A Self-Instructional Module on Mathematics in the

Modern World
2021 Edition

Dr. Glen M. Pesole

 1

A Self-Instructional Module on Mathematics in the

Modern World

Course Code
#XXXX-XXXX

Course Name/Title

GC3: Mathematics in the Modern World

Name of Faculty

Dr. Glen M. Pesole

Professor IV
 2

I. Module Overview/ Introduction

This module aims to provide you with a basic understanding of the applications of
mathematical knowledge, skills and attitudes on mathematics in the modern world on how
the nature of mathematics leading to appreciation of its practical, intellectual, social, and
aesthetic dimensions. It includes the study on how the perception of this leads to different
tools for understanding and dealing with various aspects of present day living such as
managing personal finances, making social choices, appreciating geometric designs,
understanding codes used in data transmissions and security, and dividing limited
resources fairly.

II. Desired Learning Outcomes

At the end of the semester, you must be able to:

Knowledge

1.Discuss and argue about the nature of mathematics, what it is, how it is expressed,
represented, and used.

2.Use different types of reasoning to justify statements and arguments made about
mathematics and mathematical concepts.

3.Discuss the language and symbols of mathematics.

Skills

4.Use a variety of statistical tools to process and manage numerical data.

5.Analyze codes and coding schemes used for identification, privacy, and security
purposes.

6.Use mathematics in other areas such finance, voting, health and medicine, business,
environment, arts and design, and recreation.

Attitudes

1.Appreciate the nature and uses of mathematics in everyday life.

2.Affirm honesty and integrity in the application of mathematics to various human

endeavors.
 3

III. Learning Contents, Tasks and Assessments

CHAPTER 1. MATHEMATICS AS A LAGUAGE

Why is it important to know about mathematics as language, personal finances

literacy and profitability, in the design and creative works, to aid in wise decision-making,
development of the digital communication system, and efficiently manage an operation?

According to the Italian astronomer Galileo Galilei, “[The universe] cannot be read
until we have learned the language and become familiar with the characters in which it is
written. It is written in mathematical language.” If mathematics is considered as a
language, then as all other ordinary languages, mathematics is independent of the other
and there is no need to rely on another language to be understood. (Silver, 2017)

Mathematics is a language that can be more carefully defined and more

profoundly abstracted than the ordinary thought and expression we use daily. It might be
considered as a language; however, mathematics differs from ordinary languages in an
important way – by the rules of manipulation. Once a statement is changed in a
mathematical form, it can be manipulated according to the rules. Every configuration of
the symbols will represent facts in harmony depending on the ones of the original
statement. (“Language of Mathematics,” 2020)

Some professionals widely use logic to communicate effectively, construct valid

arguments and make decisions. But computer programmers use logic too design
computer software, electrical engineers use logic to design circuit path, mathematicians
use logic to solve problems and construct mathematical proofs.

In this chapter, you will encounter several facets of logic. Specifically, you will use
logic to

1. construct propositional calculus and predicate calculus arguments.

2. determine the validity of arguments.
3. proved propositions, including direct proof, proof by contraposition, proof by
contradiction.
4. proved that two or more statements are equivalent.
5. prove conditional statements.
 4

6. determine valid conclusions based on given assumptions, and

7. analyze electronic circuits.

WHAT IS LOGIC.

Logic is a systematic way of thinking that allows us to deduce new information from
old information and to parse the meanings of sentences. You use logic informally
everyday life and certainly also in doing mathematics. For example, suppose you are
working with a certain circle, call it “Circle X,” and you have available particularly to pieces
of information.

1.Circle X has a radius equal to 3.

2.If any circle ha radius r, the its area is 𝜋𝑟2 square units

You have no trouble putting these two facts together to get:

3.Circle X has an area 9𝜋 square units.

Logical Statements

Definition: A statement is a sentence that is true or false but not both.

Example 1: 3+5=8 (true statement)

Today is Friday (false statement)

Note: x>y is not a statement

Example 2: Sequence of statements:

1.) All students take Math in the Modern World.

2.) Anyone who takes Math in the Modern World is a General Education
student.

3.) Therefore, All students are General Education.

If (1) and (2) were true,

 5

then logic would assure that (3) is true.

Example 3: Here are some examples of statements. They are all true.

If a circle has a radius r, the its area is 𝜋𝑟2 square units.

Every even number is divisible by 2.

The set {0,1,2} has three elements.

Some right triangles are isosceles

Example 4: Here are some additional statements. They are all false.

All right triangles are isosceles.

5=3

{0,1,2}

Example 5: Here we pair sentences or expressions that are not statements with
expressions that are statements.
NOT Statements: Statements:

Add 5 to both sides Adding 5 to both sides of x – 5 = 35 gives x

= 40.
Z 42

42 42 is not number.

What is the solution of ? The solution of .

Example 6: We will often use letters P, Q, R, and S to stand for specific statements.
When more letters are needed, we can use subscripts. Here are more statements,
designated with letters. You decide which of them are true and which are false.
 6

P: For every integer n > 1, the number 2𝑛 − 1 𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒.

Q: Every polynomial of degree n has at most n roots.

R: The function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥2 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑜𝑢𝑠.

𝑆 1: Ζ ⊆ ∅

𝑆2: {0, −1, −2} ∩ Ν ≠ ∅

Statements can contain variables. Here is an example.

P: If an integer x is a multiple of 6, then x is even.

This is a sentence that is true. (All multiples of 6 are even, so no matter which a multiple
of 6 the integer 6 happens to be, it is even). Since the sentence P is definitely true, it is a
statement. When a sentence or statement contains a variable such as x, we sometime
denote x as P(x) to indicate that it is saying something about x. Thus, the above
statement can be denoted as

P(x): If an integer x is a multiple of 6, then x is even.

A statement or sentence involving two variable’s might be denoted P(x ,y ) and so on.

It is quite possible for a sentence containing variables to not be a statement. Consider the

following example. Q(x): the integer x is even.

Is this a statement? Whether it is true or false depends on just which integer x is. It is true
if x = 4 and false if x =7, etc. But without any stipulations on the value of x it is impossible
to say whether Q(x) is a true or false. Since it is neither definitely true, nor definitely false.
Q(x) cannot be a statement. A sentence such as this, whose truth depends on the value
of one or more variables, is called open sentence.

The variables in an open sentence (or statement) can represent any type of entity, not
just numbers.
Here is an open sentence where the variables are function:

R (f, g): The function f is the derivative of the function g.

This open sentence is true if f(x) = 2x and g(x) =𝑥2. It is false if f(x)= 𝑥3 and g(x) = 𝑥2, etc.
We point out that a sentence such as R(f, g) (that involves variables) can be denoted
 7

either as R(f, g) or just R. We use the expression R(f, g) when we want to emphasize that
the sentence involves variables.

We will have more to say about open sentences later, but for now let’s return to
statements.
Statements are everywhere in mathematics. Any result or theorem that has been proved
true is a statement.
The quadratic formula and the Pythagorean theorem are both

statements: P: The solutions of the equation 𝑎𝑥2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0

𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑥 .
2𝑎

Q: If a right triangle has legs of lengths a and b and hypotenuse of length c, then
𝑐 2 = 𝑎 2 + 𝑏 2.

Here is a very famous statement of a French mathematician in seventeenth century,

Pierre Fermat. It is called Fermat’s last theorem.

R: For all numbers a, b, c, n ∈ 𝑁 with n > 2, it is the case that 𝑎𝑛 + 𝑏𝑛 ≠ 𝑐𝑛

Here is another statement famous enough to named. It was first posed on the eighteenth
century by the German mathematician Christian Goldbach, and thus it called Goldbach
conjecture.

S: Every even integer greater than 2 is a sum of two prime numbers.

_______________________________________________________________________
______________
Activity 1: Logical Statements
Name: GC3:
Mathematics in the Modern World
CNU ID No.: Date:
_______________________________________________________________________
_____
Directions. Decide whether or not the following are statements. In the case of a
statement, say if it is true or false, if possible.
1. Every real number is an even integer.
2. Every even integer is a real number.
 8

3. If x and y are real numbers and 5x =5y, the x=y.

4. Sets Z and N.
5. Sets Z and N are finite.
6. Some sets are finite.
7. The derivative of any polynomial of degree 5 is a polynomial of degree 6.
8. 𝑁 ∈ ℘(𝑁)
9. cos(x) = -1
10. (𝑅𝑥𝑁) ∩ (𝑁𝑥𝑅) = (𝑁𝑥𝑁)
End
__________________________
________________________________________________________ Logical
Connectives

For given statements p and q:

• Negation of p: ~p (not p)

• Conjunction of p and q: 𝑝∧𝑞 (𝑝 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑞)

• Disjunction of p and q: 𝑝∨𝑞 (𝑝 𝑜𝑟 𝑞)

Conjunction

The word “and” can be used to combine two statements to form a new statement.
Consider for example the following sentence.

𝑅1: 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 2 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 3 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑.

We recognize this as a true statement, based on our common-sense understanding of

the meaning of the word “and”. Notice that 𝑅1 is made up of two simple statements.

𝑃: 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 2 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛

𝑄: 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 3 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑
These are joined together by the word “and” to form the more complex statement 𝑅1. The
statement 𝑅1 asserts that 𝑃 and 𝑄 are both true. Since both 𝑃 and 𝑄 are in fact true, the
statement 𝑅1 is also true.
Had one or both of 𝑃 and 𝑄 been false, then 𝑅1 would be false. For instance, each of the
following is false.
𝑅2: 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 1 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 3 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑.
𝑅3: 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 2 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 4 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑.
 9

𝑅4: 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 3 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 2 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑

Truth table for conjunction

𝑎 𝑏 𝑎∧𝑏
Conjunction
T T T
Symbol: ∧ T F F
F T F
Interpretation: 𝑎 ∧ 𝑏 means “a and b” F F F
Vocabulary: a and b are the conjuncts in the compound
proposition 𝑎 ∧ 𝑏.
Notice here that all possible combinations of truth values for a and b are listed, along with
the corresponding value for the connective. The quick story on the and connective is that
both propositions need to be true for the conjunction to be true.

Disjunction

Statements can also be combined using the word “or”. Consider the following statements.
𝑆1: 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 2 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝒐𝒓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 3 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑.

𝑆2: 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 1 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝒐𝒓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 3 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑

𝑆3: 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 2 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝒐𝒓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 4 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑

𝑆4: 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 3 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝒐𝒓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 2 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑

In mathematics, the assertion "𝑃 or 𝑄” is always understood to mean that one or both of 𝑃
or 𝑄 is true. Thus statements 𝑆1, 𝑆2, 𝑆3 are all true, while 𝑆4 is false. The symbol ∨ is used
to stand for the word “or”. So, if 𝑃 and 𝑄 are statements, 𝑃 ∨ 𝑄 represents the statement
”𝑃 or 𝑄”. Here is the truth table.

Truth table for disjunction

Disjunction
𝑎 𝑏 𝑎∨𝑏
Symbol: ∨
T T T
Interpretation: 𝑎 ∨ 𝑏 means “a or b” T F T
Vocabulary: a and b are the conjuncts in the compound F T T
proposition 𝑎 ∨ 𝑏. F F F
 10

Summarizing, a disjunction is true whenever at least one of the

propositions is true.

Negation

To conclude this section, we mention another way of obtaining new statements from old
ones. Given any statement 𝑃, we can form the new statement “It is not true that 𝑃”. For
example, consider the following statement.
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 2 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛.
This statement is true. Now change it by inserting the words “It is not true that” at the
beginning:
It is not true that 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 2 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛.
This new statement is false.
For another example, starting with the false statement “2 ∈ ∅ .”, we get the true statement
“It is not true that 2 ∈ ∅. "
We use the symbol ~ to stand for the words “It is not true that,” so ~𝑷 means “It is
not true that 𝑷. " Unlike ∧ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∨, combine two statements, the symbol ~ just alters a
single statement. Thus, it truth table has just two lines, one for each possible truth value
of 𝑷.
Truth table for negation
𝑷 ~𝑷
The statement ~𝑷 is called the negation of 𝑷. The negation of a
T F
specific statement can be expressed in numerous ways. Consider F T 𝑃:
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 2 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛.
Here are several ways of expressing its negation.
~𝑷: 𝐼𝑡′𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 2 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛.
~𝑷: 𝐼𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 2 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛.
~𝑷: 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 2 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛
_______________________________________________________________________
______________
Activity 2: Logical Connectives
Name: GC3: Mathematics in the Modern
World
CNU ID No.: Date:
 11

_______________________________________________________________________
_____
Directions. Express each statement or open sentences in one of the form 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞, 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞, or
~𝑝. Be sure to also state exactly what statements 𝑝 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑞 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟.
1. The number 8 is both even and a power of 2.
2. The matrix A is not invertible.
3. 𝑥 ≠ 𝑦
4. 𝑥 < 𝑦
5. 𝑦 ≥ 𝑥
6. There is a quiz scheduled for Wednesday or Friday.
7. The number x equals to zero, but the number y does not.
8. At least one of the numbers x and y equals 0.
9. Happy families are al alike, but each unhappy family is unhappy In its own way.
10. A man should look for what is, and not for what he thinks should be.
End
_______________________________________________________________________
______________ Conditional Statements

There is yet another way to combine two statements. Suppose we have in mind a specific
integer a. Consider the following statement about a.
𝑅: 𝐼𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟 𝑎 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 6, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑎 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑏𝑦 2.
We immediately spot this as a true statement based on our knowledge of integers and
the meaning of the words “if” and “then.” If integer a is a multiple of 6, then a is even, so
therefore a is divisible by 2. Notice that 𝑅 is built up from two simpler statements.
𝑃: 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟 𝑎 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 6.
𝑄: 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟 𝑎 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑏𝑦 2.
𝑅: 𝐼𝑓 𝑃, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑄.

Truth table for implication/conditional

𝑎 b 𝑎→b
Implication T T T
Symbol → T F F
F T T
Interpretation: 𝑎 → b means “If a then b” (in the mathematical
F F T
sense). In
 12

the formula 𝑎 → b, the proposition a is referred to as the hypothesis (or sometimes as the
premise). The proposition b is referred to as the conclusion.
The truth values for implication seem pretty peculiar at first. However, the truth values do
correspond exactly to the way that mathematicians use this symbol. The only time an
implication is false is when the hypothesis is true and the conclusion is false. False may
imply false and false may imply true, but true can not imply false.
In mathematics, whenever we encounter the construction If P, then Q it means exactly
what the truth table for → expresses. But, of course there are other grammatical
constructions that also mean 𝑃 → Q. Here is a summary of the main
ones.
𝐼𝑓 𝑃, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 Q.
𝑄 𝑖𝑓 𝑃
𝑄 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑃.
𝑃 → Q. 𝑄, 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑃.
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑃, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 Q.
𝑃 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑠𝑢𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑄.
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑄, 𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑢𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑃.
________________________________________________
___________________________________
Activity 3: Conditional Statements
Name: GC3: Mathematics in the Modern
World
CNU ID No.: Date:
_______________________________________________________________________
______________
Directions. Without changing their meanings, convert each of the following sentences into
a sentence having the form “If P, then Q. "
1.A matrix is invertible provided that its determinant is not zero.
2.For a function to be continuous, its is sufficient that it is differentiable.
3.A function is rational if it is a polynomial.
4.Whenever a surface has only one side, it is non-orientable.
5.A series converges whenever it converges absolutely.
6.Whenever people agree with me I feel I must be wrong.
7.You fail only if you stop writing.
8.An integer is divisible by 8 only if it is divisible by 4.
End
 13

_______________________________________________________________________
__________

Biconditional Statements

It is important to understand that 𝑃 → Q is not the same as 𝑄 → P. To see why, suppose

that a is some integer and consider the statements.
(a is a multiple of 6) → (a divisible by 2),
(a divisible by 2), → (a is a multiple of 6).
The first statement asserts that if a is a multiple of 6 then a divisible by 2. This is clearly
true, for any multiple of 6 is even and therefore divisible by 2. The second statement
asserts that if a divisible by 2 then a is a multiple of 6. This is not necessarily true, for a = 4
(for instance) is divisible by 2, yet not multiple of 6. Therefore, the meaning of 𝑃 → Q and
𝑄 → P are in general quite different. This conditional statement 𝑄 → P is called the
converse of 𝑃 → Q, so a conditional statement and its converse express entirely different
things.
Not surprisingly, there are many ways of saying 𝑷 ↔ 𝐐,
𝑃 𝑖𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑓Q.
𝑃 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑟𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑢𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑄. 𝑃 ↔ Q, 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑃
𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑢𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑄.

Activity 4: Biconditional Statements

Name: GC3: Mathematics in the Modern
World
CNU ID No.: Date:
_______________________________________________________________________
______________
Directions. Without changing their meanings, convert each of the following sentences into
a sentence having the form 𝑃 𝑖𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑓Q. ."
1.For matrix A to be invertible, it is necessary and sufficient that det(A) ≠ 0.
2.If a function has a constant derivative then it is linear, and conversely.
3.If 𝑥𝑦 = 0 then 𝑥 = 0 or 𝑦 = 0, and conversely.
4.If 𝑎 ∈ 𝑄 then 5𝑎 ∈ 𝑄, and if 5𝑎 ∈ 𝑄 then 𝑎 ∈ 𝑄
End
 14

===================================================================
==============

Truth Tables, Logical Equivalence and Tautologies.

Truth Tables
We defined truth tables for the negation of the statements, the conjunction of two
statements and the disjunction of two statements, conditionals and biconditionals. This
truth tables are shown below.

Negation Conjunction Disjunction

𝑝 −𝑝
𝑝 𝑞 𝑝 𝑞 𝑝∨𝑞
T F
T T T T T
F T
T F T F T
F T F T T
F F F F F

Conditiona Biconditional

𝑝 𝑞 𝑝 𝑞 𝑷 ↔ 𝐐,
T T T T T
T F T F F
F T F T F
F F F F F

Example 7. Truth Tables Constructions.

a. Construct a truth table for ∽ (∽ 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) ∨ 𝑞.
b. Use the truth table from part a to determine the truth value of ∽ (∽ 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) ∨ 𝑞. Given
that
𝑝 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑞 𝑖𝑠 𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑒.
Solution:
a.Step.1. Start with the standard truth table form and then include a 𝑝 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛.
𝑝 𝑞 𝑝
T T F
T F F
F T T
F F T
 15

Step 2. Now, use the truth values from the 𝑝 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑞 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛𝑠 to
produce the truth values for 𝑞 as shown in the rightmost
column of the following table.

𝑝 𝑞 𝑝 𝑞
T T F T
T F F F
F T T T
F F T T
Step 3. Negate the truth values in the 𝑞 column to produce the following.

𝑝 𝑞 𝑝 𝑞
T T F T F
T F F F T
F T T T F
F F T T F

Step 4. As our last step, we form the disjunction of with q and place the
results in the rightmost column of the table

𝑝 𝑞 𝑝 𝑞 .
T T F T F T
T F F F T T
F T T T F T
F F T T F F

row 1
row 2 row 3
row 4

b.In row 2 of the above truth table, we see that when 𝑝 is true and 𝑞 is false the
statement
𝑞 in the rightmost column is true.
Compound statements that involve exactly three simple statements require a standard
truth table form of
𝟐𝟑 = 𝟖 𝑟𝑜𝑤𝑠 , 𝑎𝑠 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑏𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑤.

Example 8. Truth Tables Constructions.

a. Construct a truth table for
 16

b. Use the truth table from part a to(𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ∧ ( ∽ 𝑟 ∨ 𝑞). determine the truth value of (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞)
∧
( ∽ 𝑟 ∨ 𝑞). Given that 𝑝 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑞 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑒.
Solution:
a. Using the procedures developed in Example 7, we can produce the truth
table for (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ∧ ( ∽ 𝑟 ∨ 𝑞).

𝑝 𝑞 𝑟 𝑝∧𝑞 ∽𝑟 ∽𝑟∨𝑞 (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ∧ ( ∽ 𝑟 ∨ 𝑞).

T T T T F T T
row 1
T T F T T T T row 2
T F T F F F F row 3
T F F F T T F row 4
F T T F F T F row 5
F T F F T T F row 6
F F T F F F F row 7
row 8
F F F F T T F

b. In row 2 of the above truth table, we see that (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ∧ ( ∽ 𝑟 ∨ 𝑞) 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑝 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒, 𝑞 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑒 .

Logical Statement Equivalences

Two statements are equivalent if they both have the same truth value for all possible truth
values of their simple statement. Equivalent statement has identical truth values in the
final columns of their truth tables. The notation (𝑝 ≡ 𝑞) is used to indicate that the
statements 𝑝 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑞 are equivalent.

Example 8. Verify that two statements are equivalent.

Show that ∽ ( 𝑝 ∨∽ 𝑞) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∽ 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠.

Solution:
Construct two truth tables and compare the results. The truth table below show that that
∽ ( 𝑝 ∨∽ 𝑞) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∽ 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 have the same truth values for all possible truth values of their
simple statement.
Thus, the statements are equivalent.
 17

𝑝 𝑞 ∽ (𝑝 ∨ 𝑝 𝑞) 𝑞
∽
T T F T T T T F F T
T F F T T T F F F F
F T T F F F T T T T
F F F F T F F T F F
4 1 3 1 3 2

Tautologies and Contradictions

• Tautology is a statement form which is true for all values of statement variables.

• Contradiction is a statement form which is false for all values of statement

variables.

• Contingency is a compound proposition which is neither a tautology nor a

contradiction.

Example 9. Show that 𝑝 ∨∽ 𝑝 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑡𝑎𝑢𝑡𝑜𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑦.

Solution: We’ll check that the main connective column in the truth table for 𝑝 ∨∽ 𝑝
contains only Ts.
𝑝 ∽𝑝 𝑝 ∨ ∽𝑝
T F T T F
F T F T T

Example 10. Show that 𝑝 ∧∽ 𝑝 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛.

Solution: We’ll check that the main connective column in the truth table for 𝑝 ∧∽ 𝑝
contains only Fs.

𝑝 ∽𝑝 𝑝 ∧ ∽𝑝
T F T F F
F T F F T

Example 11. Show that p → q is a contingency.

Solution: We’ll check that the main connective column in the truth table for 𝑝 → 𝑞 contains
at least one T and at least one F.
𝑝 𝑞 𝑝 → 𝑞
T T T T T
 18

T F T F F
F T F T T
F F F T F
===================================================================
==============
Activity 5: Truth Tables, Equivalent Statements, Tautology
Name: GC3: Mathematics in the Modern
World
CNU ID No.: Date:
_______________________________________________________________________
______________
Do as directed.
1.Construct a truth table for (𝑝 ∧∽ 𝑞) ∨ ( ∽ 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞)

2.Construct a truth table for (∽ 𝑝 ∧ 𝑟) ∨ ( 𝑞 ∧∽ 𝑟)

3.Construct a truth table for (𝑝 ∨ (𝑞 → r)).

4.Show that 𝑝 → (𝑞 → 𝑝 ) is a tautology.
5.Show that 𝑝 ↔ (𝑝 →∽ 𝑝) is a contradiction.

6.Show that 𝑝 ∨ (𝑞 → (s ∧∽∽ 𝑡)) 𝑖𝑠 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑝 ∨ (𝑞 → (s ∧ 𝑡))

End
_______________________________________________________________________
______________

Contrapositives and Converses

Mathematicians are often concerned with conditional statements. Given an implication,

there are three related formulas which occur so often that they have special names.
(Contrapositives, Inverses and Converses)

Definition. The contrapositive of the conditional P → Q is ¬Q → ¬P.

Definition. The converse of the conditional P → Q is Q → P.
Definition. The inverse of the conditional P → Q is ¬ P → ¬ Q.
The above definitions show the following:
 19

• The contrapositive of P → Q is formed by negating both the antecedent P

and consequent Q and interchanging these negated statements.
• The converse of P → Q is formed by interchanging the antecedent P with
the consequent Q.
• The inverse of P → Q is formed by negating the antecedent P and negating
the consequent Q.

Example 12. Write the contrapositive and

converse of “If I get the job, then I will
rent the apartment.” Solution:
Contrapositive: If I do not rent the apartment. then I did not get the job.
Converse: If I rent the apartment then I get the job.
Inverse: If I do not get the job, then will not rent the apartment.
Example 13. Write the contrapositive and converse of “If 0 1, then 4 is a
prime.” Contrapositive: If 4 is not a prime, then 0 = 1.
Converse: If 4 is prime then 0 1.
Inverse: If 0 = 1, then 4 is a prime.
Truth Table for Conditional and Related Statements

Conditiona Converse Inverse Contrapositive

l
p q p→ q q→ p ¬p→¬q ¬q→¬p
T T T T T T
T F F T T F
F T T F F T
F F T T T T

Analysis of Arguments
We see examples of informal arguments every day. In newspaper editorials, court cases,
and advertising, people give lists of reasons and try to convince us of a conclusion.
Here's a formal version of the process.
An argument is a list of premises which taken all together supposedly imply a conclusion.
For example,
P1
P2
P3
…
 20

Pn
----------------------------------
Pn+1 is an argument.

We say that an argument (like the one above) is logically valid if and only if (P1 ^ P2^ P3
^ … ^ P n) →
Pn+1 is a tautology. Note that the conclusion of a logically valid argument is not
necessarily true. Logical validity ensures only that if all the premises are true, then the
conclusion is true.
Example 14. Show that the following argument is logically valid.
p
p→ q
__________________
Q
Solution: We build the truth table to check.

p ∧ (p → q) → q
T T T T T T T
T F T F F T F
F F F T T T T
F F F T F T F
It is a tautology; the argument is logically valid. (Modus Ponens)

_______________________________________________________________________
______________
Activity 6: Conditional and Related Statements and Analysis of Arguments
Name: GC3: Mathematics in the Modern World
CNU ID No.: Date:
_______________________________________________________________________
______________

Do as directed.

A.Write the contrapositives of the following.

 21

1. (p ∧ 𝑟) → (s ∨ q).
2. If Waldo likes trout, then Elmer is a sailor
3. If 0 ≠1, then 4 is a prime.

B.Show that a → a is logically equivalent to its converse.

-----------
r
3. Hypothetical Syllogism:
p→q
q→ r
-----------
p→r Commented [g1]:
4. Disjunctive Syllogism:
s∨t
C.Show that they are all logically valid. (using truth table)
1. Modus Tollens: a→b b ----------- a

2. Constructive Dilemma:
p→
r q
→ r
p∨q
∽s
-------
---- t

D.Is the following argument logically valid?

The chancellor knows.
If the chancellor doesn't know, then the provost knows.
If the provost knows, then we're in trouble.
------------------------------------------------------------------
---------- We're in trouble.
End
===================================================================
==============
 22

Rules of Inference:

Consider the following

propositions: p: It’s
sunny this afternoon. q:
It’s colder than
yesterday. r: We will go
swimming. s: We will
take a canoe trip.
t: We will be home by sunset.

Example 15. Determine if the following argument is valid.

𝒑𝟏: “It’s not sunny and it’s colder than yesterday.”
𝑞

𝒑𝟐: “We will go swimming only if it’s sunny.” 𝑟→𝑝

𝒑𝟑: “If we don’t go swimming, then we will take a canoe trip.” 𝑟→𝑠

𝒑𝟒: “If we will take a canoe trip, then we will be home by sunset.” 𝑠→𝑡
 23

_______________________________________________________________
_____________
Conclusion: “We will be home by sunset.”
t Solution:

Statements Reasons
1. ∽𝑝∧𝑞 1. Premise
2. ∽𝑝 2. Simplification rule using (1)
3. 𝑟→𝑝 3. Premise
4. ∽𝑟 4. Modus Tollens (MT) using (2,3)
5. ∽𝑟→𝑠 5. Premise
6. 𝑠 6. Modus Ponens (MP) using (4,5)
7. 𝑠→𝑡 7. Premise
8. t 8. Modus Ponens (MP) using (6,7)
This is a valid argument showing that from the given premise, we can prove the
conclusion t.

Example 16. Prove that the following argument is valid.

Suppose 𝑝 → 𝑞; ∽ 𝑝 → 𝑟; 𝑞 → s;Prove that ∽ 𝑟 → s.

Solution:

Statements Reasons
1. 𝑝→𝑞 1. Premise

2. ∽ 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 2. Logically equivalent to (1)

3. ∽ 𝑝 → 𝑟 3. Premise

4. 𝑝∨𝑞 4. Logically equivalent to (2)

5. 𝑞∨𝑟 5. Apply resolution rule (2,4)

6. ∽𝑟→𝑞 6. Logically equivalent to (5)

7. ; 𝑞 → s 7. Premise

8. ∽𝑟→s 8. Apply Hypothetical Syllogism (HS)

(6,7)
This is a valid argument showing that from the given

premise, we can prove the conclusion ∽ 𝑟 → s.

 24

Inference for Quantified Statements

Example 17. Construct an outline of Inference for Quantified Statements.

Premises
1.“A student in this class has not read the book.”

2.“Everyone in this class passed the first examination.” Conclusion:

“Someone who passed the first examination has not read a book.”

Solution:
• C(x): “x is in this class”
• B(x): “x has read the book”
• P(x): “x has passed the first examination”
Then, Premises:
∃𝒙(𝑪(𝒙) ∧∽ 𝐵(𝑥)).
∀𝒙(𝑪(𝒙) → 𝑃(𝑥)).
Conclusion: ∃𝒙(𝑪(𝒙) ∧∽ 𝐵(𝑥)).

Example 18: Suppose:

• all-natural numbers are integers;
• there exists a natural number;
Prove that there exists an integer.
We can formalize this problem as follows. (Let the universe of discourse be all real
numbers)
• N(x): x is a natural number.
• I(x): x is an integer.
 25

Premises: ∀𝒙(𝑵(𝒙) → 𝐼(𝑥)); : ∃𝒙(𝑵(𝒙))

Need to prove: ∃𝒙(𝑰(𝒙))
Proofs:
Statements Reasons
1 ∃𝒙(𝑵(𝒙)) 1. Premise
2. 𝑵(𝒄) 2. Apply existential instantiation rule to
(1)
3. ∀𝒙(𝑵(𝒙) → 𝐼(𝑥)) 3. Premise
4. (𝑵(𝒄) → 𝐼(𝑐)) 4. Apply universal instantiation rule to
(3)
5. Apply Modus Ponens (MP) to (2,4)
6. Apply existential generalization rule
to (5)

===================================================================
==============

Activity 7: Rules of Inference and Inference for Quantified Statements

Name: GC3: Mathematics in the Modern World
CNU ID No.: Date:
_______________________________________________________________________
______________
Do as directed.
Problem 1.
Solving a murder case:

The following is a murder case solved by Sherlock Holmes, in “A Study in

Scarlet” (a detective mystery novel by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle).
Quote from “A Study in Scarlet”
“And now we come to the great question as to the reason why. Robbery has not
been the object of the murder, for nothing was taken. Was it politics, then, or was
it a woman? That is the question which confronted me. I was inclined from the first
to the latter supposition. Political assassins are only
 26

too glad to do their work and fly. This murder had, on the contrary, been done
most deliberately, and the perpetrator has left his tracks all over the room,
showing he had been there all the time.”
From these, Sherlock Holmes concluded: “It was a woman”.
Solving a murder case:

Known premises:
• If it’s a robbery, something would have been taken.
• Nothing was taken.
• If it’s not a robbery, it must be politics or a woman.
• It it’s politics, the assassin would have left immediately.
• If assassin left tracks all over the room, he cannot have left immediately.
• The assassin left tracks all over the room.
Show the conclusion: “It was a woman”.

Problem 2. Use rules of inference to show whether the following argument is valid
or invalid.

All college courses are fun.

This course is a college course

________________________________
Therefore: This course is fun
End
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------
IV. LEARNING ENHANCEMENT/EXTENSION
Think of situations where you have applied or plan to apply the concepts discussed in any
of the lessons in any form of your choice. You may use your creativity or ingenuity in
addressing this activity.
_______________________________________________________________________
______________
_______________________________________________________________________
______________
_______________________________________________________________________
______________
 27

_______________________________________________________________________
______________
_______________________________________________________________________
______________
_______________________________________________________________________
______________
_______________________________________________________________________
______________
______________________________________________________________

V REFERENCES
Hirst, Jeffry L. and Hirst, Holly P. (2015) A Primer for Logic and Proof 2015 Edition
Cengage Learning Asia Pte Ltd (2018) Philippine Edition Mathematics in Modern World.
REX Bookstore, Manila, Philippines
Tannenbaum, P. (2018). Excursions in Modern Mathematics, Pearson Education, Inc.
Hammack, Richard (2013) Book of Proof. Department of Mathematics and Applied
Mathematics, Virginia
Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia
Arguments and Proofs. https://www.youtube.com/results?
search_query=arguments+and+Proofs
Rules of Inference. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=J1uKpC1qalQ
Validity of Arguments. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iX-Xe8xV6bA
Mathematics in the Modern World https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ngUotonNTNY

VI MODULE EVALUATION
Kindly make use of this portion to express freely how you feel about this module as a
basis for its improvement and future revision.
_______________________________________________________________________
______________
_______________________________________________________________________
______________
_______________________________________________________________________
______________
_______________________________________________________________________
______________
_______________________________________________________________________
______________
 28

_______________________________________________________________________
______________
______________________________________________________