MEC251-

THERMODYNAMICS
CHAPTER 3: 1 S T AND 2 N D LAW OF
THERMODYNAMICS (PART 2)
Hazim Sharudin
 Lecture Contents
1. Reversible and Irreversible Processes
2. Carnot Cycle and Principles, Carnot Heat Engines
3. Entropy Principle, Isentropic Processes
4. Isentropic Efficiencies of Steady-flow Devices

“Thermodynamics is a funny subject. The first time you go through it, you don’t
understand it at all. The second time you go through it, you think you understand it,
except for one or two small points. The third time you go through it, you know you don’t
understand it, but by that time you are so used to it, it doesn’t bother you anymore.”
Arnold Sommerfield

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REVERSIBLE AND IRREVERSIBLE PROCESSES
Reversible process: A process that can be reversed without leaving any trace on the surroundings.
Irreversible process: A process that is not reversible.
 All the processes occurring in nature are irreversible.
 Why are we interested in reversible processes?
(1) they are easy to analyze
(2) they serve as idealized models (theoretical limits) to which
actual processes can be compared.
 Some processes are more irreversible than others.
 We try to approximate reversible processes. Why?

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 Two important conditions for the reversible process to occur:
 The process should occur in infinitesimally small time
 All of the initial and final state of the system should be in equilibrium with each other.
 Processes that are usually idealized as reversible include:
 Frictionless movement
 Restrained compression or expansion
 Energy transfer as heat due to infinitesimal temperature non uniformity
 Electric current flow through a zero resistance
 Restrained chemical reaction
 Mixing of two samples of the same substance at the same state.

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Irreversibilities
 The factors that cause a process to be irreversible are
called irreversibilities.
 They friction unrestrained expansion include friction,
expansion, mixing of two fluids, heat transfer across a
finite temperature difference, electric resistance,
inelastic deformation of solids, and chemical reactions.
 The presence of any of these effects renders a
process irreversible.

Irreversible
compression
and
expansion
processes.

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b) Irreversible Process
 Processes that are irreversible include:
 Water flows from high level to low level
 Movement with friction
 Energy transfer as heat due to large temperature non uniformities
 Current moves from high potential to low potential
 Spontaneous chemical reaction
 Mixing of matter of different composition or state.

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Internally and Externally Reversible Processes
 Internally reversible process: If no irreversibilities occur within the boundaries of the system during
the process.
 Externally reversible: If no irreversibilities occur outside the system boundaries.
 Totally reversible process: It involves no irreversibilities within the system or its surroundings.
 A totally reversible process involves no heat transfer through a finite temperature difference, no
nonquasi-equilibrium changes, and no friction or other dissipative effects.

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THE CARNOT CYCLE AND PRINCIPLES, CARNOT
HEAT ENGINES

Execution of
the Carnot
cycle in a
closed
system.

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THE CARNOT CYCLE AND PRINCIPLES, CARNOT
HEAT ENGINES

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THE CARNOT CYCLE AND PRINCIPLES, CARNOT
HEAT ENGINES

1. The efficiency of an irreversible heat

engine is always less than the efficiency of
a reversible one operating between the
same two reservoirs.
2. The efficiencies of all reversible heat
engines operating between the same two
reservoirs are the same. 10
THE THERMODYNAMIC TEMPERATURE SCALE
 A temperature scale that is independent of the properties of the substances
that are used to measure temperature is called a thermodynamic
temperature scale. Such a temperature scale offers great conveniences in
thermodynamic calculations.

The arrangement of
heat engines used to
develop the
thermodynamic
temperature scale.

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CARNOT HEAT ENGINES

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CARNOT HEAT ENGINES
 The Carnot Heat engines operates in the clockwise direction when plotted on a process
diagram (T-v, P-v, T-s).
 The thermal efficiency is

𝐐𝐋
𝛈𝐭𝐡 =𝟏−
𝐐𝐇
 For a reversible heat engine (Carnot Heat Engines), the energy transfer ratio QL/QH can be
replaced by ratio of absolute temp TL/TH

𝐓𝐋
𝛈𝐭𝐡,𝐜𝐚𝐫𝐧𝐨𝐭 𝐇𝐄 =𝟏−
𝐓𝐇

 This is the maximum possible efficiency of a heat engine operating between two heat
reservoirs at constant temperatures TH and TL.

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EXAMPLE 6-5 ANALYSIS OF CARNOT HEAT ENGINES

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Entropy Principle, Isentropic Processes

The equality in the Clausius

inequality holds for totally or just
internally reversible cycles and
the inequality for the irreversible
ones.

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Entropy Principle, Isentropic Processes

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Entropy Principle, Isentropic Processes
 Entropy is an extensive property of a system or total entropy.

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THE INCREASE OF ENTROPY PRINCIPLE

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Some Remarks about Entropy

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ENTROPY CHANGE OF PURE SUBSTANCES
 Entropy is a property, and thus the value of entropy of a system is fixed once
the state of the system is fixed.

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Isentropic Processes
 A process during which the entropy remains constant is called an
isentropic process.

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PROPERTY DIAGRAMS INVOLVING ENTROPY
Mollier diagram: The h-s diagram

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EXAMPLE 7-6 PROPERTY DIAGRAMS INVOLVING
ENTROPY

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WHAT IS ENTROPY?

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Summary on Isentropic Processes
ISENTROPIC PROCESSES
 The reversible and adiabatic process is called an isentropic process.
𝒅𝒔 = 𝟎
𝒔𝟐 = 𝒔 𝟏
 The entropy change and isentropic relations for a process can be summarized as follows:
a. Pure Substances
Any process: ∆𝐬 = 𝐬𝟐 − 𝐬𝟏
Isentropic process: 𝐬𝟐 = 𝐬𝟏

b. Incompressible substances (liquids and solids)

𝐓
Any process: 𝐬𝟐 − 𝐬𝟏 = 𝐜𝐚𝐯 ( 𝟐 )
𝐓𝟏

Isentropic process: 𝐓𝟐 = 𝐓𝟏

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Summary on Isentropic Processes
ISENTROPIC PROCESSES
c. Ideal gases - constant specific heats
For all process:

𝐓𝟐 𝒗𝟐
𝐬𝟐 − 𝐬𝟏 = 𝒄𝒗,𝒂𝒗 𝒍𝒏 + 𝑹 𝒍𝒏
𝐓𝟏 𝒗𝟏

𝐓𝟐 𝑷𝟐
𝐬𝟐 − 𝐬𝟏 = 𝒄𝒑,𝒂𝒗 𝒍𝒏 − 𝑹 𝒍𝒏
𝐓𝟏 𝑷𝟏

Isentropic process:
𝒌−𝟏
𝑻𝟐 𝒗𝟏 𝒌−𝟏 𝑻𝟐 𝑷𝟐 𝒌 𝑷𝟐 𝒗𝟏 𝒌
= = =
𝑻𝟏 𝒗𝟐 𝑻𝟏 𝑷𝟏 𝑷𝟏 𝒗𝟐

where
𝒄𝒑
𝒌=𝜸=
𝒄𝒗

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Exercise – Sept 2014
A first stage turbine receives steam at 12.5 Mpa, 800 oC wit an exit pressure of
600 kPa. Assume the stage is isentropic and the effect of kinetic and potential
energies can be neglected. Determine:
a. The specific work of the turbine (kJ/kg) (1083.12 kJ/kg)
b. The final temperature (oC) (279.73 oC)

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Isentropic Efficiencies of Steady-flow Devices
 The isentropic process involves no irreversibilities
and serves as the ideal process for adiabatic
devices.

1. Isentropic Efficiency of Turbines

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1. Isentropic Efficiency of Turbines (Example)
 The isentropic work: The maximum possible work output that the adiabatic
turbine can produce.

 The actual work, wa is less than the isentropic work, ws

 Efficiency are defined to be less than 1

 The turbine isentropic efficiency:

𝐀𝐜𝐭𝐮𝐚𝐥 𝐭𝐮𝐫𝐛𝐢𝐧𝐞 𝐰𝐨𝐫𝐤 𝐰𝐚

ɳ𝐓 = =
𝐈𝐬𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐫𝐨𝐩𝐢𝐜 𝐭𝐮𝐫𝐛𝐢𝐧𝐞 𝐰𝐨𝐫𝐤 𝐰𝐬

𝐡𝟏 − 𝐡𝟐𝐚
ɳ𝐓 ≅
𝐡𝟏 − 𝐡𝟐𝐬

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Exercise – March 2014
A steady flow gas turbine operates between the pressure 5 MPa and 205 kPa. The
gas with a mass flow rate of 2 kg/s is initially at 1400 oC and 15 m/s and exit at 35
m/s. If the isentropic efficiency is 85% and heat loss is 7% of the shaft power,
calculate:
a. The exit temperature (oC ) (548.861oC)
b. The shaft power output (kW) (1597.93 kW)
Take Cp gas=1.005 kJ/kg.K and R gas=0.287 kJ/kg.K

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Isentropic Efficiencies of Steady-flow Devices
2. Isentropic Efficiencies of Compressors and Pumps

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2. Isentropic Efficiencies of Compressors and Pumps (Example)
 The isentropic work: The minimum possible work that the adiabatic compressor.

 The actual work, wa is greater than the isentropic work, ws

 Efficiency are defined to be less than 1

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Exercise – Sept 2013
A hot gas enters an adiabatic compressor steadily at 100 kPa, 200 oC and 60 m/s.
The gas then discharges at pressure of 500 kPa and velocity of 90 m/s. Assume
constant specific heat capacity, Cp=1.005 kJ/kg.K and Cv=0.287 kJ/kg.K and neglect
the potential energy. Determine the power input of the compressor, if the mass
flow rate of the gas is 5 kg/s. (5138 kW)

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Isentropic Efficiencies of Steady-flow Devices
3. Isentropic Efficiency of Nozzles

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3. Isentropic Efficiency of Nozzles (Example)
 The isentropic kinetic energy at the nozzle exit: The maximum possible kinetic energy at the nozzle exit.

𝐂𝟐𝐚 𝟐
 The actual kinetic energy, at the nozzle exit is less than the isentropic value.
𝟐

 Efficiency are defined to be less than 1

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Exercise – March 2016
A hot gas at 300 kPa and 1000 K enters an adiabatic nozzle at a very low velocity which
can be neglected. The gas is discharged at a pressure of 100 kPa. The isentropic
efficiency of the nozzle 85%. By assuming constant specific heat capacity, Cp=1.015
kJ/kg.K and 𝜸=1.4, determine:
a) The maximum exit velocity of the gas and the corresponding temperature
(739.516 m/s & 730.599 K)
b) The actual exit velocity and the actual exit temperature of the gas (681.80 m/s
& 771.009 K)

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End
See you in -

Chapter 4: Vapor Powered

Cycles

Referance:
1) Thermodynamics: An Engineering
Approach, Y.A. Cengel and M.A.
Boles, McGraw-Hill, 7th Edition,
2011.
2) Amalina Halidi, Lecture Notes,
MEC251
3) Nor Azirah Binti Mohd Fohimi,
Lecture Notes, MEC251

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