1.

Introduction to
Optical Communication Systems

Optical Communication Systems

and Networks
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Historical perspective

• 1626: Snell dictates the laws of reflection and refraction of light

• 1668: Newton studies light as a wave phenomenon
– Light waves can be considered as acoustic waves
• 1790: C. Chappe “invents” the optical telegraph
– It consisted in a system of towers with signaling arms, where each tower acted as a
repeater allowing the transmission coded messages over hundred km.
– The first Optical telegraph line was put in service between Paris and Lille covering a

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude_Chappe
distance of 200 km.
• 1810: Fresnel sets the mathematical basis of wave
propagation
• 1870: Tyndall demonstrates how a light beam is guided
through a falling stream of water
• 1830: The optical telegraph is replaced by the electric
telegraph, (b/s) until 1866, when the telephony was born
• 1873: Maxwell demonstrates that light can be considered as
electromagnetic waves

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Historical perspective
• 1800: In Spain, Betancourt builds the first span between Madrid and Aranjuez
• 1844: It is published the law for the deployment of the optical telegraphy in Spain
– Arms supporting 36 positions,
10º separation
Alphabet containing 26 letters and 10 numbers
– Spans:
Madrid - Irún, 52 towers.
Madrid - Cataluña through Valencia, 30 towers.
Madrid - Cádiz, 59 towers.

• 1855: It is published the law for the deployment of

the electrical telegraphy network in Spain
• 1880: Graham Bell invents the “photofone” for voice communications
TRANSMITTER RECEIVER
The transmitter consists of a The receiver is also a
mirror made to be vibrated by parabolic reflector in which a
the person’s voice, and then selenium cell is placed in its
modulating the incident light focus to collect the variations
beam towards the receiver. of the light intensity.
Pictures:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photo
phone

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Historical perspective

• 1910: D. Hondros and P. Debye use glass rods as waveguides (circular

cylindrical dielectric structures were patented by French in 1934 for voice
transmission)
• 1927: Baird and Hansell patent a system for images transmission through silica
fibers
• 1936: EEUU begins to use optical fibers in communications
• 1960: First LASER (light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation) is
presented
• 1970: Corning Glass Works achieves optical fibers with 20dB/km attenuation
at 633 nm
• 1978: First singlemode optical fibers are built, achieving an attenuation of 0.2
dB/km at 1550 nm in 1979

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Historical perspective

The Nobel Prize in Physics 2009 was awarded jointly to three American pioneers
whose researches have supposed pillars of the modern Information Society:
Charles Kuen Kao, Willard Sterling Boyle y George Elwood Smith.

“… for their contribution to the materials research and

development that resulted in practial low loss optical fibers, one
of the cornerstones of optical communication technology…”

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Wavelength (m) Frequency (Hz) Bands Applications

− 10 24
10-15 − 10 -15

21
 rays Food irradiation
Cancer therapy E.M. Spectral region used for
10-12 − 10
− 10 -12
Optical Communications
X rays Medical diagnosis
18
10-9 (nm) − − 10
-9
10 (nm) Ultraviolet Sterelization

Visible
10-6 (m)− − 1015
10-6 (m) VISIBLE
Infrared Nigth vision ULTRAVIOLET INFRARED
12 (THz) Millimetrics  (nm)
10-3 (mm) − − 1010
-3 (mm)
EHF (30 – 300 GHz) Radar, space exploration
102 103 =1m 104
Windows for optical
SHF (3 – 30 GHz) Radar, Satellite communication communications

1 (m) − 109 (GHz) UHF (300 – 3000 MHz) Tadar, TV, navegation f (GHz)
104
− 1 (m) VHF (30 – 300 MHz) TV, FM, police, mobile radio
106 105

HF (3 – 30 MHz) Facsimil, short wave radio

6 (MHz) E (eV)
103 (km) − − 10
3
10 (km)
MF (300 – 3000 kHz) AM, maritime radio,
10 1 0.1
LF (30 – 300 Khz) Navegation, radio signals
GaAs Si Gap
VLF (3 – 30 kHz) Navegation, sonar GaP InP
3 (kHz) energy
106 (Mm) − − 10
6
10 (Mm) ULF (300 – 3000 Hz) Audio interval for telephony
SLF (30 – 300 Hz) Submarine communication

ELF ( 3 – 30 Hz) Metals detection

− 1 (Hz)

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Frequency – Wavelength Duality

 Frequency scale or magnitude has been traditionally used in Telecommunication

Engineering for desinging spectrum bands comprised between DC and microwaves
region

 In Optical Communications, frequencies around 1014 Hz are used, resulting a little

impractical four such magnitudes

 It is very common to use the wavelength scale, being the nanometer scale (1nm = 10-9 m)
and micron scale (1µm = 10-6 m) the most used

 The specturm band usually employed in Optical Communications is comprised between

800 and 1600 nm
f

Sinusoidal and monochromatic E.M.

f1 1
wave propagated along z axis
2
f2
Approx. 1 2 

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Optical Communication Systems

Optical Communications

Physic Optics + Quantum Electronics + Communication Theory

(1970, Procedings IEEE)

Physics of Materials + Quantum Physics + Information Theory + Nonlinear Optics

+ Interaction of Radiation with Matter

CHANNEL
Optical signal Receiver
Transmitter
Guided Communication  optical fiber
Non-guided communication  free space

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Introduction
Carrier signal Unmodulated Laser
(optical emision in continuous wave, CW) spectrum
Delta (ideally)
Unmodulated LED
spectrum
t
f
f0
Modulating signal (Baseband
Modulation electrical signal)
Baseband
process (directly
spectrum
or externally)

t f
Modulated signal
(optical domain/format)

t f
f0
TIME DOMAIN SPECTRAL DOMAIN
Modulation is the process of varying one or more properties The modulating signal contains information
of a high-frequency periodic waveform (carrier signal) to be transmitted

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Modulation formats

Optical carrier: E(t) = A0 cos(0t − 0) ê

“1” “0” “1” “0” “1” “0”
Electric signal
(Bit sequence)
• Amplitude modulation A0: ASK, Amplitude-shift
keying
ASK
• Phase modulation 0: PSK, Phase-shift keying

• Frequency modulation 0: FSK, Frequency-shift PSK

keying

• Polarization modulation ê: PoSK, information FSK

coded by polarization state (not allowed in optical
systems based on fiber)

 Most commercial systems are based on ASK (These systems are also known as on–off
keying, OOK)  IM/DD (intensity modulation and Direct Detection)
 First Differential PSK (DPSK) are being deployed recently

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Free-Space Optics (FSO) Technology

 Nowadays, FSO systems are used for covering connection needs in last-mile
access networks, point-to-point interconnections, as a redundant support in
temporal or permanent links, etc.

 Provides robust links with the

following advantages:
− RF / EM free interferences
− High rate systems
− Operation license not required
− Quick deployment
− Network survivability

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RedIris: An example of Optical Networks in Spain

 Rediris is the Spanish National Research and Education ENTITIES IN THE

COMMUNITY OF VALENCIA
Network wich serves over 370 institutions, including all
Spanish universities and the main public research entities. GVA Generalitat Valenciana, DICV.CSIC
Delegación del CSIC en la Comunidad de
 It is built over a dark fiber-based infraestructure with over Valencia, FIB Fundacion Valenciana de
12500 km of optical fiber for nation wide-coverage. Investigaciones, Institutos.CSIC, IBV.CSIC
Instituto de Biomedicina de Valencia,,
IN.UMH.CSIC Instituto de Neurociencias,
INGENIO.CSIC Instituto de Gestión de la
Innovación y del Conocimiento, IMPIVA
Instituto de la Mediana y Pequeña Industria
Valenciana, IVE Institut Valencia
d'Estadistica, IVIE Instituto Valenciano de
Investigaciones Economicas, UA Universitat
d'Alacant,
UCH-CEU Universidad Cardenal Herrera, UJI
Universitat Jaume I, UMH Universidad
Miguel Hernández de Elche, UPV
Universitat Politécnica de Valéncia, UV
Universitat de Valéncia.

Source: www.rediris.es

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FTTH: An example of the evolution of Optical Networks in Spain

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Operation Spectral Windows in Guided

Optical Communications
1st window 2nd window 3rd window
850 nm 1310 nm 1550 nm

Optical
amplifiers
Attenuation
optical fiber
Tema 1: Introducción

photodetectors
InGaAs
Fiber
attenuation
Optical Responsivity
sources EDFA (W/A in sources)
(dB/km) Si
(A/W in detectors)
AR

GaAlAs

Ge
InGaAsP
Based on figure published in
“Sistemas y Redes Ópticas de
InGaAsP Comunicaciones” J. A. Martín
Pereda”Ed. Pearson 2004
700 900 1100 1300 1500 1700
Wavelength (nm)

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Spectral Bands in single-mode optical fibers

 To provide a high capacity for optical transmission systems, it is desirable to allow as
wide a range as possible for the system operating wavelengths.
 The choice of operating wavelength band depends on several factors: fiber type,
source characteristics, system attenuation range, and dispersion of the optical path.

 The following spectral bands are defined by ITU-T Recommendations for single-
mode fiber systems:

BAND DESCRIPTOR RANGE (nm)

O Original 1260 - 1360
E Extended 1360 - 1460
S Short 1460 - 1520
C Conventional 1520 - 1565
L Long 1565 - 1625
U Ultra - Long 1625 - 1675

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Optical propagation fundamentals

The optical fiber is a dielectric waveguide whose cylindrical geometry guiding and
propagation characteristics can be explained:
guiado, emisión y detección
Tema 2: Fundamentos de

 accurately by electromagnetic theory (Maxwell Equations)

 easily and descriptive through Geometrical Optics

 It does not take into account the nature of the wave (frequency, phase, power, ...)
 Describes the trajectory of light (optical signal) through rays (Fermat Principles and
Huygens)
 This consideration is only valid if the light wavelengthcan be assumed much smaller
than the size of the objects passing through (apertures, lenses etc. ..)
 It assumes the Maxwell equations approximation when → 0
Theory description restricted guided in multimode fibers
(Core diameter >> Wavelength)

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Guiding in optical fibers. Fundamentals

n2

n1

Each guided ray with a different reflecting angle is called MODE

Guiding condition: n1 (core) > n2 (cladding)

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Guiding in optical fibers. Fundamentals

Meridional rays:

 Rays describe paths contained
in meridional planes (planes
Meridional plane containing the optical fiber axis)

Skew rays:

When propagated rays describe
paths which are not contained in 
meridional planes
Based on figure published in “Fundamentals of
Photonics” B. A. Saleh, M. C. Teich ”Ed. John Wiley, 1991

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Guiding in optical fibers. Fundamentals

n1
n1
n2 n2

According to the geometry of the According to the refractive index

dielectric structure profile
Cilindrical Cartesian Steep Continuous
Planar dielectric
structure Homogeneous or Inhomogeneous or
Optical Fiber Rectangular dielectric step index graded index
structure

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Cross section of an optical fiber

Introducción a la fibra óptica

Buffer cladding core 2a 2b 2d

(outer jacket)

Typical dimensional specifications:

• Core diameter:
– Single-mode fiber: 2a = 9 m (modal field diameter)
– Multimode fiber: 2a = 50, 62.5 m (100 m)
• Cladding diameter: 2b = 125 m (140 m)
• Buffer diameter: 2d = 250 m

Typical values of the refractive index in silica fibers:

• Core: n1 ~ 1.48 Core dopping to achieve n1>n2 
• Cladding: n2~ 1.475 total internal reflection  light propagation

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Type of Optical fiber depending on

the refractive index profile…

core
Refractive index profile
cladding

Step index n ra



fiber optic n(r)  1 
n ra

2

n(r) Law
n(0)=n1
Graded index    1/ 2
  

n2  r   r 
n1 1  2    n1 1     r  a
fiber optic n1 ( r )   
  a     a  

 n1 (1  2)  n1 (1   )  n2 ra
1/ 2

Index relative difference   ( n12  n22 ) / 2 n12

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Geometric Optics Aproximation

Principle of propagation in step-index optical fibers

n0 n2 2
Refracted ray Snell Law
incident ray
1 r n1·sin1 = n2·sin2
Reflected ray
n1 n1 > n2  1 < 2

Total internal reflection

n0 n2 2= /2
Critical angle: c  2= /2
r
n  (1= c = r)
1= c
 c  arcsin  2 
n1
 n1 
If 1> c  There is no transmission towards medium 2
Ray is completely reflected in medium 1  guiding funamentals in optical fibers

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Geometric Optics Aproximation

air n2 cladding
n0=1

1=/2-
 
 Fiber axis
n1 core

 Air-core Interface  Core-cladding Interface

n0 sin   n1 sin   n1 cos 1 n1 sin 1  n2 sin  2
2 2 = /2
n  n1sinc = n2
cos c  1   2  1= c
 n1 

Maximum value of  is given by 1= c

n0 sin  m  n1 cos  c  n12  n22  NA

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Numerical Aperture meaning…

Acceptance Lost ray

cone
cladding
1 < c c
guided ray
Acceptance
cone m core
rad

Air or jacket or Partially lost ray

overcladding

m = arcsin = arcsin (NA)

n1 , n2 : core and cladding refractive index
NA  n  n
2 2

c: Critical angle

1 2

 n2  n2  m: maximum acceptance angle

   1 2 2 
 2 n1 
NA: Numerical aperture
(generally, <<1)
n  n2 : refractive index relative difference
 1 NA  n1 2
n1
If n1 n2 , =(n1-n2)/n1  valid approx.

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Numerical Aperture meaning…

I ( )  I cos
0
(Lambertian source) This behaviour is related to the energy
acceptance by the optical fiber


LED
Multimode fiber

Source with Emission surface

isotropic emission

Power emitted by the optical source: Laser Single-mode fiber

 /2
P0   I ( ) 2 sen d  I
0
0

Fraction of the emitted power which is injected into the optical fiber:
m
P0 NA2
P   I ( ) 2 sen d  I 0 sen  m  
2
2
Power Fraction coupled into
0
n o an optical fiber  NA2

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Modal field diameter

Evanescent field Petermann I
a
E(r)
 r E (r ) dr
3 2

r=0
wI2  0


 r E (r ) dr
2

r
Petermann II
Determines the confinement degree of the a
fundamental mode in the core. There are  rE (r )dr
2

several definitions, but the most used are wII2  0

 2
the Petermann I and II  dE ( r ) 
0 r dr  dr
E0 • Defined by ITU G.652 recommendation.
• It is assumed a gaussian radial distribution
of the optical intensity.
𝑒 −2 E0 • The modal field radius w corresponds to the
radius for which the value of the electrical
Modal field
field drops a factor 1/e2 from the maximum
diameter, 2w

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Ligth propagation in optical fibers

Step index Multimode Fiber

n1

n2

Graded index Multimode Fiber

Refractive index
profile
n1

n2

Step-index Singlemode Fiber

n1

n2

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Ligth propagation in Step-index Multimode Fiber:

Dispersion effect (intermodal)
Introducción a la Fibra Óptica

Pulse
Pulse
received
transmitted

Step-index Multimode Fiber

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Ligth propagation in Single mode Fiber:

Dispersion effect (intramodal or chromatic)
Received pulse
Transmitted pulse Dispersive Medium: n(f)
v (f) = c / n (f)

delay
t t
Light source wavelength Photodetector

Single-mode optical fiber

1 0 1 1 1 1
threshold
threshold

t t

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Intramodal (or chromatic) dispersion effect

Intramodal dispersion appears as a result of the dependence of the frequency on the
fundamental mode propagation constant 01. Then:
𝜷𝟎𝟏 = 𝜷𝟎𝟏 (𝝎) = 𝜷𝟎𝟏 (𝝀)
This dependence is usually modeled by a Taylor series approximation:

𝒅𝜷 𝟏 𝒅𝟐 𝜷 𝟐
𝟏 𝒅𝟑 𝜷 𝟑
𝜷 𝝎 = 𝜷 𝝎𝟎 + 𝝎 − 𝝎𝟎 + 𝝎 − 𝝎𝟎 + 𝝎 − 𝝎𝟎 +⋯
𝒅𝝎 𝝎𝟎
𝟐 𝒅𝝎𝟐 𝝎𝟎
𝟔 𝒅𝝎𝟑 𝝎𝟎

Group delay per unit length tg/L Dispersive terms

30
Minimum Dmat This behaviour is produced by two mechanisms:
20 material
D (pseg/Km.nm)

10
dispersión a) The dispersive nature of the material
wavelength D which makes up the optical fiber 
0
Dwg material dispersion (Dmat)
-10
Real Minimum
-20 dispersión b) The effect produced when a waveguide is
wavelength embeded in a dielectric structure 
-30
1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 waveguide dispersion (Dwg)
Wavelength (µm)

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Dispersion management in an optical fiber by the

modification of the refractive index profile

cladding

core

Dispersion

Dispersion
0 0

wavelength wavelength

 Raised or depressed cladding for dispersion control.

 Index profile rectangular for standard fibers.
 Triangular index profile for dispersion-shifted fibers.

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Wavelength dependence of the dispersion

in Single-mode Fibers

20
Standard Single-mode fiber
[ps/(km.nm)]

optimized @ 1310 nm
Dispersion[ps/(km.nm)]

10
Flattened dispersion fiber

0
Dispersion

- 10

Shift dispersion fiber

- 20
1300 1400 1500 1600
Wavelength [nm]

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Single-mode Optical Fiber Types

STANDARD SINGLE-MODE FIBER (SSMF)

 Mainly designed to be operated in the 2nd window (1.3m):

– Chromatic dispersion negligible (D0 ps/km.nm)
– Atenuation 0.5 dB/Km  It could be a problem over long distances

 In the 3rd window (1.55m):

– Typical chromatic dispersion D20 ps/km.nm
BER increases over long distances
– Low atenuation   0.2 dB/km

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Single-mode Optical Fiber Types

SHIFTED DISPERSION FIBER (SDF)

 Appears as a result of technological advances in optical sources,

photodetectors and amplifiers in the fiber’s minimum atenuation region
(3rd window,  1.55m):
– The modification of optical fiber parameters such as a, n1, n2, and core doping
are required to shift the dispersion profile
– Chromatic dispersion is negligible at 1.55m (D  0 ps/km.nm)
– Well suited for systems operating at high bit rates over long distances
– The lack of dispersion can cause the raising of nonlinearities
Solution: To keep low dispersion levels (residual values)
 flattened dispersion fibers

FLATTENED OR NON-ZERO DISPERSION FIBER (NZDF)

 Low and nearly constant levels of dispersion (D1-5 ps/km.nm) in

  [1.3-1.6 m]
 Avoids the raising of nonlinearities keeping the advantages of shifted
fibers over a wide spectral band

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Types of single-mode fiber in common use today

Description IEC Spec. ITU Spec. TIA Spec
Standard Single-
B1.1 G.652 OS1
mode Fiber
Dispersion Shifted
B2 G.652
Fiber
Non-Zero Dispersion
B4 G.655
Shifted Fiber

Bend-Insensitive
G .657
Fiber

Low Water Peak

B1.3 G.652 OS2
Fiber

Cutoff Shifted Fiber B1.2 G.654

• ISO (International Organization for Standardization) and IEC (International Electrotechnical Commission)
collaborate on several Joint Technical Committees and addresses the electronics and telecommunications industries.
• TIA (Telecommunications Industry Association) is comprised of the American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
and manufacturers who are suppliers to the telecom industry.
• ITU (International Telecommunication Union)

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Polarization state variation in single-mode fibers

Birefringence effect
y y
Initial y Experimented Experimented
polarization refractive refractive
index ny index nx
state Polarizations of the
fundamental mode HE11
in a single-mode fiber x x

Vertical mode Horizontal mode

x
01
x
 01
y
Polarization state varies due to the effect
of birefringence along the optical fiber

B  n01x  n01y y
Typical values
B = 10-6 – 10-5

The presence of PMD implies a limit in the

maximum capacity transmitted through Pulse broadening as a
long-haul and high bit rate links based on result of PMD
single mode optical fiber (Polarization mode t
dispersion) x

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Dispersion effect in optical communications links

LED spectrum used for low
bit rate applications The combination of Dispersion and
 40 nm source’s spectral width imposes the
maximum B x L parameter
103 600 Gb/s

Multimode specturm of a Fabry-Perot Laser
used for moderate bit rate applications D=0
102
 2 nm

Bit rate (Gb/s)

10 Gb/s
101

Single-mode specturm of a Distributed Feedback D = 16 ps/(km·nm)
laser used for high bit rate applications 100
600 Mb/s
 0,2 nm

10-1
 65 Mb/s
Single-mode spectrum of a Distributed Feedback
laser used for homodine detection applications 10-2
20 Km
101 102 103 104 105
 0,00002 nm
Length of the optical link (Km)


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Summary of characteristics and use

of basic optical fibers

Refractive
Core Cladding index
Longer Higher bit
Introducción a la Fibra Óptica

Type of fiber diameter diameter Relative Application

distances rates
(µm) (µm) diference
(%)
Long distances
9/125
and hig bit
(Singlemode SI) 9 125 0,1 – 0,2 rates (long-
haul)
50/125 Moderate
125
(Multimode GI) 50 1–2 distances and
bit rates
62.5/125
125 1–2 Local area
(Multimode GI) 62,5 networks

Reduced
100/140 140 1–2 distances in
(Multimode SI)
100 local area
networks

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Problems in an optical link (i)

Problem or parameter to be tested Instrumentation

Introducción a la Fibra Óptica

Low signal power at the source’s Optical power meter

output or receiver’s input
Loss or attenuation in fibers, cables, Optical power meter, Optical Time
connectors or splices Domain Reflecometer (OTDR)
Wavelength fluctuations Optical Spectrum Analyzer
Loss by ligth scattering effect OTDR
Finding / location of failures OTDR
Dispersion efects Bandwidth tester / network
simulators

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Problems in an optical link (ii)

Typical failures Causes Instrumentation Solution

Connector with Damaged, scratched Microscope / probe Cleaning or polishing

defects of dirty ferrule
Localized loss or Cable with bends OTDR Proper Alignment /
attenuation extension
Distributed loss of Cable with defects or OTDR Reduction of torsion /
attenuation presence of torsion / traction by proper
traction alignment or cable
replacing
Total loss of signal Fiber/cable cut OTDR / optical power Splicing, connectoring
meter or replacement
Splice with loss Damage or OTDR / optical power Mechanical splice
displacement meter (open, relocate +
between fiber ends index matching gel)
during splacing Fused splice
(replacing the former)

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Operational test/check of an optical link by using an

optical power meter
Optical
fiber spool
Optical
fiber spool

connector

-3.08dBm 1310nm

Optical
power meter

Optical source (Láser

@ 1310nm)

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Operational test/check of an optical link by using an

optical power meter
Optical
fiber spool
Optical
fiber spool

connector

FIBER
CUT!!!
LOW SIGNAL

Optical
power meter

Optical source (Láser

@ 1310nm)

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Operational test/check of an optical link by using an

Optical Time Domain Reflectometer
Optical Optical
fiber spool fiber spool

Fiber end
Connector
Splice
OTDR screen

OTDR input
pulse

Splice
Attenuation (dB)

(non reflexive Connector

event) (reflexive event)

Attenuation
coeff. (depends on Fiber end
the fiber type and )

http://www.exfo.com/Products/Field-Network- Distance (km)

Testing/Optical/OTDR-and-iOLM-Testing/FTB-730/

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Testing the state of

optical connectors

Connector in Dirty Connector

good condition

Dirty and scratched Connectors

Optical
inspection probe

Microscope
Damaged connectors
http://www.exfo.com/en/Products/Field-Network-
Testing/Optical/Fiber-Inspection/FIP-400/

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Quality Evaluation in IM/DD systems

BER – Q parameter - SNR
Current at the output: Considering:

1) Temporal length of
High level “1” 2 max p”1”(i) pulses matchs bit
interval to avoid ISI.
imax P(1/0)
2) There is no
ithreshold limitation on the
receiver’s bandwidth
imin P(0/1)
p”0”(i)
Low level “0” 2 min 3) Noise sources
presents gaussian
p.d.f.
𝑖−𝑖𝑖 2
1 −
2𝜎𝑖 2
Probability density function (pdf) 𝑝𝑖 𝑖 = 𝑒
2𝜋𝜎𝑖
In analogic systems, noise sources are characterized by the root mean square (rms).
However, in digital systems, it is necessary to know the probability density function for each
noise source.

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Quality Evaluation in IM/DD systems

BER – Q parameter - SNR

Bit error rate

(BER)
Pe  P1 0 P 0  P0 1 P1 
1
2

P1 0  P0 1 
 ith

P 1 0   p i di
min P 0 1   p i di,
max
ith 


erfc x  
Considering the complementary 2
 
t 2
e dt.
error function, erfc(x) x

1 1 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑖𝑡ℎ 1 𝑖𝑡ℎ − 𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑛

𝑃𝑒 = 𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑐 + 𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑐
2 2 2𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 2 2𝜎𝑚𝑖𝑛

Where it is assumed a random sequence of equiprobable

“0” and “1” bits P(0)=P(1)=1/2

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Quality Evaluation in IM/DD systems

BER – Q parameter - SNR

The optimum threshold, ith, is obtained when P(1/0)=P(0/1):

𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑥 −𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑖𝑡ℎ −𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑄≡ 𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥
= 𝜎𝑚𝑖𝑛

Substituting the optimum threshold in the Q definition:

𝜎𝑚𝑖𝑛 · 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 · 𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑖𝑡ℎ = 𝑄≡
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑚𝑖𝑛

In case Q>10, Pe can be approximated

1 𝑄 by the expression:
𝑃𝑒 = 𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑐
2 2
1 𝑄2
− 2
𝑃𝑒 = 𝑒
𝑃𝑒 ≤ 10−9 → 𝑄 ≥ 6 2𝜋𝑄

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Quality Evaluation in IM/DD systems

BER – Q parameter - SNR

For a fixed BER: 100

𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑛 Signal 10-2
𝑄=
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑚𝑖𝑛 Noise
10-4

Bit error rate

BER = 10-9  Q=6
BER = 10-12  Q=7
10-6
Most used
Usually, in optical communication 10-8 values in Opt.
systems thermal noise dominates Systems
over shot noise 10-10
pdf pmin = pmax   min= max 10-12
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Extinction ratio negligible: imax >> imin Quality parameter, Q

𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑥 1 𝑆
𝑄= =
2𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 2 𝑁

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Fiber optic properties

Main goal: to take advantage of optical fibers properties

 Great product bandwidth x distance (B x L)

 Transparent to signal format / service
Tema 1: Introducción

 Low loss (0.18 dB / km, constant with the optical carrier frequency)
 Low cost (raw material abundant - SiO2 -)
 Low weight and volume
 Strength and flexibility
 Immunity to electromagnetic interference
 Security and Privacy
 Corrosion Resistance
 Need to exploit/take advantage of fiber bandwidth
− development of new optical communications systems to satisfy traffic demands

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Impairments to be considered
in optical communication systems

Related to signal Related to signal

amplitude velocity
NONLINEAR
EFFECTS

ATENUATION
SCATTERING PHASE DISPERSION
SRS & SBS MODULATION
PMD

INTRINSIC EXTRINSEC FOUR WAVE

MIXING
INTRAMODAL INTERMODAL
(CHROMATIC)
ABSORTION RAYLEIGH & MIE
(IR, UV, OH-) SCATTERING

CURVATURES IMPURITIES WAVEGUIDE

MATERIAL
(Macro & Micro) (Cr, Co, Ni, Fe…)

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Impairments to be considered
in optical communication systems

Cross-talk (inter or intra-band)

Noise (quantum, RIN, ASE…)
Fiber dispersion
Atenuation
Nonlinear effects (refractive index dependence
with optical intensity)

Overall effect increases as impairments are propagated and accumulated

over long dinstances, limiting the bit rates and the geographical reach of
the network

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FTTH network based on an access network (PON standard)

Optical Communication Systems and Networks