PRINCIPLES OF STRUCTURE

ANALYSIS
By Ing. Jose Diego Monroy

Spring 2020

Principal of structure
Analysis
 Principles of Structure Analysis
By Ing. Jose Diego Monroy

Contents
Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 4
Classification of structural members ......................................................................................... 5
Structural elements..................................................................................................................... 5
Tie rod ........................................................................................................................................ 5
Beams ......................................................................................................................................... 5
Column....................................................................................................................................... 8
Types of structure system .......................................................................................................... 9
Trusses ....................................................................................................................................... 9
Cable and Arches ..................................................................................................................... 11
Frames ...................................................................................................................................... 12
Surface Structures .................................................................................................................... 13
Loads ........................................................................................................................................ 14
Dead load ................................................................................................................................. 15
Example ................................................................................................................................... 17
Live loads ................................................................................................................................. 17
Building load............................................................................................................................ 18
Example ................................................................................................................................... 19
Solution .................................................................................................................................... 19
Highway Bridge Loads ............................................................................................................ 20
Railroad Bridge Loads ............................................................................................................. 21
Impact loads ............................................................................................................................. 21
Wind Loads .............................................................................................................................. 21
Design Wind Pressure for Enclosed Buildings ........................................................................ 23
Support Connection ................................................................................................................. 25
Principal of superposition ........................................................................................................ 26
Equations of equilibrium.......................................................................................................... 26
Determinacy ............................................................................................................................. 27
Hinge Joint ............................................................................................................................... 28
Stability of structure................................................................................................................. 28
Example ................................................................................................................................... 29
Beam Analysis ......................................................................................................................... 31
Application of equilibrium equation ........................................................................................ 31
Free body diagram ................................................................................................................... 31
 Principles of Structure Analysis
By Ing. Jose Diego Monroy

Example ................................................................................................................................... 31
Solution .................................................................................................................................... 32
Support reactions ..................................................................................................................... 32
Types of loading on beams ...................................................................................................... 33
Example ................................................................................................................................... 34
Solution .................................................................................................................................... 34
Truss analysis ........................................................................................................................... 36
Assumption for truss analysis .................................................................................................. 36
Determinacy of a truss ............................................................................................................. 37
Stability of truss ....................................................................................................................... 37
Externally unstable................................................................................................................... 37
Internally unstable .................................................................................................................... 38
Example ................................................................................................................................... 38
Solution .................................................................................................................................... 38
Example ................................................................................................................................... 39
Solution .................................................................................................................................... 39
Solving a truss. ......................................................................................................................... 39
Method of joints ....................................................................................................................... 39
Example solve the truss as shown in Fig below. ..................................................................... 41
Solution .................................................................................................................................... 41
Zero force members ................................................................................................................. 42
Case 1. ...................................................................................................................................... 42
Case 2 ....................................................................................................................................... 43
Example ................................................................................................................................... 44
The method of section .............................................................................................................. 45
Example ................................................................................................................................... 46
Solution .................................................................................................................................... 47
 Principles of Structure Analysis
By Ing. Jose Diego Monroy

Principal of structural analysis

Introduction
A structure is an organization or arrangement of small elements or parts that are
combined together to make a huge or complex thing. In Civil Engineering structure are the
collection of parts to carry out the load for example small buildings, roads, skyscrapers and
bridges are classified as the structure.

These structures involve lots of basic elements like beams, columns and walls which
are designed in such a way to support different type of loadings such as lateral loads, Axial
loads etc.

Structural analysis involves the calculation of the forces on each structural member as
these members are undergone certain loadings during their period of life as in case of the bridge
shown in fig .1 you can see different member is loaded in different manners.

There is also some stress which is caused by the members themselves like the weight
of the members. These forces are always present in the structure no matter what are the
conditions outside.

Figure 1 shows the bridge structure made of steel and concrete

 Principles of Structure Analysis
By Ing. Jose Diego Monroy

Classification of structural members

To analyze the structure 1st engineer should know about the type of the member and
their function. This classification of the members could be according to the type of the loading
or with respect to the shape of the member or it could also classify on the internal properties of
the element like cables.

Structural elements
Some of the most commonly used structural members, their function and the type of
the loadings will be discussed in the below section.

Tie rod
Tie rod is a slender structural unit which is only able to carry the tensile or axial load. Due to
the nature of the load it carries it can be made from bars, channels or angles.

Figure 2 shows the tie rod and different cross-section for its construction

Beams
Beams generally are the straight horizontal members used mainly to bear the vertical
loads. Quite often they are separated to the way they are supported, as indicated in Fig. 3

In particular, when the cross section varies the beam may be tapered or hunched. Beam cross
sections may also be “built up” by adding plates to their top and bottom. Beams are designed
to bear or prevent the failure due to the bending moment in the struct; however, if they are short
and carry large loads, the internal shear force may become quite large then the beam would be
design on the basis of the shear load on the beam.
 Principles of Structure Analysis
By Ing. Jose Diego Monroy

The material used for a beam could be metal such as steel or aluminum, the desired cross
section is shown in the Fig .4 below.

Figure 3 shows the different types of the beams as they are classified on the basis of the supports

The forces generated at the top and bottom flanges of the beam makes the couple that is used
to prevent the applied moment M on the beam, however the web is active in fighting against
the applied shear V. The cross section is denoted as a “wide flange,” and it is normally made
as a single unit in a rolling mill in lengths up to 75 ft (23 m).

Figure 4

If the beams of the shorter lengths are required, a tapered cross section flanges is selected.
When the beam is needed to have a very big span and the loads applied are very large, the
cross section may take the shape of a plate girder.

This member is fabricated by using a large plate for the web and welding or bolting plates to
its ends for flanges. The girder is often transported to the field in segments, and the segments
are designed to be spliced or joined together.
 Principles of Structure Analysis
By Ing. Jose Diego Monroy

Figure 5 most commonly used cross-section for steel beams

Concrete beams usually are in the form of rectangular cross sections, meanwhile it is easy to
construct it directly in the field. The concrete is somewhat feeble in fighting tension, steel
“reinforcing rods” are cast into the beam inside areas of the cross section endangered to tension.

Figure 6 shows the reinforced concrete beams

Precast concrete beams or girders are fabricated at a shop or yard in the same manner and then
transported to the job site
 Principles of Structure Analysis
By Ing. Jose Diego Monroy

Figure 7 shows the plate girder

Beams made of timber may be sawn from a solid piece of wood or laminated. The wood
structure is classified with respect to the given standards. Laminated beams are constructed
from solid sections of wood, which are fastened together using high-strength glues

Figure 8 Glue laminated timber beams

Column
vertical member that resist axial compressive loads are known as columns, rectangular tubes
and wide-flange cross section is used for metal columns, however, circular and square cross
sections along reinforcing rods are used for concrete.

Rarely, columns are subjected to both an axial load and a bending moment as shown in the
figure. Such member is known as beam columns.
 Principles of Structure Analysis
By Ing. Jose Diego Monroy

Figure 9 shows column with axial load and combined loading( axial and bending load).

Types of structure system

The mixture of structural elements, materials from which they are composed and their
arrangement to build a mechanism to support the load is known as a structural system. Each
system is constructed of one or more of four basic types of structures. Ranked in order of
complexity of their force analysis, they are discussed below

Trusses
If span of the structure is mandatory to be big and its depth is not an important condition for
design, a truss system is used to support the type of the loading in the system. Trusses are
mostly made of slender members, typically organized in triangular fashion. (work, 2019)

Planar trusses are made of elements that lie in the same plane and are often used for bridge and
roof support, while space trusses have elements spreading in three dimensions are appropriate
for derrick and towers.

Below are some 2D commonly used trusses are shown.

 Principles of Structure Analysis
By Ing. Jose Diego Monroy

Figure 10 shows some common types of trusses used in structure

Due to the geometric arrangement of its members, loads that cause the entire truss to bend are
converted into tensile or compressive forces in the members. Because of this, one of the
primary advantages of a truss, compared to a beam, is that it uses less material to support a
given load.

Also, a truss is built with long and slender members, which are arranged in different ways to
support a load. Usually it is economically reasonable to use a truss to cover spans ranging from
30 ft (9 m) to 400 ft (122 m), although trusses are used on occasion for spans of greater lengths
 Principles of Structure Analysis
By Ing. Jose Diego Monroy

Cable and Arches

cable and the arch are the two other types of structures that are used support long distance span.
Indeed, cables are generally flexible & are loaded in tension. They are frequently used to
support bridges and building roofs.

Figure 11 shows the bridge supported with the cables

A bridge stayed on the cable h one or more towers (or pylons), through these cables it
supports the bridge deck. A distinguishing feature are the cables or stays, which run straight
from the tower to the deck, normally forming a fan-like pattern or a series of parallel lines

The cable structure has an advantage over the beam and the truss, particularly for spans that
are larger than 150 ft (46 m). On the other side, the application of cables, is restricted only by
their sag, weight, and methods of anchorage. On few suspension bridges, the steel wires making
the cables are galvanized (coated with zinc). The towers in suspension bridges are made
through steel, while a some are built with steel-reinforced concrete.

The arch has strength in compression, as it has an inverse curvature compared to the cable.
Arch should be rigid, in order to hold its shape, and this will also result in secondary loadings
which involves shear and moment, which must be considered in its design.

Arches are frequently used in bridge structures, dome roofs, and for openings in masonry
walls.
 Principles of Structure Analysis
By Ing. Jose Diego Monroy

Figure 12 show the bridge supported by arch

Frames
Frames are used in buildings and are composed of beams and columns that are any pin
or fixed linked. Like trusses, frames spread in two or three dimensions. The loading on a frame
causes bending of its members, and if it has rigid joint connections, this structure is generally
“indeterminate” from a standpoint of analysis. The strength of such a frame is derived from the
moment interactions between the beams and the columns at the rigid joints

Figure 13 show the frame structure pin and rigid joints are shown with the help of red circles
 Principles of Structure Analysis
By Ing. Jose Diego Monroy

Surface Structures
A surface structure is made in such a that it will have very small thickness given to its
other dimensions. This material can be flexible and can be in the shape of a tent or air-inflated
structure.

In each cases the it acts like membrane on which to pure tension is applied. Surface structures
can be formed of rigid material like reinforced concrete. In a way that their shaped as folded
plates, hyperbolic paraboloids, or, cylinders, and could be known as thin plates or shells.

Figure 14 show the use of surface structure

These structures act same like cables or arches since they support loads primarily in tension or
compression, with very little bending. Despite of this, plate or shell structures are normally
very difficult to analyze, due to the three-dimensional geometry of their surface.

Surface structure is mostly used as the covering over the frame of steel or concrete more
complex shape building are made using surface structure in which the steel frame is shaped
into the building and then the whole building is covered by the surface structure.
 Principles of Structure Analysis
By Ing. Jose Diego Monroy

Loads
One of the most critical part of the structure design is governed by the load they will bear
during their life cycle. Various types of loads are applied on the building structure during their
life So, it is the prerequisite to check out the load condition for the building structure.

For instance, in high-rise structures where buildings mush has to endure large lateral loadings
produced by wind, and so shear walls and tubular frame systems are selected, while buildings
located in areas likely to to earthquakes must be designed having ductile frames and
connections.

The structure loads are specified in codes. Normally, the structural engineer uses the two types
of codes: general building codes and design codes.

General building codes lay down the necessities of governmental bodies for minimum design
loads on structures and minimum standards for construction. Whereas, design codes deliver
thorough technical values and are used to create the requirements for the actual structural
design.

Some of the standard general codes and standard design codes are given in the below tables.

Table 1 shows the general and design codes for structural design ( the table is take from structural
analysis by R.C Hibbeler 8th edition)

As structure is subjected to various types of the loads next, we will be discussing these types
of the loading in the structure and we will see how we will be considering them to be in practice
to build a secure structure
 Principles of Structure Analysis
By Ing. Jose Diego Monroy

Dead load
These are the weights caused by the weight of the structural member and other various
elements that are attached permanently to the building. Which include the weights of the
columns, beams, roofs, the floor slab, girder, windows, plumbing, electrical fixture and other
mechanical systems like HVAC.

In few cases, a structural dead load can be assessed with the help of common formulas based
on the weights and sizes of similar structures. Through experience one can also derive a
“feeling” for the magnitude of these loadings.

For instance, the average weight calculated for buildings made of timber are 40–50 lb/ft2 (1.9–
2.4 kN/m2) and that for buildings made of steel framed it is 60–75 lb/ft2 (2.9–3.6 kN/m2) and
for building made from the reinforced concrete it is 110–130 lb/ft2 15.3–6.2 kN/m2.

Normally, though, when the materials and sizes for the various components of the structure are
estimated their weights or dead load can be found from tables having list their densities
(R.C.HIBBELER, 2019)
 Principles of Structure Analysis
By Ing. Jose Diego Monroy

Table 2 show the densities of different elements

Now the below table show the loads of the building components that are mostly used in
structures are given below. These estimates include nonstructural materials such as
prefabricated facade panels, electrical and plumbing systems, etc.

Furthermore, if the material is specified, the unit weights of members listed in codes can be
differ from that are listed by the manufacturers, and the building have some changes in dead
loading.
 Principles of Structure Analysis
By Ing. Jose Diego Monroy

Table 3 show the Minimum design dead load for structure components ( table is taken from structure
analysis by R.C. HIBBELER 8th edition)

Example

Live loads
These are the temporary load on the buildings or these can be variable load. These loads can
vary both in magnitude and also in location where they are applied. These can be caused by
the objects that are temporarily placed on the structure or due to moving vehicles or natural
forces such as the forces exerted by winds on the structure.
 Principles of Structure Analysis
By Ing. Jose Diego Monroy

It also includes the loads that applied suddenly on the structure which can destroy the
building or cause deflection in the building. We can find out the minimum standard load by
the given codes.

Table 4 shows the minimum design load

Building load
The building floors are expected to be exposed to uniform live loads, these loadings
are normally tabulated in local, state, or national codes. A sample of minimum live loadings,
excluded from the ASCE 7-10 Standard, is shown in Table 4 above.

To account for uniform loads, codes specify minimum concentrated live loads, caused
by hand carts, automobiles, etc., which could be applied anywhere else to the floor system.
For instance, both uniform and concentrated live loads must be considered in the design of an
automobile parking deck

As it is not possible that the prescribed live load will occur instantaneously throughout the
whole structure at one time. For example, ASCE 7-10 allows a reduction of live load on a
member having an influence area (KLL AT) of 400 ft2 (37.5 m2) or more. This reduced live load
is calculated using the following equation

where
 Principles of Structure Analysis
By Ing. Jose Diego Monroy

• L= reduced design live load per square foot or square meter of area supported by the
member.
• LO = unreduced design live load per square foot or square meter of area supported by
the member (see Table 4). live load element factor.
• KLL = live load factor for interior columns KLL = 4
• AT = tributary area in square feet or square meters. *
The live load factor should not be less than 50% for single storey building and it should not
less than 40 % for two storey building.

No reduction factor is allowed for the floor for which load is exceeding 100 lb/ft2.

Example

Solution
As shown in above figure each interior column has a tributary area or effective loaded
which can be calculated as follow

AT = (22 ft) (22 ft) = 484 ft2

area of A ground-floor column therefore supports a roof live load of

FR = (20 lb. /ft2) (484 ft2) = 9680 lb. = 9.68 k

This load cannot be reduced as it is not the floor load so for the second floor, we can take the
live load from the table 4

Which is given as
 Principles of Structure Analysis
By Ing. Jose Diego Monroy

Lo = 50 lb./ft2

As KLL = 4 we have

4AT = 4 (484) ft2= 1936 ft2

1936 ft2 > 400 ft2

Highway Bridge Loads

The primary load which would be embedded on the bridges are due to the moving vehicles and
the maximum load which could be applied on the bridges are due to the series of the trucks.
Conditions for truck loadings on highway bridges are stated in the LRFD Bridge Design
Specifications of the American Association of State and Highway Transportation Officials
(AASHTO).

The two-axle trucks, are designated with an H, with the weight of the truck in tons and another
number which gives the year of the specifications in which the load was stated. H-series truck
mostly weights vary from 10 to 20 tons.

However, bridges situated on main highways, that carry a great deal of traffic, are often
designed for two-axle trucks plus a one-axle semitrailer as in Fig. 15 below. Mainly the type
of the loading selected for the bridges depends upon the location of the bridge, nature of the
traffic and also depends upon the type of the bridge.
 Principles of Structure Analysis
By Ing. Jose Diego Monroy

Figure 15

Railroad Bridge Loads

The loadings on railroad bridges, as in Fig.16, are listed in the Specifications for Steel Railway
Bridges published by the American Railroad Engineers Association (AREA). Generally, E
loads, as listed by Theodore Cooper in 1894, was applied for design.

B. Steinmann has since updated Cooper’s load distribution and has given a series of M
loadings, which are currently acceptable for design. Since train loadings involve a complicated
series of concentrated forces, to simplify hand calculations, tables and graphs are sometimes
used.

Impact loads
As the vehicles move on the road it bounces due to the bumps at the roads or due to other
collisions. The increase in the impact load due to these reasons are given by impact factor. This
factor is specified in the American standards AASHTO and is given as

Where

L is the length of the span in feet that is exposed to the live load.

On building structure impact loads are imposed according to the standard of the for instance
ASCE 7-10 standard requires the weight of elevator machinery to be increased by 100% and
the stress on the balcony and any other hangers supporting the floors are increased by 33%.

Wind Loads
When a large building stops the flow of the air the kinetic energy of the air is converted
into the potential energy which is applied to the structure. This loading depends upon the
 Principles of Structure Analysis
By Ing. Jose Diego Monroy

velocity of the structure, density, angle of the incidence and shape of the structure and
roughness of its surface.

To convert it into the static loading, the shifting pressure caused by a continually
gusting wind is approximated by a mean velocity pressure that acts on the structure. This
pressure q is defined by its kinetic energy

where

• p the density of the air

• V is its velocity
According to the ASCE 7-10 Standard, this equation is modified to account for the
importance of the structure, its height, and the terrain in which it is located. It is represented as

where

V = the velocity in mi/h (m/s) of a 3-second gust of wind measured 33 ft (10 m) above the
ground. Specific values depend upon the “category” of the structure obtained from a wind
map.

For example, the interior portion of the continental United States reports a wind speed of 105
mi/h (47 m/s) if the structure is an agricultural or storage building, since it is of low risk to
human life in the event of a failure.

The wind speed is 120 mi/h (54 m/s) for cases where the structure is a hospital, since its
failure would cause substantial loss of human life.

Kz = The velocity pressure exposure coefficient, which is a function of height and depends
upon the ground terrain. Table 1–5 lists values for a structure which is located in open terrain
with scattered low-lying obstructions.

Kzt = a factor that accounts for wind speed increases due to hills and escarpments. For flat
ground Kzt = 1.0
 Principles of Structure Analysis
By Ing. Jose Diego Monroy

Kd = a factor that accounts for the direction of the wind. It is used only when the structure is
subjected to combinations of loads (see Sec. 1–4). For wind acting alone, Kd = 1.0.

Table 5 Velocity Pressure Exposure Coefficient for Terrain with Low-Lying Obstructions

Design Wind Pressure for Enclosed Buildings

From the value of qz we can find out desired pressure from the list of equations given
in ASCE 7-10 Standard the choice depends upon the structure height and flexibility of design.
using a “directional procedure” we can find out the wind-pressure on an enclosed building of
any height could be estimated by using a two-termed equation which gives both external and
internal pressures, namely,

q = qz or the windward wall at height z above the ground and for the leeward walls, side walls,
and roof, where the mean height of the roof.

G = a wind-gust effect factor, which depends upon the exposure. For example, for a rigid
structure, G = 0.85

CP = a wall or roof pressure coefficient determined from a table. The values for the walls and
for the roof having a pitch θ = 10 are given in Fig. 16. In the elevation view we can see that the
pressure will vary on as the height approaches to the windward while on the plan view pressure
is constant on all the sides .

GCpi = the internal pressure coefficient, which depends upon the type of openings in the
building. For fully enclosed buildings (GCpi) = −
+0.18 Here the signs indicate that either positive

or negative (suction) pressure can occur within the building.

 Principles of Structure Analysis
By Ing. Jose Diego Monroy

Application of above equation includes the calculations of wind pressures from every side of
the building, also considering for the possibility of either positive or negative pressures that
influence the building from interior.

Figure 16

The buildings whose shapes are to be very sensitive to the air are also classified under the
ASCE 7-10 Standard they required testing in the air tunnel.

The other loading which could affect the building structure and are given under ASCE 7-10
standard

• Design wind pressure for signs

• Snow load
• Earthquake load
 Principles of Structure Analysis
By Ing. Jose Diego Monroy

Support Connection
One of the major parts of the structure is the type of support used in the structure it also
effects the structural analysis. To connect structure members different types of connections are
used. Three basic types of the support are given below

• Pin joint
• Roller support
• Fixed support
• Simple support (it also acts as a roller support)

Figure 17shows the types of supports used in the structure

In the free body diagram on the reaction load is shown. These supports resist the loading
on the members and support the member to carry the loads. But different supports are used for
different purposes like roller support is used to support only vertical and it allow member to
move horizontally. While pin joint support both vertical and horizontal load but it allows the
member to rotate. But in fixed joint provide support for horizontal, vertical and rotational load
and does not allow members to move or rotate in any direction.

Figure 18 shows the reaction forces on each support

 Principles of Structure Analysis
By Ing. Jose Diego Monroy

Principal of superposition
It states that the total loading and displacement at one point due to a number of forces can be
determined by adding the displacement or load caused by each member.

The principal has two basic requirements

1. Material should obey the Hook’s law; material should behave in linear elastic
manner.
2. The displacement must not large when a certain load is applied.

Equations of equilibrium
For the structure analysis we use basic equation of equilibrium as the structure and their
member are mostly in rest condition so the principal of equilibrium is easily applied on them.

There are basically two conditions for the equilibrium

1. The sum of the forces acting on the structure should be zero

2. The sum of the moments acting on the structure in all direction should be equal to
zero.

In most of the cases the principal load carrying portion of the structures lie in the
single plane and load are also coplanar so we have the following conditions

In the above equation ∑ 𝐹𝑥 and ∑ 𝐹𝑦 shows that the sum of the force in the x-direction and in
the y-direction is zero and the ∑ 𝑀𝑜 show that all the moments acting in xy-plane is also zero.

Whenever these equations are applied a free-body diagram of the structure is made. Free body
diagram is the diagram which shows all the loading and reactions on the body of the member
or elements of the structure.
 Principles of Structure Analysis
By Ing. Jose Diego Monroy

Determinacy
A structure is said to be statically determinant or indeterminate depending upon the number of
variables to be determined in the structure analysis is equal to or less then or greater than the
number of equilibrium equation.

To be in static state a structure should be equilibrium and mostly it is possible to find out the
values of the variables using equilibrium condition but there could be some case in which
number of variables are greater than the equilibrium equation such a structure is known as
statically indeterminant

For instance, consider the following example of the beam only in xy-plane which is supported
as shown in Fig. 19. The beam is supported by three supports so the total number of variables
or reaction forces exerted on the beam has become four

Figure 19

But in xy-plane the number of equilibrium equation are three as we know give the number so
it will become statically indeterminant. So, we cannot solve the above beam using equilibrium
equations. Such beams are called statically indeterminant beams while those beams in which
unknow reaction force are equal to the number of equation than they are know as statically
determinant beams.

if we take in above example in which n = 4 the number reaction forces or unknown forces and
y = 3 which the number of equilibrium equations then we have

n > y so the beam is statically indeterminant and if 𝑛 ≤ y then the beam is said to be statically
determinant.

Below are shown some examples of indeterminant and determinant beams

 Principles of Structure Analysis
By Ing. Jose Diego Monroy

Hinge Joint
In last example you can see that the hinge joint in separated and two additional reaction forces
are introduced in the member and the total number of equilibrium equation becomes 6. As there
are three equilibrium equations for each member.

Stability of structure
A structure is said to be instable is one of the reaction forces in the structure is not satisfied by
any of the support then there will be some motion in any certain direction or in all directions.

As shown in the above figure load ‘P’ is applied on member ‘A’ which produces forces in both
x and y direction and the member is supported by sliding joint.
 Principles of Structure Analysis
By Ing. Jose Diego Monroy

It can be seen in the free body diagram only moment and the forces in the vertical direction are
balanced by the support while there is no support in the x-direction so the member will start
moving in this direction.

Here the equation ∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0 will not be staisfied and this type of structure is also known as
partialy constrained in which some of the applied forces are constrained in some direction and
member can move in some other direction as explained above.

Example
These are some examples which are Classified below as stable or unstable structure.

The structure is said to be stable as the forces applied on the structure are constrained and the
reaction forces are non-concurrent

The structure is said to be unstable as it can be seen that the reaction forces are concurrent
 Principles of Structure Analysis
By Ing. Jose Diego Monroy

The structure is unstable as the reaction forces are parallel.

 Principles of Structure Analysis
By Ing. Jose Diego Monroy

Beam Analysis
Application of equilibrium equation
In this section we will learn about the application of equilibrium conditions how you
can use the equilibrium conditions and equations to solve a structure. (Josh Parker, 2020)
(Mohammad, 2019)

Figure 20

As you can see in the above Fig. 20 (a) a structure is shown on which forces are applied these
forces could be any load.
Now if we want to solve the structure the 1st step is to draw the free body diagram of each
element in the structure.

Free body diagram

A free body diagrams show the force on the element it does not involve any joints or
other structural material it only shows how the forces are acting on the body.

A free body diagram of the structure is shown in Fig. 20 (b) which shows the forces acting
on each element.

Example
Draw the free body diagram of the given beam.
 Principles of Structure Analysis
By Ing. Jose Diego Monroy

Solution
The free body diagram of the above structure is shown below.

In next step we will write the equilibrium equation to solve

So, all the reactions are known by using the equilibrium conditions.

Support reactions
 Principles of Structure Analysis
By Ing. Jose Diego Monroy

Figure 21 shows the free body diagram for particular joint

Types of loading on beams

In structure the beams are under different types of the load some of these common types of the
loads are shown in Fig 22. To solve the problem, we 1st have to convert the applied load in
effective load acting at the centroid of the beam.

We can find the effective force by finding the area under the load for instance in uniformly
distributed load we can find the area of the rectangle which will be the effective load at the
centroid of the beam.

So, if ‘w’ is assumed as the height of the rectangle and L is the length of the beam then the area
of the rectangle is given as wL. This is shown with the read circle in the Fig. 20.
 Principles of Structure Analysis
By Ing. Jose Diego Monroy

Figure 22 shows the type of loadings and their effective load

Example
Solve the beam as shown in the Fig below.

Solution
1st we will draw the free body diagram of the above problem
 Principles of Structure Analysis
By Ing. Jose Diego Monroy

As the load acting on the beam is trapezoidal so we have converted the overall distributed load
into the effective load.

We divide the shape into rectangle and triangle. Then find the area of the rectangle and triangle.
The areas under the rectangle and triangle represents the resultant load. Then this load is applied
on the centroid of the triangle and rectangle.

Next, we will apply the equilibrium conditions to solve the above problem.
 Principles of Structure Analysis
By Ing. Jose Diego Monroy

Truss analysis
Trusses has been discussed above in the types of structure system. Usually trusses are light
weight and used to carry heavy loads in the construction. In this section we will discuss about
the analysis of the trusses. Some common type of trusses is already given above.

Assumption for truss analysis

• The members are joined together by smooth pins.
• All loadings are applied at the joints
In most of the cases trusses combination of slender members which are joint together with the
help of the pins. Mostly the members of the truss are steel bars, angles or wooden struts. In Fig.
23 you can see a truss bridge. If there are any rigid joint is introduced in the structure than some
bending stress can be introduced in the member but the primary stresses would be in axial
direction.

The other assumption we ignore the weight of the member as the weight of the members are
much smaller than the load applied on the member. If weight of the member is included you
can apply a vertical load at the center of the member.

Figure 23 shows a truss bridge

 Principles of Structure Analysis
By Ing. Jose Diego Monroy

Determinacy of a truss
First step in truss analysis is to check that if the truss is determinant or not as it is discussed
above in the section of beam that if the number of equilibrium equation are enough to find all
the unknown reaction force then the structure is said to be determinant.

As the members are coplanar and axial forces are acting on them also the joints are coplanar
and concurrent so the moment equation is satisfied at the joints. Only condition which are to
be satisfied are the forces in x and y direction so we have the two equilibrium equations that is

∑ 𝐹𝑋 = 0, ∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0.

So, if a is the number of bars of a truss and r are the number of reaction forces and j is the
number of the joints than the condition for determinacy is given as

a + r = 2j the truss is said to be determinant

a + r > 2j the truss is said to be indeterminant

the degree of indeterminacy is given as

(a + r) - 2j.

Stability of truss
A truss is said to be unstable if a + r < 2j it means that the truss will have a insufficient number
of bars or reaction forces to keep the truss from collapse. Also, a truss can be unstable if it is
statically determinate or statically indeterminate.

Externally unstable
A truss is said to be externally unstable if the forces reacting on the truss are parallel
or concurrent.

Figure 24 shows the externally unstable trusses

 Principles of Structure Analysis
By Ing. Jose Diego Monroy

Internally unstable
A truss is internally unstable if one of the members of the truss is not rigidly bound and is
allowed or have a tendency to move.

For internally unstable truss we have the following conditions

a + r < 2j unstable

a + r ≥ 2j unstable if the rection forces are concurrent or parallel or truss have some
collapsing mechanism.

Example
Check whether the truss is stable or unstable.

Solution
As we can check from the Fig.

a = 19, r = 3 and j = 11

then by the above equation of we have

a + r = 2j, 19 + 3 = 2(11)

22=22

So, the truss is stable

 Principles of Structure Analysis
By Ing. Jose Diego Monroy

Example
Check whether the truss is stable or not

Solution
For externally stability we have the following
a = 12, r = 3 and j = 8

then by the above equation of we have

a + r = 2j, 12 + 3 = 2(8)

15< 16

So, the structure is internally unstable.

Solving a truss.
There are two method of solving a truss structure

• Method of joints
• Method of sections

Method of joints
In method of joints each joint is of the truss structure is analyzed. It states that if a truss is in
equilibrium then all of its joints should be in equilibrium.

We can use the equilibrium equations ∑ 𝐹𝑋 = 0, ∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0. For each joint to find out the
unknown reaction force or the forces in each member. 1st the free body diagram of each joint
should be made and we assume that the force in the truss member passes through their axis.
 Principles of Structure Analysis
By Ing. Jose Diego Monroy

Now see Fig 25(a) a truss is give and a load of 500 N is applied on the joint B of the truss form
the direction of the load we can see that the force in member BA is in tension and that in
member BC is in compression.

Figure 25

The Fig 25 (b) shows the free body diagram of the joint B where force in member AB is
given as FAB and force in member BC is shown with FBC.

Next, we can use the equilibrium equations, for writing the equation we will take assumption
that the force in right direction → and upward ↑ is +ve after that we can write the equilibrium
equation. ∑ 𝐹𝑋 = 0.

∑ 𝐹𝑋 = 500 − 𝐹𝐵𝐶 sin 45 = 0 ,

Which give FBC

500
𝐹𝐵𝐶 = = 587.61 N
sin 45

Now for FBA we have.

∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0.

∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 587.16 cos 45 − 𝐹𝐴𝐵 = 0.

𝐹𝐴𝐵 = 308 N.
 Principles of Structure Analysis
By Ing. Jose Diego Monroy

Example solve the truss as shown in Fig below.

Solve the truss shown in the figure below. Check whether the members are in tension
or are in compression.

Solution
Due to symmetry of the loading and reaction force only half of the truss should be analyzed.
We will draw free body diagram for each joint and then apply the equilibrium equations on
them

For joint A we have the following free body diagram.

From equilibrium equation we have

For Joint G.
 Principles of Structure Analysis
By Ing. Jose Diego Monroy

From equilibrium equation we have

For Joint B.

From equilibrium equation we have

Zero force members

Case 1.
Sometimes in trusses there are some members which do not carry and load and are called zero
force member. These members are introduced in the truss so that if the loading changes with
the time so they will support the truss.
 Principles of Structure Analysis
By Ing. Jose Diego Monroy

In the above Fig it can be seen that two members BC and CD the joint C are meeting at right
angle has no external load on it now if we make the free body diagram of the joint C then there
should be no load to satisfy the equilibrium condition.

Case 2
Now if we look at the Fig below A zero-force member could be occurred on the joint having
geometry like joint D. Here no external load acts on the joint.

If we apply equilibrium condition ∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0. on joint D then from free body diagram we can
see that to satisfy the equilibrium condition force on the member FD should be zero. Using this
result, FC is also a zero-force member, as indicated by the force analysis of joint F as shown
in Fig (c).
 Principles of Structure Analysis
By Ing. Jose Diego Monroy

In summary, then, if only two non-collinear members form a truss joint and no external load
or support reaction is applied to the joint, the members must be zero-force members, as in Case
1.

Also, if three members form a truss joint for which two of the members are collinear, the third
member is a zero-force member, provided no external force or support reaction is applied to
the joint, Case 2.

Example
Using the method of joint find the zero-force member in the given truss.

Now we will draw the free body diagrams of the joints and apply equilibrium equation on
them to find out the zero-force member.

For joint D
 Principles of Structure Analysis
By Ing. Jose Diego Monroy

For joint E.

For Joint H we have

For joint G.

The method of section

In this section we will talk about another method of solving trusses. This method is mostly
known as method of section. This method is utilized when a few members is needed to analyzed
instead of the whole truss. (Map, n.d.)
 Principles of Structure Analysis
By Ing. Jose Diego Monroy

In this method we pass an imaginary section through the truss that cuts the truss into two parts,
each part should be in equilibrium and equation of equilibrium should be applied on them.

It is a tough task to choose the right section from the whole truss the section should be chosen
such that it should not consist of more than three members with unknown forces in them.

Suppose we have a truss as shown in Fig 26 (a) and we want to find the force in CG member
so we take a section aa through the truss. The free body diagram of the sections are shown in
the Fig 26 (b) and Fig (c).

Figure 26

Note that the line of force action is specified with the geometry of the truss as the force is
acting along the axial direction of the member.

Example
Determine the force in members GJ and CO of the roof truss shown in the photo. The
dimensions and loadings are shown in Fig 27. State whether the members are in tension or
compression. The reactions at the supports have been calculated.
 Principles of Structure Analysis
By Ing. Jose Diego Monroy

Figure 27

Solution
For member CF the free body diagram of the section aa is shown as

For member CO we have

 Principles of Structure Analysis
By Ing. Jose Diego Monroy

References
Josh Parker, E. (2020, 4 19). structural Analysis of Beams. Retrieved from
Vitruvius Project:
https://www.thevitruviusproject.com/resources/structural-analysis-of-a-
beam/
Map, M. (n.d.). The Method of section. (Mechanics Map Open text book
project) Retrieved april 19, 2020, from
http://adaptivemap.ma.psu.edu/websites/5_structures/method_of_sections
/methodofsections.html
Mohammad. (2019, may 30). Equations of Equilibrium In Structural analysis.
Retrieved from Civil engineering diary:
http://www.mocivilengineering.com/2019/05/equations-of-equilibrium-
in-structural.html
R.C.HIBBELER. (2019). Dead Load. In R.C.HIBBELER, Structural Analysis
(pp. 11-13). United States of America.
work, D. B. (2019, june 18). truss. Retrieved from Design Building work:
https://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Truss

JDM SOCIAL MEDIA ACADEMY

 Principles of Structure Analysis
By Ing. Jose Diego Monroy

About Ing. Jose Diego Monroy (JDM):

Jose Diego has performed Civil Engineering, Design-Build, Flood Protection, and
Construction Management throughout the States of California, Arizona, New Mexico
and Texas in the United States of America. Since 1998, He has worked on a variety of
Land Development projects, including Healthcare, Higher Education, K-12 Education,
Master Planned Residential Subdivisions, Commercial, Industrial and Transportation.

Principal of structure
Analysis

José Diego Monroy, CFM

Civil Engineering Manager / Entrepreneur

JDM Group Company – CEO & President

JDM Academy – Founder

 Principles of Structure Analysis
By Ing. Jose Diego Monroy

Other e-Books available by JDM Academy

Math and Physical Science :

1. Introduction to Algebra
2. Introduction to Trigonometry
3. Introduction to Differential Calculus
4. Introduction to Integral Calculus
5. Introduction to Differential Equations
6. Introduction to Statistics and Probability
7. Introduction to Engineering Mathematics
8. Introduction to Physics
9. Introduction to Chemistry
10. Introduction to Biology

Civil Engineering :

1. Principles of Reinforced Concrete Design

2. Principles of Steel Design
3. Principles of Masonry and Timber design
4. Principles of Coastal engineering
5. Principles of Fluid Mechanics
6. Principles of Engineering Mechanics
7. Principles of Construction Management
8. Principles of Construction Estimating
9. Principles of Structural Analysis
10. Principles of Geotechnical Engineering
11. Principles of Soil mechanics and Geology
12. Principles of Highway and Transportation Engineering
13. Principles of GIS Mapping
14. Principles of Project Management (Primavera)
15. Principles of Environmental Engineering