holds the world’s 2008, accelerated as a result of sanctions on the Russian
largest natural gas reserves, is already heralding a second company Rusal. Chinese reserve holdings of U.S. assets
and a third major gas pipeline to China, presenting the have fallen more modestly and reflect global capital flows
Chinese market as a future equivalent to its large gas more than national security decisions. Major Chinese
exports to Europe. Finally, Chinese loans and investment banks and companies continue to raise capital in U.S.
through the China National Petroleum Corporation dollars and in euros, and companies continue to list
(CNPC) and other companies have been critical to on U.S. exchanges.
the success of the Yamal liquefied natural gas (LNG) Officials have also discussed linking the two coun-
project in the Russian Arctic—a high-priority region tries’ national payment systems.68 Cooperation on digital
for Putin given its importance for the Russian economy payment has been expanding but remains limited by
and defense. China received its first shipment from Russia’s comparatively small market and aversion
Yamal LNG via the Northern Sea Route in 2018, cutting to digital currency. Last year, Yandex.Checkout, a
transportation time and reinforcing the relationship joint venture between the tech company Yandex and
between resource extraction in the Russian Arctic and Sberbank, Russia’s largest bank, became the first online
shipping along the Northern Sea Route that underpins retailer in Russia to accept China’s WeChat Pay. China’s
Moscow and Beijing’s shared commitment to building AliPay is working on a joint venture with Mail.ru to offer
a “Polar Silk Road.”65 digital payment services to Russian users.69
China and Russia’s efforts to create alternatives to
REGIONAL COOPERATION the Brussels-based SWIFT system are nascent, though
Russia and China have a shared interest in increasing Russia has increasingly advocated for the development
regional trade and improving infrastructure across the of a settlement system disconnected from a SWIFT
Eurasian supercontinent, particularly in Central Asia. system dependent on “unreliable” Western entities.70
Both countries lead initiatives aimed at integrating cross- Russia’s version, the System for the Transfer of Financial
border markets: Putin’s EAEU lowers customs barriers Messages (SFPS), expanded to include members of the
among Russia, Armenia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, and EAEU only last year.71 China has been more successful in
Kyrgyzstan, while Xi’s global BRI has spurred Chinese attracting international participation to its system, the
companies to build transportation and communications Cross-Border Interbank Payment System (CIPS). As of
infrastructure across Eurasia and beyond.66 Three of the April 2020, CIPS has participants in 95 countries.72 After
BRI’s six proposed corridors pass through the EAEU. Xi Japan, Russia has the second-largest number of banks

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using China’s CIPS payment system.73 So far, the volumes Isolation from the West. Worsening relations with the
used remain relatively small, and many involve banks that West add urgency to both countries’ needs to diver-
also use USD-based payment systems, which keep them sify their trade, investments, and financial systems.
vulnerable to U.S. sanctions. Nonetheless, greater use of Russia has looked to China for new markets for
such alternative systems, as well as coordination on central its oil and gas as oversupply from North American
bank digital currencies, remains an area where Russia and unconventional supplies and the return of Iranian oil
China could continue to coordinate. post-Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (JCPOA)
led to a price collapse. Moreover, Russia has faced
DRIVERS OF ECONOMIC ALIGNMENT increased need for new energy sector financing since
Russia and China have aligned interests that drive their the United States and Europe imposed debilitating
mutual efforts to increase economic cooperation. Each sanctions in 2014. Expanding (or at least maintaining)
country offers the other an alternative to the West in key exports to China allows Russia to avoid the most
trading sectors, and their cooperation allows them to offset debilitating impacts of the sanctions on its economy,
vulnerabilities in their relationship with the United States. and therefore to blunt the sanctions’ political effect.
A deepening trade relationship in oil and gas, in partic- Western sanctions have also forced Russia to look
ular, serves both countries’ perceived security interests, as toward China for investment opportunities, such
they seek to reduce their dependence on Western energy as those financed via the Russia Direct Investment
and free themselves from geopolitical constraints. Both Fund. High-profile Russian projects like the Yamal
countries also have an interest in a stronger trade infra- LNG project would have been difficult, if not impos-
structure on the Eurasian continent. Moreover, leaders sible, without Chinese support and financing.74 China
of the two countries hope to entice potential partners also used the Silk Road Fund and another state-
and, especially in the case of China, to develop new owned enterprise to invest in Sibur, Russia’s largest
markets by projecting an image of economic strength and petrochemical company. Chinese investments also
technological dominance. help Russia because they are often, in turn, amplified
by co-investments. For China, increasing U.S. and
Each country offers the other European vigilance against Beijing’s global ambi-
tions, and particularly worsening trade relations with
an alternative to the West in the United States, could increase the risk to China of
key trading sectors, and their remaining reliant on open international markets.
cooperation allows them to offset
vulnerabilities in their relationship Weakening U.S. influence. China and Russia seek to
build finance infrastructure that reduces the dom-
with the United States. inance of the United States and the U.S. dollar and,
thus, Washington’s ability to engage in extraterri-
Energy alignment. Russian and Chinese energy interests are torial financial sanctions. Similarly, they share an
aligned in several ways. The Kremlin, for its part, is highly interest in building resilience against U.S. extrater-
reliant on oil and gas revenue to run its patronage-based ritorial export controls or investment restrictions.
political system. Russia has traditionally relied on Europe Broadly speaking, Russia and China would both like
as an export market for its oil, but while Russia is seeking to to reduce their direct exposure to the USD financial
expand its oil production and exports, European demand system, including through de-dollarization, which
for oil is stagnating. China provides a lucrative customer would reduce the countries’ collective exposure
for its oil and gas exports. China prioritizes having diverse to the U.S. business cycle and, more importantly,
sources of oil and gas. Not only has China’s import depen- reduce Washington’s ability to deploy coercive
dency for oil reached an exceptionally high level of 70 policies against Chinese and Russian interests.
percent, but nearly all of that imported oil comes from While China has an interest in boosting resilience
distant sources and is transported through maritime routes to U.S. measures, Beijing’s interest is tempered
over which China as yet has little control. Russia mitigates by its reliance on the United States as an export
that vulnerability by offering its energy exports over land market, capital raising on global debt and equity
routes. Moreover, buying more Russian oil and gas allows exchanges, and concerns about greater currency
China to rely less on relatively unstable regimes in the volatility that would be involved in greater global
Middle East and Africa. use of its currency.

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Navigating the Deepening Russia-China Partnership

Regional trade infrastructure. For both China and Russia, approach to trade agreements to protect its weaker
developing trade infrastructure in Eurasia is an economic industries. China has become more important for Russia
priority. China’s BRI includes plans to develop a number in recent years, accounting for 15.5 percent of its total
of trade corridors that would be helpful to Russia as it trade in 2018. Russia, in contrast, only accounted for 0.8
pursues an integrated market with friendly neighbors. percent of China’s total trade in 2018.77 This potential
Putin has proposed a “Greater Eurasian Partnership” and imbalance is apparent in the energy sector. Although
suggested “linking” the BRI and EAEU, notions which there is leverage on both sides, in recent years China has
serve immediate political purposes even if they overlook commanded more influence as a buyer than Russia has as
economic fundamentals that could produce more friction a seller. Russia has resisted Chinese ownership of oil and
in the years ahead.75 gas fields where Central Asian countries have welcomed
it and could limit cross-border transport connections to
Projecting economic power. Xi and Putin are putting limit China’s capabilities and influence.
forward ideas that are designed to resonate with third
countries, especially developing economies.76 The two The Kremlin is increasingly
countries’ economic pitch to important emerging markets
is made stronger through the appearance of a strong
attuned to its growing
partnership between them amid a growing rift with the economic dependence on
United States and developed democracies over the future a more powerful neighbor,
economic and technological landscape. Though many particularly given Beijing’s
Russia-China initiatives turn out to be less significant than
billed, they suggest that their growing partnership could tendency to use its economic
be an alternative to the Western-dominated economic strength to coerce partners.
system. On the technology front, Russia and China have
made displays of developing plans to include Huawei Russia’s strategic caution and relative uninterest in
technology in Russia’s 5G networks—a help to the Huawei free-trade agreements also limits the most ambitious
brand globally as it receives more scrutiny in Western proposals for deeper regional integration. The EAEU-
countries, and an opportunity for the two countries to China trade agreement, which went into force last year,
claim global leadership in technologies expected to be key does not lower tariffs. Russian officials have also resisted
to future digital economies. establishing a free-trade area that covers members of
the Shanghai Cooperation Organization. Russia is likely
CONSTRAINTS ON ECONOMIC ALIGNMENT to continue avoiding deeper free-trade arrangements—a
Despite shared economic interests, any push for closer strategy that is politically understandable but econom-
Sino-Russian economic cooperation will face limits. ically self-defeating. The longer Russia waits, the more
Russia has shown a degree of caution in its dealings with sophisticated China’s production of higher-value goods
China out of concern for China’s rising power and poten- becomes. As a result, Russia may find it has less and
tial coercive leverage. Weaknesses in the Russian economy less to protect.
limit the potential for profitable trade and investments.
The two countries’ interests are aligned in this field Structural barriers to investment. Investment in Russia
for the short and medium term, but they may diverge. is hampered by persistent problems, including red tape,
Looking forward, the depth of their economic alignment poor infrastructure, and corruption. Chinese investors are
will depend, in part, on both countries facing sustained leery of deals with Russian state-owned oil companies, in
tensions with the West. part because the terms haven’t been attractive and in part
because Russian energy companies haven’t been inter-
Strategic caution. The Kremlin is increasingly attuned to ested, except in the case of rare financing deals. Russia’s
its growing economic dependence on a more powerful business environment carries far more risk compared
neighbor, particularly given Beijing’s tendency to use with developed economies and offers less promise than
its economic strength to coerce partners. China’s rising developing economies due in part to its declining popula-
power and ambitions are cause for concern for Moscow, tion. In 2014 and 2015, Russia created 20 special economic
much as they are in the West. The Russian leadership zones to attract foreign investment to its far east. Only six
recognizes that deeper economic integration with China have attracted Chinese investment, which totaled a mere
could be deeply disruptive, as evidenced by its cautious $38 million between 2015 and 2018.78

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Moreover, while the grand oil and gas deals that China impact of U.S. sanctions and other restrictions and reduce
and Russia have sought to strike are strategically desir- the asymmetric power the U.S. holds in the global finan-
able for both countries, they are difficult to complete and cial system to impose costs on those acting counter to U.S.
may not be affordable. For Russia, exporting oil and gas to interests and values. Russia could succeed in getting China,
China rather than Europe has geopolitical advantages, but it which has been less active on de-dollarization, to conduct
requires building expensive new trade infrastructure across trade in a wider array of currencies (including the yuan) and
three times the distance. Bargains between Russia and China encourage other countries to shift away from use of the U.S.
to build these facilities can be difficult to strike, and the dollar in trade and savings. This trend, coupled with a rising
projects come with high cost and financial risk. Moreover, U.S. debt load and U.S. external deficit, could increase the
such costly oil and gas deals make little financial sense under cost of capital in the United States, put more pressure on the
low commodity prices, which are likely to persist for at least U.S. Federal Reserve to purchase U.S. assets, and exacerbate
the short to medium term amid what is expected to be a any ongoing financial decoupling.
grinding global economic recovery. Russia, however, appears
to be betting that locking in market share through such Popularization of alternative payment systems. China and
deals will pay off over the longer term as China’s massive Russia could develop new payment systems that circum-
economy continues to grow. vent SWIFT and other systems linked to the USD financial
system. This would reduce exposure to U.S. sanctions,
Russian reliance on oil and gas. Despite Russian efforts to anti-money laundering rules, and other policies. China and
expand exports in other sectors, economic cooperation Russia have each been focused on centralizing and national-
between Russia and China is increasingly concentrated in izing domestic payment systems, giving less priority to the
raw materials. When energy prices were at their peak, oil development of international systems such as China’s CIPS.
and gas represented half of Russian federal government Development and centralization of such local payment
revenue and two-thirds of the country’s export earnings. systems, and digitalization and information sharing with
Even with lower oil and gas prices today, petroleum plays and between the two governments, could increase the
a preeminent role in the Russian economy, and control of political and other benefits of a more integrated approach.
the sector is a major instrument of state power domesti- China’s system may become more frequently used in Russia,
cally and internationally. Despite efforts to expand trade where distrust and concerns about how Chinese entities
across sectors, including arms and nuclear power, trade over could use leverage over transactions and information
the past two years has become more concentrated in raw thus far has limited adoption of Chinese systems. Russian
materials.79 Russia has made efforts to replace U.S. agricul- entities, especially larger banks, may see a greater incen-
tural exports to China with its own, although its output is tive to use these platforms given the economic benefits
limited by rising land costs, poor infrastructure, and red implied. Moreover, both Russian and Chinese govern-
tape.80 Russia’s limitations could leave it with little to offer ments would see a benefit from additional consolidation,
China in the long term if Beijing, still heavily reliant on coal, monitoring, and control.
eventually transitions away from all fossil fuels decades
from now. Although China and Russia’s energy interests Reduced vulnerability of Russia to U.S. pressure. Significant
converge in the short to medium term, they may well increases in Chinese investment in Russia via its state-linked
diverge in the long run. China wants to be the global leader companies could bolster the companies’ resilience to U.S.
in a post-oil-and-gas world. Russia wants the petroleum era pressure by reducing reliance on both U.S. and European
to last for as long as possible. Not only is it the key sector of capital and expertise. The most likely areas for development
its economy, but it helps Russia to punch above its economic are in the domains of agriculture, metals, and energy, though
weight internationally. some cooperation in e-commerce, pharmaceuticals, and
emerging technologies are possible if Russian and Chinese
SCENARIOS FOR THE FUTURE partners can overcome distrust. This trend could be rein-
Increased cooperation that accelerates de-dollarization. China forced through even greater bilateral trade as concerns
and Russia could significantly increase the use of their own about U.S. and European reshoring prompt both countries to
currencies in bilateral trade and with third countries due to shore up their supply chains. China could eventually become
concerns about the widening of U.S. sanctions and export a much more important supplier of capital and equipment
controls and the dollar’s volatility. Looking out five years, to Russia, helping boost productivity and concentrating in
for example, it is probable that transactions between Russia areas of priority to the Russian government, including bol-
and China will no longer be in dollars. This would blunt the stering Russia’s sovereign fund, the Direct Investment Fund.

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Navigating the Deepening Russia-China Partnership

Implications for U.S. Policy to maintaining a free and open Indo-Pacific. This process
is already underway, as the United States is struggling to

C
rafting an effective U.S. response to expanding update force structure to meet A2AD challenges to air
Russia-China cooperation will require zeroing in and sea power around Taiwan. Russia’s sales to China
on core areas where their partnership amplifies of highly capable weapons like the S-400 surface-to-air
risks to U.S. interests. Russia-China collaboration does missile systems and Su-35 fighter jets, for example, help
not negatively impact the United States in every instance, Beijing create a “no-go zone” around Taiwan to deter U.S.
and the United States has a long list of competing policy forces from intervening in a contingency. Further erosion
priorities. Moreover, narrowing U.S. efforts to address of U.S. advantages would be especially problematic for
the countries’ partnership will be key to avoiding overly strategic competition with China in the Indo-Pacific. Russia
generalized approaches that would fail to effectively already played an integral role in modernizing China’s
counter challenges that are unique across domains. surface combat capabilities by providing Sovremenny-class
Perhaps the most concerning—and least understood— destroyers, advanced anti-ship cruise missiles, and naval air
aspect of the Russia-China partnership is the synergy defense systems, and sharing design expertise for China’s
their actions will generate. Analysts understand well indigenous ship production. Moreover, through military
the challenges that Russia and China each pose to the exercises and training, Russia is providing China with
United States. But little thought has been given to how valuable operational know-how, potentially offsetting one of
their actions will combine, amplifying the impact of both the PLA’s most significant weaknesses.
actors. As this report highlights, the impact of Russia-
China alignment is likely to be far greater than the sum of Out-innovating the United States. If the levels of technology
its parts, putting U.S. interests at risk globally. coordination between China and Russia increase, the
The synergy between Russia and China is likely to be countries may be able to innovate more rapidly together
most problematic in the way that it increases the chal- than the United States can alone. Moscow and Beijing
lenge that China likely view collaboration
poses to the United Perhaps the most concerning—and least on a number of fronts—
States. Russia’s including space, missile
amplification of
understood—aspect of the Russia-China defense, various missile
America’s China partnership is the synergy their actions technologies, unmanned
challenge will will generate. systems, and training
be most acute data for artificial intel-
on two fronts: the defense domain and the democ- ligence—as opportunities to fill mutual capability gaps
racy and human rights domain. There are also several and accelerate development of innovative technolo-
broader implications their cooperation will create for gies. Recently, Russia and China announced that they
U.S. global influence. This section identifies those areas are pooling knowledge to develop a new generation of
where Russia-China cooperation is likely to be most non-nuclear submarines.81 Future development of accurate
problematic for U.S. interests. hypersonic missiles or advanced submarine quieting, for
example, would threaten U.S. Navy platforms more directly
Defense than China’s current capabilities.
The robust nature of Russia-China collaboration in the Moreover, Russia and China are working together to
defense domain and its potential impact on U.S. military obviate U.S. sanctions and restrictions on technology exports.
dominance in the Indo-Pacific and its related alliance Russia and China can leverage each other’s resources,
commitments makes this area of collaboration the networks of suppliers, or partners to avoid falling behind the
most consequential for U.S. vital interests. Expanding United States in military technology or defense-industrial
coordination between Beijing and Moscow is likely output.82 Their trade relationship also facilitates technolog-
to result in numerous challenges for Washington and ical exchange. Although their bilateral trade remains modest,
military planners in particular, but three key implica- it is concentrated in areas that pose security risks, including
tions stand out: emerging and dual-use technologies. If Russia and China
continue to coordinate and benefit from their partnership in
Eroding key U.S. military advantages. Sustained Sino- the technology realm, U.S. efforts to keep pace with Russia-
Russian cooperation would put at risk America’s ability China joint innovation would place tremendous strain on an
to deter Chinese aggression and uphold its commitment already-stressed U.S. defense budget. 83

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Upending the U.S. calculus on deterrence and force struc- polluting the global information environment, Beijing
ture. Overt defense cooperation between Russia and and Moscow are likely to set forth alternative platforms
China could also upend U.S. defense plans and capacity. by which information can be disseminated. This type
One could imagine, for example, a future Gulf crisis of synergy is also likely to move into new spaces like AI
in which Russia and China both send a squadron of and other emerging technologies. As discussed above,
ships to “observe” the situation, which would seriously Russia and China have different approaches to digital
complicate the U.S. calculus. In a less likely but more authoritarianism, but together they are creating an array
significant scenario, Russia and China could coordinate of options that make digital control more accessible
aggressive actions along their peripheries, challenging and flexible for a broader swath of countries. Looking
the current U.S. force structure.84 If, for example, Russia forward, Russia, with its willingness to accept con-
and China conducted concurrent grey-zone or hybrid frontation and risk, could further push the boundaries
operations in the Baltics or the South China Sea, U.S. on AI applications that do not conform to the ethical
forces would be hard-pressed to respond to both threats. standards of liberal democracies or democratic norms.
The resources required to fight in either theater are Russia’s breaking of such boundaries will allow China to
costly, and major upgrades to U.S. readiness and capacity press ahead with its export of AI-enabled controls while
are likely required to be successful on either front drawing less attention.87
today.85 Ultimately, Russia and China seek to contest Lastly, while China’s interference in the U.S. political
the United States “together, but separately,” effec- landscape remains very different from Russia’s persistent
tively requiring the United States to compete on both drive to undermine American democracy and exploit
fronts at the same time.86 societal divisions, an increasing partnership between
the two countries may also result in overlapping and
Democracy and Values potentially compounding efforts to interfere in America’s
The most natural domain for collaboration between a domestic politics, particularly if U.S.-China relations
Chinese Communist Party-led China and Putin’s Russia remain fraught under the Biden administration and
is around the undermining of democracy and existing China grows increasingly bold in employing Russia-style
liberal norms underpinning the current international online disinformation efforts.
order. The regimes’ shared commitment to neutralizing
perceived U.S. and allied efforts to undermine their grip A rising tide of “authoritarianization.”88 China’s growing
on power, popularizing authoritarianism, and prop- global influence poses a challenge to democracy. Even
agating a values-neutral order better suited to their if the CCP is not primarily intent upon spreading
strategic interests is a key challenge for U.S. interests, its authoritarian model out of ideological fervor, its
particularly in four key areas: growing influence and global ties dilute the influence of
liberal democracies and create dynamics that work to
Producing anti-democratic synergy. The synergy between the detriment of liberal democracy. China’s rise, along
Russia and China will be most pronounced in the democ- with Russian assertiveness, sends a powerful signal
racy space. Already, Russia and China are popularizing to other leaders about the success of their models and
an authoritarian governance model, exporting their best alters perceptions about what constitutes a legitimate
practices, actively watering down human rights norms, regime. China is also expanding its networks of trade and
working together in multilateral forums to back each patronage with many states at once—as the United States
other up, creating norms around cyber and internet did in the aftermath of the Cold War—creating greater
sovereignty, and bolstering illiberal leaders and helping opportunities to encourage authoritarian tendencies.
them stay in power. Some of this is more alignment than Although China is the more consequential actor,
coordination. But even if the two countries do not coordi- Russia is amplifying China’s impact on global democ-
nate, they are increasingly singing from the same sheet of racy. Russia legitimizes China’s actions, making Beijing
music, increasing the dose of their messaging. more persuasive with swing states, which will be crucial
Looking forward, policymakers should expect this in determining the future trajectory of democracy.
anti-democratic synergy to continue. Russian narra- Likewise, China is learning from Russia’s approach,
tives designed to undermine trust in institutions, for which has grown more assertive and confrontational
example, will increasingly create fertile ground for since 2014. Although the Kremlin historically was
Chinese narratives about the failings of democracy and content with efforts intended to blunt Western democ-
superiority of authoritarian systems to take root. Beyond racy promotion, it has instead gone on the offensive,

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Navigating the Deepening Russia-China Partnership

seeking to undermine liberal democracy. The CCP’s GLOBAL LEADERSHIP

incorporation of some of the Kremlin’s tools into its Expanding Chinese and Russian collaboration across so
foreign policy arsenal amplifies the challenge that Beijing many domains is already contributing to a gradual but
poses to liberal democracy. perceptible decline in U.S. global influence that is attrib-
China’s adoption of Russian disinformation tactics utable primarily to self-inflicted wounds. Many of the
and Russia’s adoption of PRC-style internet controls foundations of that influence—a robust alliance network,
is about more than “authoritarian learning” or the relative economic strength, sway over global narratives
passive diffusion of tactics, but instead indicates that the and norms, and soft power—will likely face a growing
increasing interaction between the countries’ institutions assault from Russia, China, and their combined efforts.
is facilitating the sharing of best practices and building
a foundation for sustained cooperation. China’s and Weakening cohesion among U.S. allies and partners.
Russia’s mounting adoption of each other’s more effec- Beijing and Moscow will continue to look to delegiti-
tive means of authoritarian governance and control—and mize support for democratic values as the foundation for
sharing of tools to ensure each regime’s grip on power— the transatlantic alliance. Moscow seeks to amplify the
also further reduces the likelihood of collapse of either or narratives of illiberal populists and anti-EU forces and
both regimes as a result of their inherent weaknesses as paint them as patriotic defenders of national sovereignty,
authoritarian systems. magnifying European divisions and making the EU a less
cohesive and decisive actor and partner for Washington.
Undermining openness to democracy assistance. As China China seeks to use growing economic leverage, co-opta-
and Russia endeavor to weaken democracy’s appeal and tion of elites, and diplomatic initiatives to stymie the
fundamentally delink democracy and development—as EU from joining with the United States to act upon a
well as coopt a growing set of elites around the world—it growing recognition of the gravity of the China challenge
may become increasingly difficult for the United States, to European interests and values. Chinese and Russian
allied development aid agencies, and nongovernmental actions also have combined to reduce the attractive-
organizations to deliver democracy and governance ness of EU membership and related participation in the
assistance. China and Russia are likely to step up efforts democratic West. For example, in Serbia, perceptions of
to capitalize on the rising global tide of nationalism China’s growing economic leverage and willingness to
and discourse about sovereignty to cynically portray invest in the country’s future combine with the sustained
Western support for democratic institutions as foreign drumbeat of Russian messaging about the EU’s failings to
influence that must be resisted. China has long peddled effectively temper the resolve to pursue reforms required
this narrative in Southeast Asia, particularly among for EU accession.
authoritarian-leaning governments, as has Russia in the
Middle East. China’s development assistance—through Blunting the impact of U.S. financial tools. Already, Russia
both investments untied to democracy and rights stan- and China are working together to obviate U.S. sanc-
dards and a greater willingness to offer a competing tions and export controls and reduce the centrality of
vision of governing solutions not predicated on democ- the United States in the global economic system. If their
racy—will challenge a key pillar upholding U.S. influence partnership deepens, it could dilute the efficacy of U.S.
and values globally. coercive financial tools, especially sanctions and export
controls, which have been a key part of the U.S. foreign
Mounting competition over cyber governance and norms. policy arsenal. The United States would have less ability
Given the support Russia and China have already to use financial measures, such as export controls and
garnered in the U.N. and through the BRI, the United sanctions, to isolate and constrain the unwanted actions
States should expect a long-term global competition of not just China and Russia but other countries that
over cyber norms. Cooperation among Russia, China, could tap into their networks to bypass U.S. pressure.
a number of middle and emerging powers, and one or For example, de-dollarization and efforts to avoid U.S.-
more European countries on cyber governance is also a linked payment systems would increase the resilience of
foreseeable possibility. Beijing’s and Moscow’s efforts Russian, Chinese, and other governments to U.S. sanc-
to establish norms in this domain contrast with limited tions and other restrictions. The USD-based financial
effort to rally support for a free and open internet system has been critical to Washington’s asymmetric
among the United States and like-minded countries in ability to sanction third parties who do not trade with
the U.N. and elsewhere. or invest directly in the United States, but who use

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global financial channels. The more transactions Recommendations

that occur in currencies other than the dollar, the
less ability the United States would have to prevent U.S. policymakers remain unclear as to how to approach
Russia from making payments to China and vice versa, Russia and China’s emerging entente. The sheer breadth
and hence Washington’s ability to enforce sanctions of the countries’ partnership and the challenges posed
would deteriorate. to U.S. interests documented in this report invites both
policy paralysis and a tendency toward overly simpli-
Eroding U.S. sway with countries and international fied solutions—such as peeling one country away from
institutions. Expanding Chinese and Russian influence the other—that are unlikely to succeed in the near term.
would cause more countries around the world to fall To be successful in meeting this challenge, Washington
into an orbit of friendly illiberal states inhospitable to instead will need to prioritize and advance several
U.S. engagement and opposed to its interests. Political actions designed to collectively limit the depth of Russia
and business elites would become more beholden and China’s partnership and mitigate the challenges their
to China economically, citizens would be deluged cooperation poses to U.S. vital interests and values. To
by Chinese and Russian information operations and this end, the United States should pursue the following
propaganda rather than objective international news approaches:
sources, and governments would be encouraged to
employ sophisticated authoritarian methods to silence Change Russia’s Calculus
democratic actors in civil society and independent This report has identified numerous factors fueling
media. For some state-led economies, the involved Russia-China alignment, many of which are related
surveillance and consolidated financial channels to the complementarity of Moscow and Beijing’s own
would be a plus, not a negative. The United States and interests and capabilities. Still, the U.S. posture towards
its allies could lose relative influence in international both countries has reinforced the Kremlin’s readiness
institutions as China and Russia repurpose them, using in particular to work more closely with Beijing. With no
their growing influence in the bodies—and within the sense that economic options will be available in the West
individual countries of which they consist—to shape and growing economic challenges at home, the Kremlin
a multilateral agenda favorable to their interests and has grown more willing to conform with China’s goals in
denuded of commitments to norms around democratic exchange for China’s economic support. Over the long
governance and the protection of individual rights. term, then, the United States should seek to convince
Moscow that some cooperation with the United States
Fragmenting the information space. Symbiotic rela- and Europe is possible and preferable to its growing
tionships between Chinese and Russian media and subservience to China. Shaping Moscow’s calculus will
diplomatic institutions could support the creation not prevent Russia-China cooperation, but it would likely
of an entirely alternative information ecosystem, limit the extent to which Russia is willing to go along
including on popular Chinese-designed social media with Beijing, constraining the depth of their partnership.
apps, in which truth is called into question. While Critically, a U.S. approach designed to change Russia’s
many countries on each country’s periphery would calculus is not the same as the so-called “reverse Nixon”
rely heavily on exclusively Chinese or Russian-led strategy of cozying up to Russia and choosing to ignore
information sources and platforms, many across Moscow’s direct assaults on U.S. interests and democ-
Eurasia would access a mix of each country’s gov- racy to pull it away from Beijing. The costs to the United
ernment-sanctioned content. Countries in Africa States of such an approach would outweigh the benefits
and elsewhere reliant on Chinese providers of digital of mitigating the effects of their alignment. Such a
television or subject to significant Chinese investment strategy would compromise the long-standing U.S. com-
in struggling media outlets are already receiving infor- mitment to supporting countries’ right to pursue their
mation tilted towards the PRC perspective and lacking self-defined interests and signal to onlooking countries
critical content about authoritarian repression at home that the costs associated with efforts to undermine
and aggression abroad. China and Russia will seek democracy are short-lived. Moreover, there is no guar-
to increase their influence on current Western social antee that efforts to lure Russia away from China would
media platforms, undermining the documentation of be successful. This is because Putin views the United
human rights abuses and possibly the platforms’ use States and not Beijing as the central threat to his hold on
for popular protest. power. After 20 years in office, Putin is unlikely to change

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Navigating the Deepening Russia-China Partnership

his views of the United States. Xi, for his part, views to Beijing in an effort to raise questions among the
Russia as useful in undermining U.S. global dominance people surrounding Putin and the Russian people about
and countering U.S. efforts to limit Chinese leverage in the wisdom of Putin’s approach. Such messaging could
multilateral institutions. Approaches designed to drive a focus on China’s growing economic ties with countries
grand wedge between Russia and China, in other words, the Kremlin views as firmly within its so-called “sphere
are unlikely to work. of influence,” like Ukraine, Belarus, and Serbia.89 Putin
Instead, efforts to change Moscow’s calculus should would be unlikely to change course in the near term,
be incremental and the ultimate goal far more modest but such messaging could raise the chances that future
than peeling either one away from the other. Rather than leaders would seek to chart a more neutral course.
attempting to split Russia from China, the goal should
be to show Moscow the benefits of pursuing a more Cooperate with Russia when it is in the U.S. interest.
balanced foreign policy, thereby preventing the most Regular communication between the United States and
malignant implications of their alignment. Most immedi- Russia would also facilitate dialogue on issues where
ately, the United States could take the following actions: the United States and Russia have shared interests.
Most immediately, the United States should extend
The United States should seek New START, and importantly use this agreement as an
to convince Moscow that some opportunity to launch broader arms control and stra-
tegic stability discussions. Arms control on its own will
cooperation with the United
not be sufficient to change Moscow’s calculus about
States and Europe is possible the benefits of cooperation with the United States, but
and preferable to its growing it can serve as a foundation for additional engagement.
subservience to China. Other potential areas for greater U.S. engagement with
Russia include climate, including in the Arctic where
Differentiate between China and Russia in U.S. strategy, the United States and Russia have engaged productively
rhetoric, and practice. The United States should more in the Arctic Council, and non-proliferation. Through
clearly differentiate between Russia and China in its increased communication between Washington and
strategy documents and rhetoric. Lumping Russia and Moscow, the United States could also present additional
China together is overly generous to Russia, especially incentives—economic and diplomatic—where the United
economically, and it reinforces Russia’s readiness to States would increase cooperation if Russia moderated
align with China. U.S. strategy should also resist simple its actions. In this way, the United States could under-
framing such as “taking on the authoritarians.” Although score that some cooperation is possible and make clear
some of the challenges they pose are overlapping, the two for future Russian decision-makers that an alternative
countries often employ very different tactics and pose course is available
distinct threats to the United States. By more clearly dif- The current realities in U.S.-Russia relations mean
ferentiating them in U.S. thinking and policy approaches, that moving in this direction would take time. Russian
it would create more room to maneuver and exploit the actions, including the Kremlin’s persistent efforts
important fissures between them. to target U.S. elections, amplify U.S. social divisions,
and undermine U.S. faith in democratic institutions,
Message to Moscow privately and publicly how China will be the key factor limiting what is possible in the
disadvantages Russia. Diplomacy should not be a reward, near term. The difficulties of lifting U.S. sanctions on
but rather a tool among others that Washington uses Russia in the event that Moscow changes its policy
to protect and advance its security and interests. In the course will be another obstacle. In the meantime, then,
case of Russia, the United States should resuscitate and the United States should monitor and plan for, create
regularize communications with Moscow. Doing so headwinds to, and—where possible—pull at the seams
would advance critical goals, including mitigating the in Russia-China relations.
risk of unintended escalation with Russia. It would also
provide an opportunity for the United States to under- Monitor and Plan for Growing
score how China is undermining Russian interests on key Russia-China Cooperation
issues and in particular regions. But U.S. efforts should As Russia-China relations deepen, more of their coop-
not stop there. U.S. policymakers should be far more vocal eration is likely to take place out of plain sight. The
in publicly highlighting Russia’s growing subservience announcement that Russia will provide China with an

27
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early-warning missile detection system, for example, sur- the defense concepts of one nation to apply to both, each
prised many observers and underscores the increasingly poses unique threats to the United States—each has, for
discreet nature of their cooperation. Moving forward, the example, its own approach to escalation management
United States should increase efforts to gain insight into and a theory of victory. These disparate strategies will
Russia-China cooperation, including technology transfer require different responses from DoD.
between them. Likewise, efforts to forecast and think
through how their cooperation is most likely to evolve Prepare for digitization of financial infrastructure.
and affect U.S. interests would help inform approaches to Washington should support research in cryptocurren-
preventing its most pernicious effects. To these ends, the cies, digital payment systems, and associated areas to
United States should: allow the United States to stay atop new developments
and keep ahead of enforcement issues posed by the
Increase intelligence collection and sharing on Russia- Russia-China partnership in this domain. While the
China cooperation. The U.S. intelligence community Federal Reserve, Securities and Exchange Commission,
lacks consistent insight into the leadership intentions of and others are now focusing more on these areas, it
these hard-target regimes. Rising hostility between the remains critical to ensure that China and Russia do not
United States and both Russia and China has led these set the standards on development and export of payment
countries to enhance their counterintelligence, likely to systems, digital assets, and other institutions. The United
include greater intelligence sharing and joint targeting States should work with allies and European and Asian
of U.S. intelligence operations in each country, hurting central banks as well as organizations like the Bank of
U.S. collection efforts. Gaining insight into the inten- International Settlements to protect critical financial
tions of both regimes, therefore, will remain difficult. In and cyber architecture and adapt existing regulations
addition to efforts to penetrate their leadership circles, to address the challenges of digitization, especially the
the U.S. intelligence community through the National centralization of digital payment systems from countries
Intelligence Priorities Framework should increase its like Russia and China.
focus on monitoring Russia-China military cooperation,
technology transfers, and efforts to coordinate informa- Create Headwinds
tion operations. Exposing relationships between Russia This report has argued that the United States must
and China in these domains, including through greater consider Russia and China separately, to increase room
intelligence sharing, would also help European allies and to maneuver between them, as well as together. In some
partners better assess the challenges that China poses in cases, especially on democracy and human rights issues,
Europe. Washington and its allies should also broaden Russia and China have overlapping interests. There is
conversations about shared challenges posed by Chinese therefore a set of actions that the United States can take
and Russian partnerships on topics such as payment that are effective at addressing this convergence between
systems and supply chains. them. Such “two-for-one” actions are an efficient way
to mitigate the effects of Russia-China alignment. The
Wargaming, simulations, and scenario planning. The United States can mitigate the effects of Russia-China
United States government, especially the intelligence collaboration by:
community and Department of Defense (DoD), needs to
continue to proactively think through how Russia-China Reasserting U.S. global leadership. A large part of the
cooperation could evolve, much as this report has started United States’ ability to mitigate the effects of deep-
to do. Such analysis is useful for identifying actions that ening Russia-China alignment is showing up on the
can be taken now to thwart or limit the depth of their international stage and renewing U.S. leadership and
cooperation in the future and ensure the United States commitment to upholding democracy and universal
is not perpetually in response mode. To increase pre- human rights. Russia and China are most effective at
paredness, the DoD and other agencies should continue challenging U.S. interests and values when they can
to conduct wargames with scenarios involving the amplify and then take advantage of perceptions that the
United States opposite both China and Russia together, United States is withdrawing and disengaging.
to better understand the strengths and potential vulner- Washington must also resume leadership in multi-
abilities of such cooperation. DoD should also conduct lateral institutions, working to catalyze greater efforts
in-depth net assessments of both countries’ military among like-minded partners to address critical domains
strategies and capabilities. While it is tempting to use such as climate change, global health, and standards

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Navigating the Deepening Russia-China Partnership

around emerging technologies. The United States should the United States and its partners should dedicate
place particular emphasis on increasing efforts to shape resources to bolstering the resiliency of countries most
and advance norms and ethical frameworks for the at risk from PRC or Russian malign influence. In the
appropriate use of next-generation technologies, espe- main, this will mean simply doubling down on support
cially artificial intelligence. for good governance, anti-corruption, transparency,
The United States, along with concerned democ- and the rule of law, depriving China and Russia of
racies worldwide, should mount a more coordinated the opportunity to capitalize on governance gaps in
response to Russian and Chinese promotion of the vulnerable democracies. The stronger a country’s
concept of cyber sovereignty as a means of justifying regulatory environment, civil society, political parties,
repressive approaches to managing the internet and their and independent media, the less effective authoritarian
advancement of artificial intelligence for censorship powers’ attacks on democratic institutions will be, and
and surveillance. the less appeal the authoritarian narrative and model
will have. The United States should leverage its role
Recommitting to alliances. To counter the aligned in key global and regional development institutions
efforts of China and Russia, the United States will have to address unsustainable debt burdens in third coun-
to recommit to important partnerships. For DoD, for tries and, together with other developed democracies,
example, this should include steps to reaffirm com- offer alternative financing to reduce their reliance
mitments to key military partnerships such as the on Chinese lending. The United States should also
U.S.-Japan-South Korea trilateral defense cooperation. support the cultivation in key countries of greater
Enhancing it will help push back against Russian and expertise on PRC and Russian influence operations,
Chinese actions such as the joint air patrol in 2019, both traditional and digital, to stymie the countries’
intended to challenge U.S. operations and norms in the increasingly compounding efforts to employ disinfor-
region. The U.S. military can lead trilateral defense dis- mation and coopt foreign elites. Empowering domestic
cussions and military exercises that build confidence and constituencies to stand up against foreign subversion
deconflict agendas. of their own democracies is a relatively low-cost way
In Europe, the United States should reaffirm its for Washington to blunt China and Russia’s drive for
commitment to NATO and work to more fully enlist greater global influence.
the alliance in efforts to address the China challenge.
Growing cooperation between Russia and China raises “Trilateralizing” arms control and strategic stability
the risk that China could share with Russia intelli- dialogues. Arms control and strategic stability dia-
gence pulsing through 5G networks or collected at logues could serve as another “two-for-one,” providing
ports controlled by Chinese companies, use its growing the United States with an opportunity to limit both
ownership of European infrastructure to slow a NATO Russian and Chinese capabilities and/or develop rules
response to Russian aggression, or use its economic of the road that would benefit U.S. interactions with
leverage to quietly dissuade an already-reluctant NATO both countries. While efforts to trilateralize New
member state from responding to Russia’s hybrid tactics. START are unlikely to be successful, other areas where
Strengthening NATO and better equipping the alliance there is greater parity between the United States,
to address new challenges stemming from China is Russia, and China—for example in the cyber, space, or
necessary for preventing some of the most pernicious AI domains—could be promising. The United States
implications of Russia-China alignment. could start with softer arms control, like dialogue
Washington should also work with allies to develop mechanisms (“we saw you do X in space last month
common sanctions, investment screening, and export and want to talk to you about it”), declarations of
control standards to increase the costs of Russian weapons stockpiles, prohibitions on the export of
and Chinese behavior. Together with its allies, the hypersonic missiles, and rules of the road for cyber
United States should reset rules on disclosure and intrusions or the use of AI with existing weapons
reporting standards—including on listed equity and systems. These would all be areas for discussion that
debt—and insist all listers on exchanges follow auditing the three countries could benefit from.
rules and reporting guidelines. In the more traditional arms control space, the
United States should consider an agreement to
Supporting democratic resilience. In addition to upholding replace the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces (INF)
a positive model of democratic governance at home, Treaty that the United States withdrew from because

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of Russian non-compliance with the treaty. While Exploit Fissures

unlikely that China would entertain these discussions Russia and China are not aligned on all issues or in
in the near-term, the United States could seek to bring every region. For example, the two countries compete
China to the table alongside Russia to pursue an INF for arms sales, and China is encroaching on Russian
2.0 that would allow all three countries to have some interests in Central Asia and the Arctic, as well as
land-based ballistic missiles, cruise missiles, and expanding its footprint in countries like Ukraine and
missile launchers with ranges of 500–1,000 kilome- Belarus. Russia is also likely to look to countries such as
ters, but cap the number. This would allow the United India and Japan to hedge against its growing reliance on
States to limit China’s huge dual-capable missile force Beijing—relationships that have the potential to upset
and limit Russia’s expansion of INF-range missiles Beijing. As previously noted, Russia and China also go
after the original INF treaty died. This approach about pursuing their interests in very different ways,
would require Russia to admit its 9M729s violated the with Russia being far more risk-tolerant than Beijing.
INF treaty with the United States (or new definitions The Kremlin’s comfort with low-level instability stands
would have to be created), and Russia and China would in stark contrast to the CCP’s strong preference for
likely ask the United States to include sea- and air- the stability that is required to protect and facilitate its
launched missiles, which the United States would be economic equities, especially in the growing number
unlikely to do. of countries with Belt and Road-linked projects. At the
Conversely, the United States could instead explore same time, Beijing’s increasingly strident messaging
the Russian proposal for a moratorium on land-based and use of coercive military and economic measures
missiles in Europe only. This could cause some friction in defense of its expanding global interests is likely to
between Russia and China as this approach would produce mounting friction with Russia, particularly in
allow the United States to deploy INF-type missiles in Asia, where Russia seeks to maintain the status quo and
the Indo-Pacific while also forcing Russia to deploy all preserve its freedom to maneuver despite mounting
of its intermediate-based systems in its far east against Chinese power projection.
China. There are also challenges associated with this But while there are numerous tensions between
approach, including the fact that Russia would be able Russia and China, the United States has limited ability
to more rapidly redeploy such missiles given that the to exploit these divergences. In other words, in most
United States would first need to secure allied agree- cases, the United States has little leverage to exacerbate
ment. In either case, engaging the Kremlin on these the tensions between Russia and China. This does not
issues will be critical. mean that Washington should not try. Moving forward,
U.S. policymakers must be mindful of the tensions
Attracting Chinese and Russian talent to the United between Russia and China and look for ways to pull at
States. China has increased efforts to attract Russian the seams of their relationship. The goal of driving such
talent to China. In order to disrupt exchanges of scien- mini-wedges will be to amplify tensions between Russia
tists between Russia and China, which would facilitate and China and/or sow doubt in their relationship such
their joint innovation efforts, the United States must that both sides seek to limit what they are willing to do
attract Russian and Chinese talent to the United States. together. Although each “mini-wedge,” on its own, would
In addition to a public diplomacy campaign, the United have limited effect on the overall trajectory of Russia-
States should create pathways to make it easier for China relations, if pursued in concert such an approach
Chinese and Russian students to keep their techno- could limit the depth of their cooperation. Examples
logical and scientific expertise in the United States. of efforts that would pull at the seams of Russia-China
Specifically, the United States should increase H-1B relations include:
visas offered for employers and expand the Optional
Practical Training Program for STEM workers who Allowing Russia to sell arms to India and Vietnam. U.S.
wish to become permanent residents and citizens. policymakers will have to consider how policies designed
Increasing pathways should occur in tandem with to confront one country could inadvertently hinder
increased coordination between U.S. law enforcement efforts to confront the other. The Countering America’s
and American universities to mitigate risks on campus Adversaries Through Sanctions Act, for example, was
and with more rigorous visa screenings to investigate designed to deter Russian aggression by limiting the
potential ties to foreign militaries, including the PLA Kremlin’s revenue from arms exports. Yet these sanc-
and the Russian Armed Forces. 90 tions have prevented some countries with territorial

30
 TRANSATLANTIC SECURITY | JANUARY 2021
Navigating the Deepening Russia-China Partnership

disputes with China, including India and Vietnam, Conclusion

from purchasing Russian arms. India, in particular, has

T
experienced an uptick in tensions with China as the two he growing partnership between China and Russia
countries remain engaged in a standoff over their long- poses a challenge to the United States, partic-
standing border dispute in the Himalayas. Continuing ularly across key areas where Beijing is likely
to allow Russia to sell arms to India, therefore, could to threaten vital national interests in the years ahead.
create some tension in Russia-China relations. Where Deepening Sino-Russian defense relations have the
possible while upholding U.S. interests and values, potential to amplify China’s ability to project power and
Washington should seek to avoid creating rifts with those credibly signal to onlooking countries its willingness to
countries that it can work with to exploit fissures in challenge U.S. dominance, accelerate China’s efforts to
Russia-China relations. erode U.S. military advantages particularly in the Indo-
Pacific, accelerate China’s research and development
Working with allies and partners to communicate to China efforts, and complicate U.S. defense plans and capacity.
about Russia’s destabilizing actions—especially in the Meanwhile, Russia is a key ally in China’s drive to subvert
Middle East and the Arctic—where China has economic the values and rules that define the existing liberal order,
investments. In communicating with Beijing, Washington collaborating to undermine support for democracy and
and its partners in Europe and the Middle East should human rights protections at the U.N. and other multi-
underscore Russia’s proclivity for actions that raise the lateral institutions, as well as weaken democracy and
risk of instability, especially where such instability would prop up illiberal actors in countries around the world.
pose challenges for Beijing’s economic investments In so doing, the countries look to accelerate the per-
abroad. Russian actions and approaches have the poten- ceived decline of the United States, establish an alternate
tial to conflict with China’s preference for stability in the information ecosystem free from democratic norms and
many countries where it is engaged economically. control, and ultimately ensure a world more hospitable to
Ultimately, exploiting tensions in Russia-China rela- the continued rule of each country’s authoritarian regime
tions will be difficult to do and Russia and China will and their expanding global interests.
be highly attuned to U.S. efforts to drive such wedges. Washington will not find solutions to this challenge
In many cases, the United States will be best served by through simplistic efforts to split China and Russia, nor
getting out of the way and allowing the frictions in the in mounting a quixotic effort to lump together and take
relationship to play out on their own, while pursuing the on both countries at once across all domains of geostra-
other approaches outlined above designed to monitor, tegic rivalry. Instead, the United States must, together
plan for, and mitigate the effects of their alignment. In with its democratic allies and partners, prepare for and
the coming years, the United States will need to prior- tackle the most significant threats the Russia-China
itize its foreign policy efforts and avoid the impulse to partnership poses to American interests and values while
compete in every region opposite Russia and China. Not laying the groundwork for the natural fissures in the
only is such prioritization necessary amid competing relationship to grow over the longer term. Time is of the
challenges and limited resources, but it would also allow essence—interactions and collaboration between Beijing
Russia and China to compete with each other rather than and Moscow are increasing rapidly, cementing working
join forces against Washington. relationships and furthering common objectives in areas
of dire importance to the United States. Policymakers,
equipped with a concrete understanding of how Russia-
China relations are likely to evolve and where their
cooperation will be most damaging to U.S. interests, must
act quickly to navigate and disrupt the challenge posed
by the countries’ emerging entente.

31
 @CNASDC

1. Vasily Kashin, “The Current State of Russian-Chinese 12. Eugene Rumer, Richard Sokolsky, and Aleksandar Vladcic,
Defense Cooperation,” CNA Occasional Paper, DOP-2018- “Russia in the Asia-Pacific: Less Than Meets the Eye”
U-018184-Final (CNA Center for Strategic Studies, August (Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, September
29, 2018), 13, https://www.cna.org/CNA_files/PDF/DOP- 3, 2020), https://carnegieendowment.org/2020/09/03/
2018-U-018184-Final.pdf. russia-in-asia-pacific-less-than-meets-eye-pub-82614.

2. Leon Aron, “Are Russia and China Really Forming an 13. Dmitry Gorenburg, “An Emerging Strategic Partnership:
Alliance?” Foreign Affairs, April 4, 2019, https://www. Trends in Russia-China Military Cooperation,” Report
foreignaffairs.com/articles/china/2019-04-04/are-rus- No. 54 (George C. Marshall European Center for Security
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sites/default/files/files/2020-04/SecurityInsights_54.pdf.
3. Ben Westcott, “Xi Meets ‘Best and Bosom Friend’ Putin
amid Raging US Trade War,” CNN.com, June 5, 2019, 14. Khramchikhin, “Russia-China Military Cooperation Is
https://www.cnn.com/2019/06/05/asia/putin-xi-us- Subject to Serious Limitations”; Kashin, “The Current
trade-intl/index.html. State of Russian-Chinese Defense Cooperation”; Stephen
Blank, “Military Aspects of the Russo-Chinese Alliance: A
4. See for example, Brett Ashley Leeds and David Davis View from the United States,” The Asan Forum, February
(1999), “Beneath the Surface: Regime Type and Interna- 19, 2019, http://www.theasanforum.org/military-aspects-
tional Interaction, 1953-78,” Journal of Peace Research of-the-russo-chinese-alliance-a-view-from-the-united-
36(1): 5-21. states/.

5. Alexander Gabuev, “Unwanted but Inevitable: Russia’s 15. Richard Weitz, “The Expanding China-Russia Defense
Deepening Partnership with China post-Ukraine,” in Partnership” (Hudson Institute, May 2019), https://www.
Sino-Russian Relations in the 21st Century, eds. Jo Inge hudson.org/research/15017-the-expanding-china-rus-
Bekkevold and Bobo Lo (Cham, Switzerland: Palgrave sia-defense-partnership.
Macmillan, 2019), 55.
16. Weitz, “The Expanding China-Russia Defense Partner-
6. YouGov, “Globalism: All Markets,” November 17, 2019, ship.”
https://d25d2506sfb94s.cloudfront.net/cumulus_uploads/
document/iqsvihsq0t/Globalism2019_Superpowers_and_ 17. Michael Kofman, “The Emperors League: Understanding
Country_Reputations.pdf; Pew Research Center, Global Sino-Russian Defense Cooperation,” War on the Rocks,
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https://www.pewresearch.org/global/database/indica- the-emperors-league-understanding-sino-russian-de-
tor/27/country/cn/. fense-cooperation/.

7. Carlos Coelho, “From Foe to Friend: How Russians See 18. Blank, “Military Aspects of the Russo-Chinese Alliance.”
China,” Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty, September 20,
2020, https://www.rferl.org/a/from-foe-to-friend-how- 19. Kristen Gunness, “China-Russia Defense Cooperation:
russians-see-china-/30843742.html. The View from Beijing” (memo prepared for the Center
for a New American Security, 2020).
8. Kristyna Foltynova, “Will China Have a Positive Role in
the World? Many Russians Are Optimistic,” Radio Free 20. Simes, “Russia Up in Arms over Chinese Theft of Military
Europe/Radio Liberty, November 24, 2020, https:// Technology.”
www.rferl.org/a/will-china-have-a-positive-role-in-the-
world/30966535.html. 21. Eric Berger, “Russia Now Looking to Sell Its Prized
Rocket Engines to China,” Ars Technica, January 18, 2018,
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Is Mutual Mistrust Between the Two Sides,” MEMRI,
October 28, 2019, https://www.memri.org/reports/rus- 22. Gunness, “China-Russia Defense Cooperation.”
sian-analyst-khramchikhin-russia-china-military-coope-
23. Simes, “Russia Up in Arms over Chinese Theft of Military
ration-subject-serious-limitations.
Technology”; Kofman, “The Emperors League.”
10. “China, Russia Agree to Upgrade Relations for the New
24. Kofman, “The Emperors League.”
Era,” Xinhua, June 6, 2019. http://www.xinhuanet.com/
english/2019-06/06/c_138119879.htm. 25. “E shou hua su 35 zuo shoujiao xian xiang mai zhongguo
wu ren ji ye bei jishu fengsuo [Russia sells China ‘rigged’
11. Dimitri Simes, “Russia Up in Arms over Chinese Theft
Su-35s, Now Wants to Purchase Chinese Drones to Break
of Military Technology,” Nikkei Asia, December 20, 2019,
Technological Blockade],” Sina Military, January 22, 2018,
https://asia.nikkei.com/Politics/International-relations/
http://mil.news.sina.com.cn/jssd/2018-01-22/doc-ify-
Russia-up-in-arms-over-Chinese-theft-of-military-tech-
quptv8621003.shtml.
nology.

32
 TRANSATLANTIC SECURITY | JANUARY 2021
Navigating the Deepening Russia-China Partnership

26. “China-Russia Missile Defense Cooperation Needed,” 39. Adam Segal, “Peering Into the Future of Sino-Russian
Global Times, October 15, 2019. http://english.chinamil. Cyber Security Cooperation,” War on the Rocks, August
com.cn/view/2019-10/15/content_9651562.htm. 10, 2020. https://warontherocks.com/2020/08/peer-
ing-into-the-future-of-sino-russian-cyber-security-coop-
27. Congressional Research Service, “Hypersonic Weapons: eration/.
Background and Issues for Congress,” Report No. 45811
(Congressional Research Service, November 6, 2020), 11-14, 40. Chris Welch, “Russia, China, and Other Nations Draft
https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/R/R45811. Proposal to Give ITU Greater Influence over the Inter-
net,” The Verge, December 9, 2012, https://www.theverge.
28. Syed Fazl-e Saider, “The Strategic Implications of Chi- com/2012/12/9/3747402/countries-propose-great-
nese-Iranian-Russian Naval Drills in the Indian Ocean,” er-itu-influence.
China Brief, 20 no. 1 (January 17, 2020), https://jamestown.
org/program/the-strategic-implications-of-chinese-irani- 41. Group of Governmental Experts on Developments in
an-russian-naval-drills-in-the-indian-ocean/. the Field of Information and Telecommunications in the
Context of International Security, United Nations, “Devel-
29. Richard Weitz, Senior Fellow and Director of the Center opments in the Field of Information and Telecommunica-
for Political-Military Analysis, Hudson Institute, testimony tions in the Context of International Security,” Report No.
to the United States-China Economic and Security Review 15-2404 (July 22, 2015).
Commission, March 21, 2019, https://www.uscc.gov/sites/
default/files/Weitz%20Testimony.pdf. 42. Ellen Nakashima, “The U.S. is Urging a No Vote on a
Russian-led U.N. Resolution Calling For a Global Cyberse-
30. Gunness, “China-Russia Defense Cooperation.” curity Treaty,” The Washington Post, November 16, 2019,
https://www.washingtonpost.com/national-security/
31. Sebastien Roblin, “Venezuela Borrowed $10 Billion from the-us-is-urging-a-no-vote-on-a-russian-led-un-resolu-
Russia to Pay for Jet Fighters and Tanks. It Can’t Pay tion-calling-for-a-global-cybercrime-treaty/2019/11/16/
It Back,” The National Interest, July 27, 2019. https:// b4895e76-075e-11ea-818c-fcc65139e8c2_story.html?wpis-
nationalinterest.org/blog/buzz/venezuela-borrowed-10- rc=nl_cybersecurity202&wpmm=1.
billion-russia-pay-jet-fighters-and-tanks-it-cant-pay-it-
back-69467. 43. Government of the Russian Federation, “On Signing the
Agreement Between the Government of the Russian Fed-
32. Carisa Nietsche, Jim Townsend, and Andrea Kendall-Tay- eration and the Government of the People’s Republic of
lor, “Enlisting NATO to Address the China Challenge,” China on Cooperation in Ensuring International Infor-
Center for a New American Security, October 5, 2020, mation Security” (Government of the Russian Federation,
https://www.cnas.org/publications/commentary/enlist- April 30, 2015), http://cyber-peace.org/wp-content/
ing-nato-to-address-the-china-challenge. uploads/2013/05/RUS-CHN_CyberSecurityAgree-
ment201504_InofficialTranslation.pdf.
33. Congressional Research Service, “‘Made in China 2025’: In-
dustrial Policies: Issues for Congress,” In Focus No. 10964 44. Nadezhda Tsydenova and Tom Balmforth, “Russia and
(August 11, 2020), https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/ China to sign treaty on combating illegal online con-
details?prodcode=IF10964. tent,” Reuters, October 8, 2019, https://www.reuters.
com/article/us-russia-china-internet/russia-and-chi-
34. “Russia, China, Set Up US$1 Billion Technology Innovation
na-to-sign-treaty-on-combating-illegal-online-con-
Fund,” Russia Briefing, July 4, 2019, https://www.rus-
tent-idUSKBN1WN1E7.
sia-briefing.com/news/russia-china-set-us-1-billion-tech-
nology-innovation-fund.html/. 45. Robert K. Knake, “2019: The Beginning of the End of the
Open Internet Era,” Council on Foreign Relations, January
35. “Bringing into play the main channel of scientific and tech-
6, 2020, https://www.cfr.org/blog/2019-beginning-end-
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open-internet-era.
nology Forum was held in Xiamen],” Chinanews Fujian,
November 26, 2019. 46. Zak Doffman, “Putin Now Has Russia’s Internet Kill
Switch to Stop U.S. Cyberattacks,” Forbes, October
36. Adam Segal, “China-Russia Cybersecurity Cooperation”
28, 2019, https://www.forbes.com/sites/zakdoff-
(memo prepared for the Center for a New American Secu-
man/2019/10/28/putin-now-has-russias-internet-kill-
rity, 2020).
switch-to-stop-us-cyberattacks/.
37. Dimitri Simes, “Huawei Plays Star Role in New China-Rus-
47. Samuel Bendett and Elsa B. Kania, “A New Sino-Russian
sia AI Partnership,” Nikkei Asia, February 4, 2020. https://
High-Tech Partnership: Authoritarian Innovation in an
asia.nikkei.com/Spotlight/Asia-Insight/Huawei-plays-star-
Era of Great-Power” (Australian Strategic Policy Institute,
role-in-new-China-Russia-AI-partnership.
October 2019), https://s3-ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.
38. Simes, “Huawei Plays Star Role in New China-Russia AI com/ad-aspi/2019-10/A%20new%20Sino-Russian%20
Partnership.” high-tech%20partnership_0.pdf?xAs9Tv5F.GwoKPiV-

33
 @CNASDC

9QpQ4H8uCOet6Lvh; TASS, “Russia, China Discuss- 57. Neil MacFarquhar, “Xi Jinping’s Visit to Russia Accents
ing Key Projects for Year of Scientific Cooperation,” Ties in Face of Tensions with U.S.,” The New York Times,
TASS, December 25, 2019, https://tass.com/sci- June 5, 2019, https://www.nytimes.com/2019/06/05/
ence/1103515. world/europe/xi-jinping-china-russia.html.

48. “Russia, China Discussing Key Projects for Year of 58. Vladimir Putin, “Vladimir Putin spoke at the final plenary
Scientific Cooperation,” TASS, December 25, 2019, session of the 16th meeting of the Valdai International
https://tass.com/science/1103515. Discussion Club,” October 3, 2019, Valdai International
Discussion Club, Sochi, http://en.kremlin.ru/events/pres-
49. Anna Ratkoglo, “Uchit’sya perevodit’ znaniya v ident/news/61719.
tekhnologii nado u Kitaya, zayavil prezident RAN [It
is necessary to learn to translate knowledge into tech- 59. Max Seddon, “China Tourism Growth Lifts Fortunes
nology from China, said the President of the Russian of Russia’s Airports,” Financial Times, January 7, 2020,
Academy of Sciences],” RIA Science, November 8, 2019, https://www.ft.com/content/e02f5218-2344-11ea-b8a1-
https://ria.ru/20191108/1560713849.html. 584213ee7b2b.

50. Stepan Kravchenko, “Russia More Prey Than Preda- 60. Jonathan E. Hillman, “China and Russia: Economic
tor to Cyber Firm Wary of China,” Bloomberg, August Unequals” (Center for Strategic and International Stud-
25, 2016, https://www.bloomberg.com/news/arti- ies, July 15, 2020), https://www.csis.org/analysis/chi-
cles/2016-08-25/russia-more-prey-than-predator-to- na-and-russia-economic-unequals.
cyber-firm-wary-of-china; Simes, “Huawei Plays Star
Role in New China-Russia AI Partnership”; “Rossiya 61. “Moscow Kazan High Speed Train Project Canceled,”
pochti v 16 raz otstayet ot SSHA po rezul’tativnosti Railly News, March 10, 2020, https://www.raillynews.
nauchnoy deyatel’nosti [Russia Is Almost 16 Times com/2020/03/moscow-boiler-high-speed-train-project-
behind the United States in Terms of Scientific Perfor- canceled/.
mance],” Argumenti, February 7, 2020, https://argu-
menti.ru/society/2020/02/649295. 62. Edward Chow, “Sino-Russian Energy Relations: ‘Same
bed, different dreams,’” (memo prepared for the Center
51. Simes, “Huawei Plays Star Role in New China-Russia for a New American Security, 2020), 2.
AI Partnership.”
63. Chow, “Sino-Russian Energy Relations,” 2-3.
52. “Russia Is Almost 16 Times behind the United States
in Terms of Scientific Performance.” 64. Chow, “Sino-Russian Energy Relations,” 2-3.

53. Claire Scharwatt, “The Impact of Data Localisation 65. Duncan Depledge, “Why We Must Watch Sino-Russia
Requirements on the Growth of Mobile Money-En- Relations in the Arctic,” The Sunday Guardian, November
abled Remittances” (GSMA, March 2019), https:// 28, 2020, https://www.sundayguardianlive.com/opinion/
www.gsma.com/mobilefordevelopment/wp-content/ must-watch-sino-russia-relations-arctic.
uploads/2019/03/GSMA_Understanding-the-im-
66. Hillman, “China and Russia: Economic Unequals.”
pact-of-data-localisation.pdf.
67. Hillman, “China and Russia: Economic Unequals.”
54. Alexander Bulanov, “Zvezdnyye volny: lazernyye
sputniki izuchat gravitatsiyu [Star Waves: Laser Sat- 68. Tatiana Voronova and Gabrielle Tétrault-Farber, “Mir
ellites will Study Gravity],” Izvestia, March 11, 2020, Card Payment System Looks beyond Russia,” Reuters,
https://iz.ru/979123/aleksandr-bulanov/zvezdnye-vol- April 19, 2019, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-russia-
ny-lazernye-sputniki-izuchat-gravitatciiu. cards-idUSKCN1RV0KZ.
55. Samuel Bendett and Elsa B. Kania, “A New Sino-Rus- 69. “Mail.Ru and Partners Team Up with Alipay for Russian
sian High-Tech Partnership: Authoritarian Innovation Payment JV,” Reuters, October 9, 2019, https://www.
in an Era of Great-Power” (Australian Strategic Policy reuters.com/article/us-alibaba-russia-payment-idUSKB-
Institute, October 2019), https://s3-ap-southeast-2. N1WO0UX.
amazonaws.com/ad-aspi/2019-10/A%20new%20Si-
no-Russian%20high-tech%20partnership_0.pdf?xAs- 70. TASS, “Russia favors developing independent payment
9Tv5F.GwoKPiV9QpQ4H8uCOet6Lvh. mechanisms — Lavrov,” TASS, December 1, 2020, https://
tass.com/politics/1230245.
56. Reid Standish, “Pandemic Partnership: Coronavirus
Clears Path for Deeper China-Russia Ties in Hi-Tech,” 71. “Eight Foreign Banks Join Russian Transfer System,” The
RadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty, May 18, 2020, https:// Moscow Times, October 2, 2019, https://www.themoscow-
www.rferl.org/a/pandemic-partnership-coronavi- times.com/2019/10/02/eight-foreign-banks-join-russian-
rus-clears-path-for-deeper-china-russia-ties-in-hi- transfer-system-a67555.
tech/30619246.html.

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72. “CIPS Participants Announcement 52,” CIPS Co., 86. Yuri Tavrovskiy, “Vtoroy front amerikanskoy «kholodnoy
Ltd., April 30, 2020, http://www.cips.com.cn/ voyny»: Rossiya tol’ko vyigrayet [The Second Front of US
cipsen/7068/7047/41247/index.html. Cold War: Russia Will Only Benefit],” MK Online, June
4, 2019, https://www.mk.ru/economics/2019/06/04/
73. Kazuhiro Kida, Masayuki Kubota, and Yusho Cho, “Rise of vtoroy-front-amerikanskoy-kholodnoy-voyny-rossi-
the Yuan: China-Based Payment Settlements Jump 80%,” ya-tolko-vyigraet.html.
Nikkei Asia, May 20, 2019, https://asia.nikkei.com/Busi-
ness/Markets/Rise-of-the-yuan-China-based-payment- 87. Ross Andersen, “The Panopticon Is Already Here,” The
settlements-jump-80. Atlantic, September 2020, https://www.theatlantic.
com/magazine/archive/2020/09/china-ai-surveil-
74. Feng Yujun, Alexander Gabuev, Paul Haenle, Ma Bin, lance/614197/.
and Dmitri Trenin, “The Belt and Road Initiative: Views
from Washington, Moscow, and Beijing,” Carnegie-Ts- 88. See Andrea Kendall-Taylor and Erica Frantz, “How De-
inghua Center, April 8, 2019, https://carnegietsinghua. mocracies Fall Apart,” Foreign Affairs, December 5, 2016.
org/2019/04/08/belt-and-road-initiative-views-from- https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/2016-12-05/
washington-moscow-and-beijing-pub-78774. how-democracies-fall-apart.

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35
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