MEASUREMENT

Measurements play a very important role in the investigation of physics. It

is defined as the act of finding the size of physical quantity such as height,
length, width, time, mass, volume, density, force, speed and acceleration and so
on. We use measurement daily such as the food we eat, the clothes we wear, the
work we do and the sports we play. Values of an object are made by quantifying
into specific units. Measurements act as labels which make those values more
useful in terms of details. For example, instead of saying that someone is tall, we
can specify its measurement and say that the individual is 2 meters tall. Accurate
measurement and observation is important to the development of any scientific
investigation. The traditional way of measurement does not give an accurate
value so scientists all over the world come up with a standard measurement we
call it the International System of Units (SI). In this unit we will discuss SI unit and
its conversion. But how sure are we, that, what we measure is accurate? When
we measure, there is some degree of error or uncertainty. A measurement is only
an estimation of the true value. A factor that causes this error in measurement is
also discussed in this unit. You will also learn here how to measure length, mass,
and time as an example of a physical quantity. Different physical quantities have
different SI units. For example, the SI units of length are meter (m) time is
seconds(s) and so on. In many experiments, the aim is to find a relationship
between two or more variables that are measured. Thus, dimensional analysis is
covered in the module that will bring ideas to the student on how equations are
built. Also, relationship can be done by drawing a graph of the values of one
variable against the values of another variable and then comparing the shape of
the graph against known graphs to determine the form of the relationship is
likewise discussed here.

Learning Objectives

After going through this module, you are expected to:

 appreciate the importance of measurement in describing quantities.

  define and explain measurement and quantity.

 name the seven quantities classified as basic or fundamental quantities.

 give the other quantities that can be derived from the basic quantities.

 identify the units and symbols of the basic and derived quantities.

 recognize the metric system as the system of measurement that is best

suited to scientific purposes.

 identify the SI unit used for measuring the different quantities.

 convert one metric unit to another.

 define length and name some instruments used to measure it.

 identify some quantities that are derived from the units of length.

Quantities and Units

Quantity is a definite or indefinite amount of a specified magnitude or size.

It is also related to how much there are of something that we can quantify known
as physical quantity. A physical quantity is measured by defining its units of
measurement or using a measuring instrument. Many investigations in physics
will involve taking measurements of quantities and calculating some results. For
measurement and calculations to be meaningful, units must be introduced. A
quantity without units is of no use to anyone. Measurement involves two parts:
the numerical value representing the size and the units of that measurement.
Investigations in physics typically involve four important principles:

• Experimentation To test whether a hypothesis will agree with actual

experiences, experiments must be performed. Scientists often perform many
experiments to test the reliability of their hypothesis. They may have to repeat
and sometimes modify experiments until they are convinced that their proposed
hypothesis is correct.

• Observation We observe things and events every day, and we base

our actions on these observations. We become skilled at associating different
observations and using our past observations to predict future events. For
example, when crossing the road, we observe the position of cars, trucks, and so
on. We estimate their speed, and then judge whether it is safe to cross the road.

• Description Shows the result of how the experiment and the data is
processed.

 Measuring The measurement of any observable event is made in terms

of units of some agreed standard. The unit of length maybe feet, inches, meters,
centimeters or millimeters. For example, we can talk of the length of a pencil as
being 0.33 feet, 4.0 inches, or 10.0 centimeters long. To specify length as 10.0
without giving the units is confusing and meaningless.

Fundamental and Derived Units

A physical quantity is anything that can be measured and are expressed

in terms of a numerical value or magnitude and a unit. Examples are area and
the unit is square meter (m 2), and speed which is expressed in a unit meter per
second (m/s). Non-physical quantities (qualitative) such as love, hate, fear and
hope cannot be measured. Each of the quantities used by scientists and non-
scientists alike is measured in a unit. The table below lists the seven base units
of the SI system.

Base Quantity Name of Unit Symbol of Unit

Length meter M
Mass kilogram Kg
Time second S
Electric Current Ampere A
Temperature Kelvin K
 Amount of Substance mole Mol
Luminous Intensity candela Cd

Some symbols given above are written in capital letter because it

represents the surname of the scientists who discovered the unit. Using the base
units, it is possible to derive a system of units which can be used to measure
other quantities. Derived quantities are formed from basic quantities. Derived
units are made by a combination of two or more of the fundamental units. A
simple example is the unit of area, the square meter (m 2). Other examples are
given in the table below.

Derived Quantity Unit Symbol

Area square meter m2
Volume cubic meter m3
Frequency Hertz Hz
Density kilogram per cubic meter kg/m3
Force Newton N
Work, energy Joule J
Power Watt W
Velocity (speed) Meter per second m/s

Some derived quantities have been given specific names, such as

Newton, Watt and Joule. This combination of basic unit can be replaced by the
Newton (N), Joule (J), and Watts (W).

1 Newton = 1-kilogram meter per second squared (1N =1kgms-2),

1 Joule = 1 Newton meter (1J= 1Nm),

1 Watt = 1 Joule per second (1W=1J/s).

International System of Units

 An internationally agreed system of units is necessary to standardize
measurement of these quantities, and such a system is now in general use. In
1960 the international authority on units agreed to adopt the Systeme
Internationale d’Unites, or the International System of Units. The abbreviation of
which is SI in all languages. The SI is a set of metric units. It is a decimal system
in which units are divided or multiplied by 10 to give smaller or larger units.

Examples

1. It would be difficult to give the length of a rugby field in millimeters.

The length of the rugby field is 100 000mm which is equivalent to 100m. Giving it
in a more appropriate unit that is meters, would give people a far better idea of
the actual length of the field.

2. It would be equally inappropriate to give the thickness of a human

hair in kilometers. The thickness of a human hair is 0.000 000 1km which is equal
to 1 millimeter giving it in a more appropriate unit that is millimeters, would give
people a far better idea of the actual thickness of the hair. Parts of words like
kilo- and milli- that are used above are called prefixes. In science, we use
prefixes like these to represent multiples or sub-multiples of a more basic unit.
The table below is presented for easy understanding.

Prefix Value Symbol

mega 1 000 000 x106 M

Kilo 1 000 x103 k
hecto 1 00 x106 h
centi 0.01 x102 c
milli 0.001 x10-3 m
micro 0.000001 x10-6 μ
-9
nano 0.000000001 x10 n

Examples of using prefixes with units:

Kilo- means 1000 times of a meter

 Therefore 1 kilometer is 1000 times a meter

Milli- means a one thousandth of a meter

Therefore 1 millimeter is 0.001 meter

Significant Figures and Scientific Notation

Significant figures (sig. figs) are those digits in a number or

measurement that are not being used and considered as place-values. Zeroes
are not significant if they are used only to indicate the position of the decimal
point. For example, if the length of a computer desk, as measured by a ruler
graduated in millimeters, was found to be 1564.3mm, the measurement has five
significant figures.

Here are the Rules for Significant Figures which will help you to
understand them better.

a. All non-zero figures are significant: 25.4 has three significant figures.

b. All zeros between non-zeros are significant: 30.08 has four significant figures.

c. Zeros to the right of a non-zero figure but to the left of the decimal point are not
significant (unless specified with a bar): 109 000 has three significant figures.

d. Zeros to the right of a decimal point but to the left of a non-zero figure are not
significant: 0.050, only the last zero is significant; the first zero merely calls
attention to the decimal point.

e. Zeros to the right of the decimal point and following a non-zero figure are
significant: 304.50 have five significant figures.

Two significant figures Three significant Four significant

figures figures
21000 3250000 42210000
0.0012 469 1786
 1.0 0.00843 508.6
0.18 0.234 0.6780
6.7 65.0 5.060

When performing calculations, we must consider the significant

figures. When adding, subtracting, multiplying or dividing numbers, the answer
should contain only as many significant figures as the number involved in the
operation that has the least number of significant figures.

For example

1) 264.68 – 2.4711 = 262.2089 = 262.21. In this operation, the least number of

significant figures in the operation is five so the final answer must have five
significant figures.

2) 2.345 x 3.56 = 8.3482= 8.35. The final answer has three significant figures
because the least number of significant figures in the operation is three that is
3.56.

3) The following values are part of a set of experimental data: 618.5 cm and
1450.6mm. Write the sum of these values correct to the right number of
significant figures.

Solution

First, we need to convert 1450.6mm to centimeters. Take note that

you cannot add the two values if they are of different units, so you must convert.
Remember your previous topic on conversion that is, 1cm= 10mm. So, to convert
smaller to a bigger value, we divide 1450.6/10 = 145.06cm. Now that they are of
the same unit, you can now add them. 618.5cm + 145.06cm = 763.56cm the
least number of significant figures in the original values is 4, so write the answer
to this significance. The sum is written as 763.6cm.

What is scientific notation?

 Scientific notation or standard index notation is a way of writing any
number between 1 and 10 multiplied by an appropriate power of 10 notations. It
is a shorthand method of writing numbers that are very large or very small. Let us
take for example 1 and 2

1. The distance from the earth to the nearest star is about 39 900 000 000 000
000m. In scientific notation it is written as 3.99 x 1016m. The exponent tells you
how many times to multiply by 10.

2. The mass of hydrogen atom is 0.000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 001 7
kilograms. In scientific notation it is written as 1.7 x 10-27kg. In this case, the
exponent tells you how many times to divide by 10. Scientific notation involves
writing the number in the form M x 10n, where M is a number between 1 and 10
but not 10, and n is an integer.

NOTE: Integer is a positive and negative whole number. Given below are
examples on how to change numbers into scientific notation:

1. 24 700 To change this number into scientific notation, first put the decimal
point to the right of the last digit. Now count how many numbers to move the
decimal point to a position where the number is now between 1 and 10. You had
to move the decimal point 4 places to the left. The result is 2, 4700. Now write
the number in scientific notation as: 2.47 x 104, where m = 2.47 N = 4 shows that
the decimal point was moved 4 places to the left.

2. 0.0032 To change this number into scientific notation, from where the decimal
point is, count how many numbers you are to move the decimal point to a
position where the number is now between 1 and 10; You must move the
decimal point three places to the right, as 3 and 2 are in between 1 to 10. Now
write the number in scientific notation as 3.2 x 10-3. The -3 shows that the
decimal points must move three places to the right.

3. Write the following numbers in scientific notation.

(a) 3270 = 3.27 x 103

(b) 0.128 = 1.28 x 10-1

(c) 654 000 = 6.54 x 105

Converting from one unit to another

In science, it is important that the standard unit is used. You must be

able to convert from one form of a unit to another.

Example:

Change 5m into centimeters. You know that there are 100cm in a

meter and, therefore, to change meters into centimeters you must multiply by 100
that is:

5m= 5 x 100cm = 500cm

Steps

1. First decide if you are converting from a bigger to a smaller unit or if you are
converting from a smaller to a larger unit.

Case I – Bigger to Smaller If you are converting from a bigger to a smaller unit
(example mega to kilo), then you multiply.

Case II – Smaller to Bigger If you are converting from a smaller to a bigger unit
(example micro to milli), then you divide.

2. Then find the factor that you are going to multiply or divide by to make the
conversion. If you are moving one step up or down the chart, then the factor is
1000 (or 103). If you are moving two steps up or down the chart, then the factor
is 1000 000 (or 106) etc. 3. Then multiply or divide your number by the
appropriate factor. Study the chart on the next page to help you convert units.

Measurement of Mass

Mass is the amount of matter in an object. It is measured in units

called grams (g), kilograms (kg) and tonnes (t). There are 1000 grams in a
kilogram and 1000 kilograms in a tonne. Objects with a very small mass are
measured in milligrams (mg) or grams (g). Heavier objects are weighed using
kilograms or tonnes.

See table below.

Mass Equivalent Conversion to Conversion to

smaller bigger
1 gram (g) =1000 milligrams X 1000 to get mg
(mg)
1 kilogram (kg) =1000 grams (g) + 1000 to get kg
1 tonnes =1000 kilograms X 1000 kg to get t
(kg)

Example

(a) Change 220g to kg

Solution
You will be converting a smaller unit to a bigger unit, so you divide. So, in 1kg
there are 1000g.
1 kg
Therefore, 220g =
1000 g

220 g 1 kg
x cancel the unit g what is left is kg
1 1000 g

220 1 kg
x
1 1000

220 kg
1000

0.22 kg
Weight
Weight (W) is a property of mass. It is a force of gravity which pulls a mass to
the center of the earth. In a region of gravitational field, this is proportional to
the mass. Weight is calculated using the formula:

Weight = mass x force of gravity

= mg (On earth g = 9.8N/kg or 10N/kg)
Example
What is the weight of a boy whose mass is 65kg? (Use g=
10N/kg)

Solution:
Given
m = 65kg and g = 10N/kg
Therefore, W = mg = 65kg x 10N W = 650N
Weight varies with location, but mass is always the same. The gravitational
field strength of Earth is 9.8m/s2 or 9.8N/kg or 10N/kg. Hence, the weight of
20kg rice bag is

20 kg 10 N
= x
1 1 kg

= 200N

The gravitational field strength on moon is 1.6N/kg. Hence the weight of 20kg
rice bag will be

20 kg 1.6 N
= x
1 1 kg

= 32N
 A 20kg bag of rice here on Earth, whose gravitational pull is greater than the
moon will be difficult to carry, but if you are going to carry that same amount
of 20kg bag of rice on the moon, it would be lighter. The mass will not change
but the weight will change due to the moon’s gravity being less than that of
the Earth.

Mass Weight
-is a measure of the amount of -is related to the gravitational force
matter in an object on an object
-can be measured by comparing can be measured by measuring
with standard masses forces
-is the same in all places varies from place to place
-is measured in kilograms in the SI -is measured in newton
system
is a scalar quantity -is a vector quantity

Density
The definition of density, which is scientifically referred to as the
volumetric mass density, is the amount of a substance by mass per unit volume.
It's understood to be the amount of a substance in a fixed measurement, which
can be measured in a variety of different units.
The density of a substance changes depending on the temperature and
pressure. Solids and liquids don't usually vary that much in their density
depending on those factors; the change in density based on temperature or
pressure can be dramatically different for gases since increasing the pressure on
an object decreases its volume, increasing its density. The correlation is also true
that an increase in the temperature of a substance usually decreases its density
by increasing its volume.

Density is a measure of relative compactness, or how heavy an object is

relative to its size. Density is defined as mass, m, in a given unit volume, V.
ρ = m/V
ρ = density, kg/m3, or g/(cm)3
m = mass, in kg or g
V = volume, in m3 or (cm)3

Example

1) You are packing for a trip to Mars. You are given a cubical box to pack that is
1.71 m on a side. Due to fuel and space limitations, the final density, ρ, of your
box must be no more than 2 kg/m3. What is the largest mass you can pack?

Answer: 

The volume, V = (1.71 m x 1.71 m x 1.71 m) = 5.000 m 3 for cubical box.

The allowed density is ρ = 2 kg/m3. Use the density formula to find mass.
ρ = m/V
m = ρV
m = (2kg/m3) x (5.000 m3)
m = 10 kg
The maximum allowed mass, m, is 10 kilos.

2) If you find a shiny golden rock with a volume of 0.008 (cm) 3 and a mass of
0.04 g, is it gold or fool's gold? The density of gold is 19.3 g/(cm) 3 and the density
of fool's gold (iron pyrite) is ~5.0 g/(cm)3.

Answer: 

For gold, ρ = 19.3 g/(cm)3. The V = 0.008 (cm)3 for this rock. Use the
density equation to solve for m, mass of a gold rock. Use the same equation to
solve for the mass of a fool's gold rock.
ρ = m/V
m = ρV
m = 19.3 g/(cm)3 x (0.008 (cm)3 = 0.1544 g for gold
m = 5.0 g/(cm)3 x 0.008 (cm)3 = 0.04 g for fool's gold.
The mass of the rock you found is identical with the mass of fool's gold, so you
won't be 'rich' today.
The amount of 3-dimensional space something takes up. 
Imagine how much water could be in it.

Also called Capacity.

In this example the volume is 10 × 4 × 5 = 200 units 3

Units of volume include:

• Metric: cubic centimeters (cm3), cubic meters (m3), liters

• US Standard: fluid ounce, cubic inch, cubic foot, pints, gallons

Volume of a Cube

A cube is a three-dimensional figure with six matching square sides. The figure
below shows a cube with sides s.

If s is the length of one of its sides, then the volume of the cube is s × s × s

Volume of the cube = s3

How to find the volume of a cube?

The formula for the volume of a cube is s × s × s = s3, where s is the length of a
side of the cube.

Example:
Find the volume of a cube with sides = 4cm
Volume of a Rectangular Solid

A rectangular solid is also called a rectangular prism or a cuboid.

In a rectangular solid, the length, width and height may be of different lengths.

The volume of the above rectangular solid would be the product of the length,
width and height that is

Volume of rectangular solid = lwh

How to find the volume of a rectangular prism or cuboid?

The formula for the volume of a cuboid is l × w × h = lwh, where l is the

length, w is the width and h is the height of the rectangular prism. This video will
give two examples of finding the volume of a rectangular prism.

Examples:

1. Find the volume of a rectangular prism with sides 25 feet, 10 feet and 14 feet.
2. Find the volume of a rectangular prism with sides 5.4 inches, 7.5 inches and
18.3 inches.
Volume of a Prism

A prism is a solid that has two parallel faces which are congruent
polygons at both ends. These faces form the bases of the prism. The other faces
are in the shape of rectangles. They are called lateral faces. A prism is named
after the shape of its base.
When we cut a prism parallel to the base, we get a cross section of a prism.
The cross section has the same size and shape as the base.

The volume of a right prism is given by the formula: 

Volume of prism = Area of base × length

V = Al

where A is the area of the base and l is the length or height of the prism.
How to find the volume of a triangular prism?

This video shows how to determine which is the base and the height of the
triangular prism.

Examples:

Find the value of a triangular prism, use the following formula:

Volume = (area of base) × height

Volume of a Cylinder

A cylinder is a solid that has two parallel faces which are congruent circles.
These faces form the bases of the cylinder. The cylinder has one curved
surface. The height of the cylinder is the perpendicular distance between the
two bases.

The volume of a cylinder is given by the formula:

Volume = Area of base × height

V = π r2h
 where r = radius of cylinder and h is the height or length of cylinder

Volume of a hollow cylinder

Sometimes you may be required to calculate the volume of a hollow cylinder or

tube.

Volume of hollow cylinder

where R is the radius of the outer surface and r is the radius of the inner
surface.

Volume of a Cone

A cone is a solid with a circular base. It has a curved surface which tapers (i.e.

decreases in size) to a vertex at the top. The height of the cone is the
perpendicular distance from the base to the vertex.
The volume of a cone is given by the formula:

Volume of cone =   Area of base × height

V =   where r is the radius of the base and h is the height of the prism.

Volume of a Pyramid

A pyramid is a solid with a polygonal base and several triangular lateral

faces. The lateral faces meet at a common vertex. The height of the pyramid is
the perpendicular distance from the base to the vertex. The pyramid is named
after the shape of its base. For example, a rectangular pyramid or a triangular
pyramid.

The volume of a pyramid is given by the formula:

Volume of pyramid =   Area of base × height

V =   where A is the area of the base and h is the height of the
pyramid.
Volume of a Sphere

A sphere is a solid in which all the points on the round surface are
equidistant from a fixed point, known as the center of the sphere. The distance
from the center to the surface is the radius.

Volume of sphere =   where r is the radius.

Name: Date:
Course/Section:

1. If the perimeter of a rectangular house is 44 yards, and the length is 36 feet,

what is the width of the house?

a. 10 yards
b. 18 yards
c. 28 feet
d. 32 feet
e. 36 yards

2. What is the volume of the following cylinder?

a. 210.91
b. 226.20
c. 75.36
d. 904.32
e. 28.26

.3 What is the volume of a cube whose width is 5 inches?

a. 15 cubic inches
 b. 25 cubic inches
c. 64 cubic inches
d. 100 cubic inches
e. 125 cubic inches

4. Sally has three pieces of material. The first piece is 1 yd. 2 ft. 6 in. long, the
second piece is 2 yd. 1 ft. 5 in long, and the third piece is 4 yd. 2ft. 8in long. How
much material does Sally have?

a. 7 yd. 1 ft. 8 in.

b. 8 yd. 4 ft. 4 in.
c. 8 yd. 11 in.
d. 9 yd. 7 in.
e. 10 yd.

5. A can’s diameter is 3 inches, and its height is 8 inches. What is the volume of
the can?

a. 50.30
b. 56.55
c. 75.68
d. 113.04
e. 226.08

6.If the area of a square flowerbed is 16 square feet, then how many feet is the
perimeter of the flowerbed?

a. 4
b. 12
c. 16
d. 20
 e. 24

7.Of the following units which would be more likely used to measure the amount
of water in a bathtub?

a. kilograms
b. liters
c. milliliters
d. centigrams
e. volts

8. If a match box is 0.17 feet long, what is its length in inches the most closely
comparable to the following?

a. 5 1/16-inch highlighter
b. 3 1/8-inch jewelry box
c. 2 3/4-inch lipstick
d. 2 3/16-inch staple remover
e. 4 1/2-inch calculator
9. What is the cost in dollars to steam clean a room W yards wide and L yards
long it the steam cleaners charge 10 cents per square foot?

a. 0.9WL
b. 0.3WL
c. 0.1WL
d. 9WL
e. 3WL

10. One-inch equals 2.54 cm, how many centimeters tall is a 76-inch man?

a. 20 cm
b. 29.92 cm
 c. 193.04 cm
d. 300.04 cm
e. 593.04 cm

11. A room measures 11 ft x 12 ft x 9 ft. What is the volume?

a. 1188 ft3
b. 32 ft3
c. 120 ft3
d. 1300 ft3
e. 1350 ft3

12. A vitamin’s expiration date has passed. It was supposed to contain 500 mg of
Calcium, but it has lost 325 mg of Calcium. How many mg of Calcium are left?

a. 135 mg
b. 175 mg
c. 185 mg
d. 200 mg
e. 220 mg

13. You have orders to give a patient 20 mg of a certain medication. The

medication is stored 4 mg per 5-mL dose. How many milliliters will need to be
given?

a. 15 mL
b. 20 mL
c. 25 mL
d. 30 mL
e. 35 mL
14. You need exactly a 1680 ft 3 aquarium for your fish. At the pet store you see
four choices of aquariums, but the volume is not listed. The length, width, and
height are listed on the box. Which of the following aquariums would fit your
needs?

a. 12 ft x 12 ft x 12 ft
b. 13 ft x 15 ft x 16 ft
c. 14 ft x 20 ft x 6 ft
d. 15 ft x 16 ft x 12 ft
e. 15 ft x 12 ft x 12 ft

15. One slice of bread is 80 calories. Approximately how many calories are in 2
½ slices of bread?

a. 140 calories
b. 200 calories
c. 220 calories
d. 240 calories
e. 260 calories

Scientific Method

Scientists are engaged in explaining and understanding how the world around
them works, and they can do so by coming up with theories that generate
 hypotheses that are testable and falsifiable. Theories that stand up to their tests
are retained and refined, while those that do not are discarded or modified. In this
way, research enables scientists to separate fact from simple opinion. Having
good information generated from research aids in making wise decisions both in
public policy and in our personal lives. In this section, you’ll see how
psychologists use the scientific method to study and understand behavior.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

 Explain the steps of the scientific method

 Describe why the scientific method is important to psychology

 Summarize the processes of informed consent and debriefing

 Explain how research involving humans or animals is regulated

Scientific research is a critical tool for successfully navigating our complex world.
Without it, we would be forced to rely solely on intuition, other people’s authority,
and blind luck. While many of us feel confident in our abilities to decipher and
interact with the world around us, history is filled with examples of how very
wrong we can be when we fail to recognize the need for evidence in supporting
claims. At various times in history, we would have been certain that the sun
revolved around a flat earth, that the earth’s continents did not move, and that
mental illness was caused by possession (Figure 1). It is through systematic
scientific research that we divest ourselves of our preconceived notions and
superstitions and gain an objective understanding of ourselves and our world.
Figure 1. Some of our ancestors, across the world and over the centuries, believed that trephination—
the practice of making a hole in the skull, as shown here—allowed evil spirits to leave the body, thus
curing mental illness and other disorders. (credit: “taiproject”/Flickr)

The goal of all scientists is to better understand the world around them.
Psychologists focus their attention on understanding behavior, as well as the
cognitive (mental) and physiological (body) processes that underlie behavior. In
contrast to other methods that people use to understand the behavior of others,
such as intuition and personal experience, the hallmark of scientific research is
that there is evidence to support a claim. Scientific knowledge is empirical: It is
grounded in objective, tangible evidence that can be observed time and time
again, regardless of who is observing.

While behavior is observable, the mind is not. If someone is crying, we

can see behavior. However, the reason for the behavior is more difficult to
determine. Is the person crying due to being sad, in pain, or happy? Sometimes
we can learn the reason for someone’s behavior by simply asking a question, like
“Why are you crying?” However, there are situations in which an individual is
either uncomfortable or unwilling to answer the question honestly or is incapable
of answering. For example, infants would not be able to explain why they are
crying. In such circumstances, the psychologist must be creative in finding ways
to better understand behavior. This module explores how scientific knowledge is
generated, and how important that knowledge is in forming decisions in our
personal lives and in the public domain.

The Process of Scientific Research

Figure 2. The scientific method is a process for gathering data and processing information. It
provides well-defined steps to standardize how scientific knowledge is gathered through a logical,
rational problem-solving method.
Scientific knowledge is advanced through a process known as the
scientific method. Basically, ideas (in the form of theories and hypotheses) are
tested against the real world (in the form of empirical observations), and those
empirical observations lead to more ideas that are tested against the real world,
and so on.

The basic steps in the scientific method are:

 Observe a natural phenomenon and define a question about it

 Make a hypothesis, or potential solution to the question

  Test the hypothesis

 If the hypothesis is true, find more evidence or find counter-evidence

 If the hypothesis is false, create a new hypothesis or try again

 Draw conclusions and repeat–the scientific method is never-ending, and

no result is ever considered perfect

To ask an important question that may improve our understanding of the

world, a researcher must first observe natural phenomena. By making
observations, a researcher can define a useful question. After finding a question
to answer, the researcher can then make a prediction (a hypothesis) about what
he or she thinks the answer will be. This prediction is usually a statement about
the relationship between two or more variables. After making a hypothesis, the
researcher will then design an experiment to test his or her hypothesis and
evaluate the data gathered. These data will either support or refute the
hypothesis. Based on the conclusions drawn from the data, the researcher will
then find more evidence to support the hypothesis, look for counter-evidence to
further strengthen the hypothesis, revise the hypothesis and create a new
experiment, or continue to incorporate the information gathered to answer the
research question.

The Basic Principles of the Scientific Method

Two key concepts in the scientific approach are theory and hypothesis.

A theory is a well-developed set of ideas that propose an explanation for
observed phenomena that can be used to make predictions about future
observations. A hypothesis is a testable prediction that is arrived at logically
from a theory. It is often worded as an if-then statement (e.g., if I study all night, I
will get a passing grade on the test). The hypothesis is extremely important
because it bridges the gap between the realm of ideas and the real world. As
specific hypotheses are tested, theories are modified and refined to reflect and
incorporate the result of these tests (Figure 2).
 Other key components in following the scientific method include
verifiability, predictability, falsifiability, and fairness.

Verifiability means that an experiment must be replicable by another

researcher. To achieve verifiability, researchers must make sure to document
their methods and clearly explain how their experiment is structured and why it
produces certain results.

Predictability in a scientific theory implies that the theory should enable

us to make predictions about future events. The precision of these predictions is
a measure of the strength of the theory.

Falsifiability refers to whether a hypothesis can have disproved. For a

hypothesis to be falsifiable, it must be logically possible to see or do a physical
experiment that would show that there is no support for the hypothesis. Even
when a hypothesis cannot be shown to be false, that does not necessarily mean
it is not valid. Future testing may disprove the hypothesis. This does not mean
that a hypothesis must be shown to be false, just that it can be tested.

To determine whether a hypothesis is supported or not supported, psychological

researchers must conduct hypothesis testing using statistics. Hypothesis testing
is a type of statistics that determines the probability of a hypothesis being true or
false. If hypothesis testing reveals that results were “statistically significant,” this
means that there was support for the hypothesis and that the researchers can be
reasonably confident that their result was not due to random chance. If the
results are not statistically significant, this means that the researchers’
hypothesis was not supported.

Fairness implies that all data must be considered when evaluating a

hypothesis. A researcher cannot pick and choose what data to keep and what to
discard or focus specifically on data that support or do not support a particular
hypothesis. All data must be accounted for, even if they invalidate the
hypothesis.
Figure 3. The scientific method of research includes proposing hypotheses, conducting research,
and creating or modifying theories based on results.

Applying the Scientific Method

To see how this process works, let’s consider a specific theory and a
hypothesis that might be generated from that theory. As you’ll learn in a later
module, the James-Lange theory of emotion asserts that emotional experience
relies on the physiological arousal associated with the emotional state. If you
walked out of your home and discovered a very aggressive snake waiting on
your doorstep, your heart would begin to race and your stomach churn.
According to the James-Lange theory, these physiological changes would result
in your feeling of fear. A hypothesis that could be derived from this theory might
be that a person who is unaware of the physiological arousal that the sight of the
snake elicits will not feel fear.

Remember that a good scientific hypothesis is falsifiable, or capable of

being shown to be incorrect. Recall from the introductory module that Sigmund
Freud had lots of interesting ideas to explain various human behaviors (Figure 3).
However, a major criticism of Freud’s theories is that many of his ideas are not
falsifiable; for example, it is impossible to imagine empirical observations that
would disprove the existence of the id, the ego, and the superego—the three
elements of personality described in Freud’s theories. Despite this, Freud’s
theories are widely taught in introductory psychology texts because of their
historical significance for personality psychology and psychotherapy, and these
remain the root of all modern forms of therapy.

Figure 4. Many of the specifics of (a) Freud’s theories, such as (b) his division of the mind into id,
ego, and superego, have fallen out of favor in recent decades because they are not falsifiable. In
broader strokes, his views set the stage for much of psychological thinking today, such as the
unconscious nature of the majority of psychological processes.

In contrast, the James-Lange theory does generate falsifiable hypotheses,

such as the one described above. Some individuals who suffer significant injuries
to their spinal columns are unable to feel the bodily changes that often
accompany emotional experiences. Therefore, we could test the hypothesis by
determining how emotional experiences differ between individuals who can
detect these changes in their physiological arousal and those who do not. In fact,
this research has been conducted and while the emotional experiences of people
deprived of an awareness of their physiological arousal may be less intense, they
still experience emotion (Chwalisz, Diener, & Gallagher, 1988).

The scientific method is a process that scientists use to better understand

the world around them. It includes making observations and asking a question,
forming a hypothesis, designing an experiment, collecting and analyzing data,
and drawing a conclusion. This is sometimes also referred to as scientific inquiry.
A hypothesis is a possible explanation for an observation. A good scientist will
design a controlled experiment to test their hypothesis. In a controlled
experiment, only one variable is tested at a time. It is called the manipulated or
independent variable. The experimental group will test the independent variables.
The control group will be left alone, so you have something to compare your
results to. The variable that determines the data is the responding, or dependent
variable. It responds to the manipulated variable. All other variables in the
experiment should remain the same, because if you change more than one
variable, you will not know which variable explained your results. Once
something has been tested many different times by many different scientist, it
can become a scientific theory. It is different from a scientific law, which
describes what will happen every time under a set of conditions.
Name: Date:

Course:

True of False

If the answer is true, write “true” on the line. If the answer is false,
replaced the underlined word or phrase with one that will make the sentence
correct. Write the new words on the line.

____________1. Forming a hypothesis is the first step of scientific method.

____________2. A scientific law is different from a scientific theory because its

describe something in nature without attempting to explain it.

____________3. For a hypothesis to be testable, scientists need to be able carry

out investigations that will either support or disprove it.

____________4. The experimental group is the group that is left alone during the
experiment.

____________5. The manipulated variable is the same thing as the independent

variable.

Matching

Match the word to the definition. Write the letter on the line.

6. Scientific Inquiry A. This group shows this effect of the variable

being tested

7. Hypothesis B. This is the one variable that is changed

8. Control Group C. A well-tested explanation for experiment
results

9. Experimental Group D. The many ways in which scientists study the

natural world

10. Independent Variable E. A possible answer to a scientific question

11. Dependent Variable F. This describes an observed pattern in nature

12. Scientific Theory G. This group is left alone and not

experimented on

13. Scientific Law H. This is the variable that gets measured

Identifying

1. It is a testable prediction that is arrived at logically from a theory.

2. It means that an experiment must be replicable by another researcher.

3. In a scientific theory implies that the theory should enable us to make

predictions about future events. The precision of these predictions is a
measure of the strength of the theory.

4. It is referring to whether a hypothesis can have disproved.

5. It is implying that all data must be considered when evaluating a

hypothesis.

6. It is a process that scientists use to better understand the world around

them.
Work, Energy, and Simple Machines

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

 Describe the relationship between work and energy

 Display an ability to calculate work done by a force
 Identify the force that does work

Work

In physics, a force is said to do work if, when acting, there is a displacement of

the point of application in the direction of the force.

W = F x d (measured in joules, J)

Work transfers energy from one place to another or one form to another. See
work energy theorem to the right

Examples:

Pushing a car horizontally from rest; shooting a bullet (the powder does
the work); walking upstairs; sawing a log.

Power

In physics, power is the rate of doing work, the amount of energy transferred per
unit time. Having no direction, it is a scalar quantity. In the International System
of Units, the unit of power is the joule per second (J/s), known as the watt in
honor of James Watt, the eighteenth-century developer of the steam engine.

 Example:
 when a powerful car accelerates rapidly, it does a large amount of work
and consumes a large amount of fuel in a short time.

Energy

The principle of work and kinetic energy (also known as the work–energy
principle) states that the work done by all forces acting on a particle (the work of
the resultant force) equals the change in the kinetic energy of the particle. Work =
Δ

Work, Energy and Simple Machines

Power
Work Energy/Work Theorem
In physics, power is
In physics, a force is said to Thethe
principle
rate ofof work and
doing work,
do work if, when acting, kinetic
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as the work–energy
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there is a displacement of principle)
per unitstates that the
time. Having
the point of application in worknodone by allitforces
direction, is
acting on a particle (the
a scalar quantity. In
the direction of the force.
work of the resultant
the International
force) equals
System of the change
Units, the
W = F x d (measured in
in the
unitkinetic energy
of power is of the
joules, J) particle. Work = ΔKE
the joule per second
(J/s), known as
Work transfers energy from the watt in honor
one place to another or one of James Watt, the
form to another. See work eighteenth-century
energy theorem to the right developer of the steam
engine.
What is a simple machine?

Simple machines make work easier by multiplying, reducing, or changing

the direction of a force. The scientific formula for work is w = f x d, or, work is
equal to force multiplied by distance. Simple machines cannot change the
amount of work done, but they can reduce the effort force that is required to do
the work! For the inclined plane and lever, less effort (effort force) is needed to
do the same work because the distance is increased. By using simple machines,
the Egyptians were able to construct the pyramids.

Inclined planes decrease the amount of force needed but more distance is
required.

By pushing an object up a slanted surface, one can move the object to

height h with a smaller force than the weight of the object.

The resistance force Fr =mg, the weight of the object. It takes work (Fxd =
mgh) to overcome that resistance force and lift the object to height h. By doing
work on it we give it gravitational potential energy mgh. By exerting force (effort)
to push the object up the incline, we do the same amount of work in the ideal
frictionless case. So setting the work equal FeL = Frh, we arrive at the ideal
mechanical advantage Fr/Fe = L/h or Din/Dout.

Another approach to the incline is just to calculate the amount of force

required to push the object up a frictionless incline. If the forces are resolved as
in the standard incline problem, you find that the required force is Fe=mgsinθ =
mgh/L = Fr (h/L) .

Ideal Mechanical Advantage (IMA) represents the frictionless scenario

Actual Mechanical Advantage takes friction into account

Terms can be confusing!

As seen in the picture to the right, AMA is calculated by dividing the resistance
force by the effort force. In other sources, you will see these labeled as output
force and input force respectively. Resistance force is the WEIGHT of the object
to be moved. It is the output force of the simple machine. The input force is the
same as the effort force put into moving the object using the machine. This
formula for AMA is the same for the lever and the inclined plane.

Efficiency = work out/work in x 100

Another way to calculate efficiency is AMA/IMA x 100

Levers

A lever makes work easier by reducing the force needed to move a load
by increasing the distance.

A Lever is a simple machine consisting of a rigid bar that rotates about a

fixed point, called a fulcrum. The lever makes doing work easier by reducing the
force needed to move an object. To reduce the force needed, the distance over
which the force is applied must be increased. To increase this distance, the load
to be moved must be close to the fulcrum and the force must be applied far from
the fulcrum.

A common example of a lever is the seesaw. The human arm is also a lever,
where the elbow is the fulcrum and the muscles apply the force.
Just as with inclined planes, terms can be confusing with levers too.

As the picture to the left shows, the IMA for a lever can be calculated by taking
the length of the lever arm from the fulcrum to the force (effort) divided by the
length of the lever arm from the fulcrum to the load. Another way you will see this
shown is effort distance/resistance difference. And still another way (as seen
below), input arm length/output arm length = IMA. As with inclined planes, the
object to be moved is the resistance force or load and the effort is the force put
into moving the load at the other end of the fulcrum. So force=effort=in and
resistance = load=out.
 Name: Date:

Course & Section:

(Work, Energy, Power, and Simple Machines)

Identify the letter of the choice that best completes the statement or answers
the question. In the space next to the question, indicate how much confidence
you have in your answer (C = Confident; S = So-so; G = Guessed).
1. What two conditions are necessary for mechanical work to be done?

a. Motion and some component of force that is parallel to the motion.

b. Motion and some component of force that is perpendicular to the

motion.

c. Constant velocity motion and a net force that is not zero.

d. Constant velocity motion and a net force of zero.

2. In which of the following situations is work done?

a. A weightlifter holds a barbell steady for 2.5 s.

b. A construction worker carries a heavy beam while walking at constant

speed along a flat surface.

c. A car slows down while traveling on a flat stretch of road.

d. A student holds a spring in a compressed position.

3. A force does work on an object if a component of the force

a. is perpendicular to the displacement of the object.

b. is parallel to the displacement of the object.

c. perpendicular to the displacement of the object moves the object along

a path that returns the object to its starting position.

d. parallel to the displacement of the object moves the object along a path
that returns the object to its

starting position.

4. If the sign of work is negative,

a. the displacement is perpendicular to the force.

b. the displacement is in the direction opposite the force.

c. the displacement is in the same direction as the force.

 d. It is impossible for work to be negative.

5. How much work is done on a 20 kg file cabinet if it is pushed 3 m by a force

of 45 N?

a. 60 J b. 590 J c. 135 J d. 65 J

6. A worker does 25 J of work lifting a bucket, then sets the bucket back down
in the same place. What is the total net work done on the bucket?

a. –25 J b. 0 J c. 25 J d. 50 J

7. What is the sign on work done by kinetic friction?

a. Positive

b. Negative

c. Friction does zero work

d. Cannot be determined

8. Which of the following is a form of mechanical energy?

a. internal energy

b. chemical potential energy

c. gravitational potential energy

d. electrical energy

9. Which of the following energy forms is associated with an object due to its
position?

a. potential energy b. positional energy c. total energy d. kinetic energy

10. Gravitational potential energy is always measured in relation to

a. total potential energy. b. mechanical energy. c. a reference level. d. kinetic

energy.

11. The main difference between kinetic energy and potential energy is that
 a. kinetic energy involves position, and potential energy involves motion.

b. kinetic energy involves motion, and potential energy involves position.

c. although both energies involve motion, only kinetic energy involves

position.

d. although both energies involve position, only potential energy involves

motion.

12. Which of the following energy forms is not involved in hitting a tennis ball?

a. kinetic energy

b. chemical potential energy

c. gravitational potential energy

d. elastic potential energy

13. If a 1 kg mass has a speed of 25 m/s, what is its kinetic energy?

a. 25 J b. 625 J c. 313 J d. 245 J

14. Which of the following is not a factor in determining elastic potential

energy?

a. compression distance b. mass c. spring constant d. stretching distance

15. If the mass of a moving object was doubled, but its speed remained the
same, the kinetic energy of the object

would change by a factor of

a. 1/4. b. 1/2. c. 2. d. 4.

16. If the speed of a moving object was doubled, but its mass remained the
same, the kinetic energy of the object would change by a factor of

a. 1/4. b. 1/2. c. 2. d. 4.
17. If the mass of a moving object was doubled and its speed was cut in half,
the kinetic energy of the object would change by a factor of

a. 1/4. b. 1/2. c. 2. d. 4.

18. If the displacement of a horizontal mass-spring system was doubled, the

elastic potential energy in the system would change by a factor of

a. 1/4. b. 1/2. c. 2. d. 4.

19. In the presence of frictional force,

a. nonmechanical energy is negligible and mechanical energy is no longer

conserved.

b. nonmechanical energy is negligible and mechanical energy is

conserved.

c. nonmechanical energy is no longer negligible and mechanical energy is

conserved.

d. nonmechanical energy is no longer negligible and mechanical energy is

no longer conserved.

20. What is true of the mechanical energy of an object assuming there is no

friction?

a. The kinetic energy always increases.

b. The potential energy always increases.

c. The total mechanical energy is constant.

d. The potential energy always decreases.

21. For which of the following situations is the conservation of mechanical

energy most likely to be a valid

assumption?

a. A skateboard rolls across a sewer grate.

 b. A parachutist falls from a plane.

c. You rub your hands together to keep warm.

d. A soccer ball flies through the air.

22. If the net work done on an object is negative, what will happen to the
object’s kinetic energy?

a. The kinetic energy decreases.

b. The kinetic energy increases.

c. The kinetic energy remains constant.

d. The kinetic energy decreases and then increases.

23. If a 5 kg object at rest experiences a net force of 25 N for a distance of 15

meters, what is its increase in kinetic energy?

a. 75 J b. 125 J c. 375 J d. None of the above

MOTION AND Its CAUSES

Learning Objectives:

Students will be able to describe Newton’s First, Second, and Third Laws
of Motion and identify examples of these laws at work in the world around them.
Students will know that unbalanced forces cause changes in the speed of an
object’s motion. Students will understand qualities of motion including position,
velocity, acceleration, and momentum, as well as forces which hinder motion, like
friction.

The human body was made for movement. Every day, you move different
parts of your body, from your head to your toes. All bodies move differently. Even
picking up a book and turning the pages involves moving your body. Have you
ever wondered how your body moves? How does your arm know where to reach
and catch a ball? When you play the piano, how do your fingers know which keys
to strike? How does your body adjust to a new workout routine? The answers to
these questions can all be found in the study of human movement. Moving an
arm or a leg might seem like a simple task. But human movement is actually very
complex. Movement is a change in place, position, or posture in relation to the
environment. Movement happens only when different body systems, such as the
skeletal system, cardiovascular system, neuromuscular system, and the body’s
energy systems, work together. To move successfully, these systems interact
and adapt to a constantly changing environment.

As you move throughout your day, forces act on your body. When you
walk down the street, twirl on the dance floor, or even just sit in a chair, invisible
forces affect your body and its movement. A force is a push or pull on an object
that results from the object’s interaction with another object. When two objects
interact, there is a force acting on each of them. When the interaction ends, the
objects no longer experience that force. Objects move when forces are applied to
them. English scientist Isaac Newton explained the way that motion works in his
three laws of motion.

Newton’s three laws of motion define all types of motion, including the
movement of your body.

• Law of inertia:

An object at rest will stay at rest and an object in motion will stay in constant
linear motion unless acted on by an outside force. If a ball is rolling, it will keep
rolling forever unless something stops it. In the same way, if a ball is at rest, it will
stay at rest until a force pushes it to move. An object at rest will remain at rest
until an unbalanced force causes it to move. An object in motion will continue
moving at the same speed and in the same direction until an unbalanced force
changes its motion.

• Law of acceleration:

The acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the force acting on it and

inversely proportional to the mass of the object. As the force acting upon an
object increases, the acceleration of the object also increases. As the mass of an
object increases, the acceleration of the object decreases for a fixed force. The
second law describes the relationship between force, mass, and acceleration.
When mass is constant, acceleration is directly related to force. The relationship
can be described mathematically using the formula Force = mass • acceleration.

• Law of action and reaction:

For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction. When one object
exerts a force on a second object, the second object reacts by exerting an equal
force in the opposite direction on the first object. Forces occur in pairs, and every
action (force) has an equal and opposite reaction (force). This means when a
force is applied to an object, that object applies an equal force in the opposite
direction.
For example, when you walk, your body pushes down on the ground to move
yourself forward. The ground pushes back against you with the same magnitude
of force, propelling you forward. The movement of the human body follows
Newton’s laws of motion. The body moves when internal and external forces act
on it. Internal forces are generated within the body. When a muscle contracts, it
applies an internal pulling force on a bone, which causes movement. External
forces are generated outside of the body. For example, when you fall, the force
of gravity pulls you down.
The Basics of Force & Motion

A force is a push or a pull. Much of what we know about forces and their
resulting motions comes from the ideas of Sir Isaac Newton. A mathematician
and scientist, Newton lived in England during the 1600s. He published his
observations and theories about force and motion in 1687. Even though
Newton’s document is now hundreds of years old, the three “laws” he presented
are still the foundation of modern physics. To explore force and motion, we need
to understand Newton’s three laws and be able to identify them in the world
around us.

Newton’s First Law of Motion

How do the forces that act on a body affect its motion? To begin to answer
this question, let’s first consider what happens when the net force on a body is
zero. You would almost certainly agree that if a body is at rest, and if no net force
acts on it (that is, no net push or pull), that body will remain at rest. But what if
there is zero net force acting on a body in motion? To see what happens in this
case, suppose you slide a hockey puck along a horizontal tabletop, applying a
horizontal force to it with your hand. After you stop pushing, the puck does not
continue to move indefinitely; it slows down and stops. To keep it moving, you
have to keep pushing (that is, applying a force). You might come to the “common
sense” conclusion that bodies in motion naturally come to rest and that a force is
required to sustain motion. But now imagine pushing the puck across a smooth
surface of ice. After you quit pushing, the puck will slide a lot farther before it
stops. Put it on an air-hockey table, where it floats on a thin cushion of air, and it
moves still farther. In each case, what slows the puck down is friction, an
interaction between the lower surface of the puck and the surface on which it
slides. Each surface exerts a friction force on the puck that resists the puck’s
motion; the difference in the three cases is the magnitude of the friction force.
The ice exerts less friction than the tabletop, so the puck travels farther. The gas
molecules of the air-hockey table exert the least friction of all. If we could
eliminate friction completely, the puck would never slow down, and we would
need no force at all to keep the puck moving once it had been started. Thus the
“common sense” idea that a force is required to sustain motion is incorrect.
Experiments like the ones we’ve just described show that when no net force acts
on a body, the body either remains at rest or moves with constant velocity in a
straight line. Once a body has been set in motion, no net force is needed to keep
it moving. We call this observation Newton’s first law of motion:

• A body acted on by no net force has a constant velocity (which may be zero)
and zero acceleration.
• An object at rest tends to stay at rest, and an object in motion tends to stay in
motion, unless acted upon by an outside, unbalanced force.

Newton’s First Law basically argues that objects—whether they are

staying still or moving—tend to keep on doing what they’re doing until something
interferes. When we put something down, it tends to stay in that spot until
someone or something moves it. The second part of this law—that a moving
object will stay in motion—is more difficult to grasp. It’s hard to picture an object
in motion forever since moving objects always seem to slow down at some point.

When objects slow down or stop moving, it’s always due to an outside force, like
friction or air resistance. Friction occurs when two objects rub against each other.
As a skier moves over the snow, the contact between the skis and the snow
creates sliding friction. An object (like a skateboard) rolling over a surface creates
rolling friction. Newton’s First Law is also called the “law of inertia. “Inertia is
another word to describe an object’s tendency to stay in motion or at rest unless
an outside force interferes.

Balanced and Unbalanced Forces

Newton’s First Law of Motion assumes that the forces acting on the object
are balanced. When a book is at rest on a table, the force of gravity pushing
down on the book is equal to the force of the desk pushing up. The forces acting
on the book are balanced, so the book stays put. The same is true of objects in
motion. If the forces acting on a moving object are balanced, and no other
outside forces interfere, the object would keep on moving forever. Unbalanced
forces cause a change in position or motion. If two people are arm wrestling and
both exert the exact same amount of force, their arms will be deadlocked in the
same spot. The balanced forces cancel each other out, causing a state of
equilibrium where there is no motion or change. As soon as one person exerts
more force, the forces become unbalanced. Unbalanced forces always result in
motion. In the case of the arm wrestling, the stronger arm will overtake the
weaker arm and push it down. Once an object is set into motion, we can
measure how fast it travels and calculate its speed. We can also calculate the
velocity, which describes the speed and direction of a moving object. If the
moving object travels at the same, unchanging velocity, it has a constant speed.
A change in velocity (speeding up) causes acceleration.

Newton’s Second Law of Motion

Experiment shows that the net force on a body is what causes that body to
accelerate. If a combination of forces F S 1, F S 2, F S 3, and so on is applied to
a body, the body will have the same acceleration vector a S as when only a
single force is applied, if that single force is equal to the vector sum F S 1 + F S 2
+ F S 3 + P. In other words, the principle of superposition of forces also holds
true when the net force is not zero and the body is accelerating. Equations (4.4)
relate the magnitude of the net force on a body to the magnitude of the
acceleration that it produces. We have also seen that the direction of the net
force is the same as the direction of the acceleration, whether the body’s path is
straight or curved. What’s more, the forces that affect a body’s motion are
external forces, those exerted on the body by other bodies in its environment.
Newton wrapped up all these results into a single concise statement that we now
call Newton’s second law of motion:
• Acceleration of an object depends on the force and mass.
While Newton’s First Law describes how objects behave when forces are
balanced, his second law is about what happens when two forces are
unbalanced. Newton’s Second Law says that once an object is set in motion, its
acceleration will depend on two things: force and mass. In fact, this law of motion
is often expressed as an equation: Force equals mass times acceleration (F =
ma).

Force and acceleration are proportional to each other—the amount of

force is equal to the amount of acceleration. The greater the force exerted on an
object, the more it will accelerate. For example, the harder you kick a ball, the
farther and faster it will travel.

The opposite is true of mass. The more mass an object has, the less it will
accelerate. If you kick a tennis ball and a bowling ball with the same amount of
force, the heavy bowling ball is going to move slower and go a shorter distance
than the tennis ball. A heavier object requires more force to set it in motion.

Newton’s Third Law of Motion

• For every action, there is a reaction that is equal in magnitude and opposite in
direction.
Forces always occur in pairs, and Newton’s Third Law of Motion helps us
understand the relationship between pairs of forces. Every time a force, or action,
occurs, it causes a reaction. We can describe the reaction in terms of its
strength, or magnitude, and also its direction.

The magnitude of the action is equal to the magnitude of the reaction. For
example, if you toss a pebble into the water, it’s going to create a small ripple or
splash. If you hurl a large boulder at the water, the splash is going to be bigger.
The force of the action and reaction always match up.

While an action and its reaction are equal in magnitude, they are opposite
in direction. The rock plunges down into the water, but the water splashes up.
When you throw or shoot something forward, the recoil of the force pushes you
backward. Every time a force acts on an object, it causes a reaction force in the
opposite direction.

Kinetic & Potential Energy

Energy is the ability to do work. An object doesn’t have to be in motion to

possess energy. Potential energy is energy that’s stored in an object. (In fact, it’s
also referred to as stored energy.) An object’s position or circumstances give it
potential energy. A spring on the bottom of a pogo stick has potential energy
when someone is standing on the pogo stick. The coil of the spring compresses
when pressure is applied, storing up energy that will later be released. The more
height and mass an object has, the more gravitational potential energy it has.
Once an object is in motion, it has kinetic energy. When the spring compresses
and releases, the kinetic energy of the spring pushes the pogo stick and its rider
up into the air. When the person jumps on the pogo stick and the spring
compresses again, more potential energy is stored in the spring. When the spring
releases, the kinetic energy of the spring pushes the rider up once again.

Name: Date:
Year/Course:

Direction: Read each sentence clue and figure out what force and motion
concept is being described. Find each word in the word search. Words are
written across and down.
1. When two objects rub against each other it creates this. __________________

2. An object tends to keep moving because it has this quality.

_____________________
3. Newton’s First Law of Motion is also called the law of __________________ .
4. The more of this an object has, the more force it takes to move it.
_______________
5. The speed and direction of a moving object. ___________________
6. Everything gets pulled down toward the earth’s center because of this force.
_______________
7. This is the result of unbalanced forces making an object speed up.
________________________
8. What you get when you multiply an object’s mass times the
acceleration________
9. The scientist who came up with the three laws of motion.
__________________
10. A skier at the top of a hill has more ___________________ energy than a
skier at the bottom.
11. Another word for potential energy. ___________________
12. A skier traveling downhill has this type of energy. __________________
13. When two forces acting on an object are equal, they are
___________________.
14. When two forces are ______________________, there is a change in
position or motion.
15. When two balanced forces cancel each other out, they are in
_______________________.
16. When the velocity of a moving object stays the same, it has a
___________________ speed.

Name: Date:
Year/Course:

Direction: Match each vocabulary word with its definition.

acceleration equilibrium force friction gravity

inertia kinetic energy momentum potential energy velocity

Write the correct answer

________1. An object at rest will stay at rest, and an object in motion will stay in
motion unless a force is introduced.
________2. How fast and in what direction an object is traveling
________3. A force that pulls anything on the Earth’s surface toward the center
of the Earth.
________4. Something that changes an object’s state of rest or motion.
________5. An increase in an object’s velocity.
________6. Energy that is stored up on an object because of its position.
________ 7. A tendency of an object to keep moving when it’s in motion.
________8. The energy an object has because it is moving.
________9. The force that results from two surfaces rubbing against one
another.
________10. A state of balance where opposing forces on an object simply
cancel each other out, and the object remains stable and unchanged.

Direction: Choose the letter of the correct answer.

11. Which law of motion states that, for every action, there is an equal and
opposite reaction?
a. Newton’s First Law of Motion.

b. Newton’s Second Law of Motion.

c. Newton’s Third Law of Motion.

d. The law of reaction.

12. What is an example of how friction can be helpful?

a. A skateboard ramp.

b. A seatbelt in a car.

c. The brakes on a car.

d. The wheels on a bicycle.

13. If you kick a bowling ball and a tennis ball with the same amount of force,
according to Newton’s Second Law of Motion, what will happen?

a. The tennis ball will travel farther than the bowling ball.

b. The bowling ball will travel farther than the tennis ball.

c. The bowling ball will travel faster but cover a shorter distance.

d. The balls will travel the same distance.

14. According to Newton’s First Law of Motion…

a. An object in motion will slow down when moving down a hill.

b. An object in motion will stay in motion unless acted upon by an outside force.
c. An object in motion will always move sideways when acted upon by an outside
force.
d. An object in motion will stay in motion when it is acted upon by an outside
force.

15. Which is the best example of kinetic energy?

a. A diver standing on the edge of a high dive.

b. A skier moving swiftly down a hill.

c. A car sitting in a driveway.

d. A runner who is waiting to start a race.

Direction: Fill in the blanks.

16. A skateboarder at the top of a ramp has _______________ energy.

17. The scientific study of energy and matter and how they interact with each
other is called _____________________.

Direction: Answer the following in complete sentences.

18. Newton’s Third Law of Motion states that, for every action, there is an equal
and opposite reaction. Give an example of this law.

19. During the cart launcher experiment, the elastic cord was stretched back to
launch the cart. Tell how this affected the cart and why.
20. If you kick a bowling ball and a golf ball with the same amount of force, tell
which ball will go farther and which law of motion explains why.