6.

Celestial Mechanics

126
a cloud is much higher than MJ , it will collapse by its Newton’s notations, only the dot is still used, always
own gravitation. signifying the time derivative: f˙ ≡ d f/dt. For example,
In (6.52) the pressure can be replaced by the kinetic the velocity ṙ is the time derivative of r, the acceleration
temperature Tk of the gas (see Sect. 5.8 for a definition). r̈ its second derivative, etc.
According to the kinetic gas theory, the pressure is
P = nkTk , (6.53)
6.12 Examples
where n is the number density (particles per unit vol-
ume) and k is Boltzmann’s constant. The number density Example 6.1 Find the orbital elements of Jupiter on
is obtained by dividing the density of the gas ρ by the August 23, 1996.
average molecular weight µ: The Julian date is 2,450,319, hence from (6.17), T =
− 0.0336. By substituting this into the expressions of
n = ρ/µ ,
Table C.12, we get
whence
a = 5.2033 ,
P = ρkTk /µ .
e = 0.0484 ,
By substituting this into (6.52) we get i = 1.3053◦ ,
 
kTk 3/2 1 Ω = 100.5448◦ ,
MJ = C √ . (6.54)
µG ρ  = 14.7460◦ ,
L = − 67.460◦ = 292.540◦ .

* Newton’s Laws From these we can compute the argument of perihelion

and mean anomaly:
1. In the absence of external forces, a particle will
remain at rest or move along a straight line with ω =  − Ω = − 85.7988◦ = 274.201◦ ,
constant speed. M = L −  = − 82.2060◦ = 277.794◦ .
2. The rate of change of the momentum of a particle is
equal to the applied force F: Example 6.2 Orbital Velocity
d
ṗ = (mv) = F . a) Comet Austin (1982g) moves in a parabolic orbit.
dt
Find its velocity on October 8, 1982, when the distance
3. If particle A exerts a force F on another particle B, from the Sun was 1.10 AU.
B will exert an equal but opposite force −F on A. The energy integral for a parabola is h = 0. Thus
(6.11) gives the velocity v:
If several forces F1 , F2 , . . . are applied on a particle,  
the effect is equal to that caused by one force F which 2µ 2G M
is the vector sum of the individual forces (F = F1 + F2 v= =
r r
+ . . . ). 
Law of gravitation: If the masses of particles A and B 2 × 4π 2 × 1
= = 8.47722 AU/a
are m A and m B and their mutual distance r, the force 1.10
exerted on A by B is directed towards B and has the mag- 8.47722 × 1.496 × 1011 m
nitude Gm A m B /r 2 , where G is a constant depending = ≈ 40 km/s .
365.2564 × 24 × 3600 s
on the units chosen.
Newton denoted the derivative of a function f by f˙ b) The semimajor axis of the minor planet 1982 RA is
and the integral function by f
. The corresponding
 no- 1.568 AU and the distance from the Sun on October 8,
tations used by Leibniz were d f/dt and f dx. Of 1982, was 1.17 AU. Find its velocity.
 6.12 Examples

127
The energy integral (6.16) is now Example 6.5 Derive formulas for a planet’s heliocen-
tric longitude and latitude, given its orbital elements and
h = −µ/2a . true anomaly.
Hence We apply the sine formula to the spherical triangle
1 2 µ µ of the figure:
v − =− , sin β sin(ω + f )
2 r 2a =
which gives sin i sin(π/2)
  
or
2 1
v= µ − sin β = sin i sin(ω + f ) .
r a
 The sine-cosine formula gives
 
2 1 cos(π/2) sin β
= 4π 2 −
1.17 1.568 = − cos i sin(ω + f ) cos(λ − Ω)
= 6.5044 AU/a ≈ 31 km/s . + cos(ω + f ) sin(λ − Ω) ,
whence
Example 6.3 In an otherwise empty universe, two
rocks of 5 kg each orbit each other at a distance of 1 m. tan(λ − Ω) = cos i tan(ω + f ) .
What is the orbital period?
The period is obtained from Kepler’s third law:
4π 2 a3
P2 =
G(m 1 + m 2 )
4π 2 1
= s2
6.67 × 10−11 (5 + 5)
= 5.9 × 1010 s2 ,
whence
P = 243,000 s = 2.8 d .

Example 6.4 The period of the Martian moon Phobos

is 0.3189 d and the radius of the orbit 9370 km. What is
the mass of Mars?
First we change to more appropriate units:
Example 6.6 Find the radius vector and heliocentric
P = 0.3189 d = 0.0008731 sidereal years , longitude and latitude of Jupiter on August 23, 1996.
The orbital elements were computed in Example 6.1:
a = 9370 km = 6.2634 × 10−5 AU .
a = 5.2033 AU ,
Equation (6.32) gives (it is safe to assume that m Phobos  e = 0.0484 ,
m Mars ) i = 1.3053◦ ,
Ω = 100.5448◦ ,
m Mars = a3 /P 2 = 0.000000322 M ω = 274.2012◦ ,
(≈ 0.107 M⊕ ) . M = 277.7940◦ = 4.8484 rad .
 6. Celestial Mechanics

128
Since the mean anomaly was obtained directly, we need Applying the results of the previous example, we find
not compute the time elapsed since perihelion. the latitude and longitude:
Now we have to solve Kepler’s equation. It cannot be
solved analytically, and we are obliged to take the brute sin β = sin i sin(ω + f )
force approach (also called numerical analysis) in the = sin 1.3◦ sin(274.2◦ + 272.3◦ )
form of iteration. For iteration, we write the equation
as = − 0.0026
⇒ β = − 0.15◦ ,
E n+1 = M + e sin E n ,
tan(λ − Ω) = cos i tan(ω + f )
where E n is the value found in the nth iteration. = cos 1.3◦ tan(274.2◦ + 272.3◦ )
The mean anomaly is a reasonable initial guess, E 0 . = 0.1139
(N.B.: Here, all angles must be in radians; other-
wise, nonsense results!) The iteration proceeds as ⇒ λ = Ω + 186.5◦
follows: = 100.5◦ + 186.5◦
= 287.0◦ .
E 0 = M = 4.8484 ,
(We must be careful here; the equation for tan(λ − Ω)
E 1 = M + e sin E 0 = 4.8004 ,
allows two solutions. If necessary, a figure can be drawn
E 2 = M + e sin E 1 = 4.8002 , to decide which is the correct one.)

E 3 = M + e sin E 2 = 4.8002 ,
Example 6.7 Find Jupiter’s right ascension and
declination on August 23, 1996.
after which successive approximations no longer In Example 6.6, we found the longitude and lat-
change, which means that the solution, accurate to four itude, λ = 287.0◦ , β = − 0.15◦ . The corresponding
decimal places, is rectangular (heliocentric) coordinates are:

E = 4.8002 = 275.0◦ . x = r cos λ cos β = 1.5154 AU ,

y = r sin λ cos β = − 4.9547 AU ,
The radius vector is z = r sin β = − 0.0133 AU .


r = a(cos E − e) î + a 1 − e2 sin E jˆ Jupiter’s ecliptic coordinates must be transformed to
equatorial ones by rotating them around the x-axis by
= 0.2045 î − 5.1772 jˆ an angle ε, the obliquity of the ecliptic (see *Reduction
of Coordinates, p. 38):
and the distance from the Sun,
X J = x = 1.5154 AU ,
r = a(1 − e cos E) = 5.1813 AU . YJ = y cos ε − z sin ε = − 4.5405 AU ,
Z J = y sin ε + z cos ε = − 1.9831 AU .
The signs of the components of the radius vector show
that the planet is in the fourth quadrant. The true To find the direction relative to the Earth, we have
anomaly is to find where the Earth is. In principle, we could repeat
the previous procedure with the orbital elements of the
− 5.1772 Earth. Or, if we are lazy, we could pick up the near-
f = arctan = 272.3◦ .
0.2045 est Astronomical Almanac, which lists the equatorial
 6.13 Exercises

129
coordinates of the Earth: due to its own gravitation? The temperature of the cloud
is 100 K.
X ⊕ = 0.8815 AU , The mass of one hydrogen atom is 1.67 × 10−27 kg,
Y⊕ = − 0.4543 AU , which gives a density
Z ⊕ = − 0.1970 AU .
ρ = nµ = 107 m−3 × 1.67 × 10−27 kg
Then the position relative to the Earth is
= 1.67 × 10−20 kg/m3 .
X 0 = X J − X ⊕ = 0.6339 AU ,
The critical mass is
Y0 = YJ − Y⊕ = − 4.0862 AU ,
 3/2
Z 0 = Z J − Z ⊕ = − 1.7861 AU . 1.38 × 10−23 J/K × 100 K
MJ =
1.67 × 10−27 kg × 6.67 × 10−11 N m2 kg−2
And finally, the right ascension and declination are
1
×√
α = arctan(Y0 /X 0 ) = 278.82◦ = 18 h 35 min , 1.67 × 10−20 kg/m3
Z0
δ = arctan  = − 23.4◦ . ≈ 1 × 1034 kg ≈ 5000 M .
X 0 + Y0
2 2

The radius of the cloud is

If the values given by the Astronomical Almanac are

rounded to the same accuracy, the same result is ob- 3 M
tained. We should not expect a very precise position R= 3
≈ 5 × 1017 m ≈ 20 pc .
4π ρ
since we have neglected all short-period perturbations
in Jupiter’s orbital elements.

Example 6.8 Which is easier, to send a probe to the 6.13 Exercises

Sun or away from the Solar system?
The orbital velocity of the Earth is about 30 km/s. Exercise 6.1 Find the ratio of the orbital velocities at
Thus the escape velocity from the Solar system is aphelion and perihelion va /vp . What is this ratio for the
√ Earth?
2 × 30 ≈ 42 km/s. A probe that is sent from the Earth
already has a velocity equal to the orbital velocity of
the Earth. Hence an extra velocity of only 12 km/s is Exercise 6.2 The perihelion and aphelion of the orbit
needed. In addition, the probe has to escape from the of Eros are 1.1084 and 1.8078 astronomical units from
Earth, which requires 11 km/s. Thus the total velocity the Sun. What is the velocity of Eros when its distance
changes are about 23 km/s. from the Sun equals the mean distance of Mars?
If the probe has to fall to the Sun it has to get rid of the
orbital velocity of the Earth 30 km/s. In this case, too, Exercise 6.3 Find the radius of the orbit of a geosta-
the probe has first to be lifted from the Earth. Thus the tionary satellite; such a satellite remains always over the
total velocity change needed is 41 km/s. This is nearly same point of the equator of the Earth. Are there areas
impossible with current technology. Therefore a probe on the surface of the Earth that cannot be seen from any
to be sent to the Sun is first directed close to some geostationary satellite? If so, what fraction of the total
planet, and the gravitational field of the planet is used surface area?
to accelerate the probe towards its final destination.
Exercise 6.4 From the angular diameter of the Sun
Example 6.9 An interstellar hydrogen cloud contains and the length of the year, derive the mean density of
10 atoms per cm3 . How big must the cloud be to collapse the Sun.
 6. Celestial Mechanics

130
Exercise 6.5 Find the mean, eccentric and true anoma- the eccentricity, semimajor axis and perihelion distance
lies of the Earth one quarter of a year after the of the orbit. What will happen to the comet?
perihelion.
Exercise 6.7 a) Find the ecliptic geocentric radius
Exercise 6.6 The velocity of a comet is 5 m/s, when vector of the Sun on May 1, 1997 (J = 2450570).
it is very far from the Sun. If it moved along a straight b) What are the declination and right ascension of the
line, it would pass the Sun at a distance of 1 AU. Find Sun then?