CHAPTER

10 Dimensional Analysis
and Similitude

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After studying this chapter, the reader will be able to:
• Apply Rayleigh’s indicial and Buckingham-pi techniques of
dimensional analysis
• Understand the importance of dimensional analysis from
the classic example of G.I. Taylor’s method for energy
estimation during a nuclear explosion
• Predict the performance of full-scale prototype using the
results of tests performed on models

In the previous chapters, the theoretical basis for the analyses of flow problems
and design of heavy fluid structures and machines has been developed. In this
chapter, the role of dimensional analysis in identifying different parameters
involved in a system and then establishing a possible functional relationship
between them will be discussed. It should be noted that the derived relationship
is of qualitative nature. For quantitative assessment of the unknown factors,
relevant experiments should be conducted. The importance of dimensional
analysis can be judged from the classic example of G.I. Taylor’s dimensional
analysis for the estimation of energy released during nuclear explosion
explained later in this chapter.

Similitude, on the other hand, is the absolute similarity between a system

(prototype) and its geometric replica (model). The tests are conducted on the
scale down models and the results are predicted for the actual prototypes. The
results of these studies are necessary before initiating the full-scale construction
of prototype, which involves huge capital investments.
The dimensional analysis and similitude has numerous applications in avia-
tion, automotive sector, ship building industries, and construction of dams,
bridges, and high-rise buildings.

10.1 DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS

Sometimes it is almost impossible to get an analytical solution of a physical
problem involving the real fluids. In addition, the analytical solutions are
based on a number of assumptions, which deviates from the real situation.
546 Fluid Mechanics and Machinery

Dimensional analysis helps in relating the parameters qualitatively. However, it

does not establish the exact relationship. In these methods, the parameters are
usually related in power law form involving a number of constants. The power
law form relates the dependent variable with the product of independent
variables, each raised to some unknown exponents. In order to obtain the
exact relationship, the experiments should be performed on the actual physical
system. The generated experimental data is used to evaluate the numerical
values of the constants. Thus, dimensional analysis is a very useful tool for
planning, presentation, and interpretation of experimental data.
In the words of American Nobel laureate in Physics, P.W. Bridgman
(1882–1961 AD), a pioneer of the theory on dimensional analysis:
‘The principal use of dimensional analysis is to deduce from a study of the dimensions of the
variables in any physical system certain limitations on the form of any possible relationship
between those variables. The method is of great generality and mathematical simplicity.’
In quantitative analysis of physical problems, the mathematical relationship
between the numerical values of the physical quantities (x1, x2, x3, . . . , xn )
involved is expressed in terms of general physical equation of the form
xn = f ( x1, x2, x3,. . ., xn −1) (10.1)
where, xn is called dependent variable and all others are termed as independent
variables.
The aforementioned physical equation must follow the principle of dimensional
homogeneity, which states that
‘Each term of the equation must have the same dimensions.’
For example, the total head at a point in a hydraulic circuit or pipe network is
the sum of pressure, velocity, and datum heads.
p V2
H= + + z (10.2)
ρg 2 g
The total head H has the dimension of length [L], each term on the right-hand
side must have the dimension of length as per the principle of dimensional
homogeneity. Let us verify the dimension of each term on the right side using
Table 10.1.
p [ ML−1 T −2 ]
Pressure head = [L ]
ρg [ ML −3 ][ LT −2 ]

V2 [ LT −1 ]2
Velocity head = [L ]
2g [ LT −2 ]

Datum head  z [L ]
 Dimensional Analysis and Similitude 547

Table 10.1 Physical quantities with their dimensions and units

SI unit
Type Quantities Symbol Dimensions SI unit
symbol
Mass m M Kilogram kg
Length l, x, d, etc. L Metre m
Time t T Second s
Base Electric current I, i I Ampere A
Temperature T Θ Kelvin K
Amount of substance n N Mole mol
Luminous intensity Iv J Candela cd
Area A L2 Square metre m2
Volume ∀ L3 Cubic metre m3
Angle θ – Radians rad
Velocity V LT −1
Metre/second m/s
Angular velocity ω T −1
Radian/second rad/s
Acceleration a LT −2 Metre/second2 m/s2
Discharge Q L3 T −1 Metre3/second m3/s
Density ρ ML −3 Kilogram/Metre3 kg/m3

µ Kilogram/
Dynamic viscosity ML −1 T −1 kg/m-s
Metre-second
Kinematic viscosity υ L2 T −1 Metre2/second m2/s

P Kilogram-metre/
Momentum MLT −1 kg-m/s
second
Derived Force F MLT −2 Newton N
Impulse I MLT −1 Newton-second N-s

p Newton/metre or N/m2 or
2
Pressure ML −1T −2
Pascal Pa
Newton/metre2 N/m2 or
Stress σ ML−1T−2
or Pascal Pa
Strain ε – – –
Newton-metre
Energy, work E,W ML 2 T −2 N-m or J
or Joule
Power P ML2 T −3 Joule/s or Watt J/s or W
−2
Specific enthalpy h LT 2
Joule/kilogram J/kg
Joule/kilogram-
Specific entropy s L2 T −2 Θ −1 J/kg-K
Kelvin
Joule/kilogram-
Specific heat c L2 T −2 Θ −1 J/kg-K
Kelvin
548 Fluid Mechanics and Machinery

Each term has the dimension of length. The left-hand side and right-hand
side of Eq. (10.2) have the same dimensions, thus, this equation satisfies the
principle of dimensional homogeneity.

10.1.1 Dimensions
Dimension is defined as any measurable property used to describe the physical
state of a body or a system. The magnitude of a dimension is described by
units of measurement. SI (International System of Units), FPS (foot-pound-
second), CGS (centimetre-gram-second), and MKS (metre-kilogram-second)
systems are the commonly used systems for units of measurement. In fact,
SI system is the most acceptable international system for units of measurement.
The physical parameters or quantities are categorized into base or fundamental
and derived dimensions. The base or fundamental quantities have their own
dimensions and units. There are seven such base quantities, whose dimensions
are represented by a single Sans Serif Roman capital letter. The following are the
definitions of some important base quantities used in fluid mechanics:
Mass  Kilogram is the SI unit of mass that is equal to the mass of the
international prototype of the kilogram, which is an artifact made of platinum-
iridium kept at the Bureau International des Poids et Mesures (BIPM) under certain
specified conditions.
Time  Second is the SI unit of time, which is the duration of 9192631770
periods corresponding to the transition between the two hyperfine levels of
the ground state of the Cesium 133 atom at rest at absolute zero temperature.
Length  Metre is the SI unit of length, which is the length of the path travelled
by light in vacuum during a time interval of 1/299792458 (speed of light in
vacuum) of a second.
Temperature  Kelvin is the SI unit of temperature, which is the fraction
1/273.16 of the thermodynamic temperature of the triple point of water
(0.01°C).
The derived quantities, as the name indicates, are derived from the base
quantities. In other words, all quantities other than base quantities are derived
quantities. The derived quantities can always be expressed in terms of the
base quantities relating them by definition or as per some physical laws
governing them. The dimensions of the derived quantities are, thus, written
as products of the dimensions of base quantities with appropriate power.
Table 10.1 shows the base and derived quantities and their dimensions.

10.1.2 Rayleigh’s Indicial Method

This power series or indicial method of dimensional analysis was developed by
the Nobel Laureate John William Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh (1842–1919 AD),
an English physicist. It is based on the principle of dimensional homogeneity of all
 Dimensional Analysis and Similitude 549

the parameters or quantities or variables involved in a physical problem. The

following is the step-by-step procedure:
1. The dependent variable is identified and expressed as some function
of independent variables with each independent variable raised to an
unknown exponent.
2. Each variable is then written in terms of its fundamental dimensions.
3. Using the principle of dimensional homogeneity, the powers of each
fundamental dimension on either side of the equation are compared.
4. A set of simultaneous linear equations is obtained in terms of unknown
exponents.
5. These simultaneous equations are solved to obtain the numerical values of
unknown exponents.
The Rayleigh method has been demonstrated in solved Examples 10.1, 10.2,
and 10.3. This method becomes tedious if the variables involved are large in
number. In such cases, Buckingham-pi theorem, described in the subsequent
section, is more convenient to use.
Example 10.1  A pressure wave propagating with a velocity u through a liquid is
dependent upon the elastic modulus (bulk) of the liquid K and its mass density ρ. Use
Rayleigh’s indicial method to obtain a functional relationship among the parameters.
Solution: Velocity u is the dependent variable influenced by independent variables
bulk modulus K and density ρ. Expressing velocity in power law form,
u = CK aρ b (1)
where a, b, and C are the dimensionless constants.
The fundamental dimensions of the parameters involved
u = LT −1 , K = ML −1T −2 , ρ = ML−3
Substituting these dimensions in Eq. (1),
[ LT −1 ] = [ M 0 L0 T0 ][ ML−1T −2 ]a [ ML−3 ]b
[ M 0 LT −1 ] = [ M ]a + b [ L ]− a − 3b [ T ]−2a
Equating the power indices (exponents) of M, L, and T, the following three equations
are evolved:
M:  a+b=0
L:  −a −3b = 1
T:  −2a = −1
Solving these simultaneous equations,
a = 1/2
b = −1/2
Substituting these constants in Eq. (1) to obtain the functional relation between velocity,
density, and bulk’s modulus
K
u=C
ρ
The constant C can be evaluated from the experiments.
550 Fluid Mechanics and Machinery

Example 10.2  The rise in a fluid level inside a capillary tube H depends on its
specific weight γ, surface tension σ, and radius of the capillary tube R. Deduce the
following relationship using Rayleigh indicial method:
H  σ 
= f  2
R  γR 

Solution:  The capillary rise H is a dependent variable, whereas, specific weight γ,

surface tension σ, and radius of the capillary tube R are independent variables. The
fundamental dimensions of these parameters are
H = [L]
γ = [ML−2 T −2]
σ = [MT −2]
R = [L]
Relating the dependent parameter with the independent parameters by power law form
H = C1γ  aσ  bR c(1)
[L] = [M0L0 T 0] [ML−2 T −2]a [MT −2]b[L]c
[ M0L T0] = [M]a + b[L]−2a + c[T]−2a − 2b
Equating the power indices (exponents) of M, L, and T, the following three equations
are evolved:
M: a+b=0
L: −2a + c = 1
T: −2a − 2b = 0  → a + b = 0
Since there are three variables and only two equations, expressing any two variables in
terms of third variable is shown as
a = -b
c = 1 - 2b
Substituting the aforementioned constants in Eq. (1)
H = C1γ − bσ bR1− 2 b

H 1 1
= C1 b σ b 2 b
R γ R
b
H  σ 
= C1  2 
R  γR 

H  σ 
= f 2
R  γR 

Example 10.3  Derive an expression for the drag force FD on a sphere of diameter D
moving with a uniform velocity u in a fluid of density ρ and dynamic viscosity µ.
 Dimensional Analysis and Similitude 551

Solution:  The drag force FD is a dependent variable, whereas, sphere diameter D,

fluid density ρ, fluid velocity u, and fluid viscosity μ are independent variables. The
fundamental dimensions of these parameters are
Drag force FD = [MLT−2]
Diameter D = [L]
Velocity u = [LT−2 ]
Density ρ = [ML−3]
Dynamic viscosity µ = [ML−1T−1]
The relation in power law form is
FD = C1 D aubρ cµ d (1)
[ MLT −2 ] = [ M 0 L0 T0 ][ L ]a [ LT −1 ]b [ ML−3 ]c [ ML−1T −1 ]d

[ MLT −2 ] = [ M ]c+ d [ L ]a + b − 3c − d [ T ]−b − d

Equating the exponents

M: c + d = 1  → c = 1 − d
T: −b − d = −2  → b = 2 − d
L: a + b − 3c − d = 1  → a = 2 − d
Substituting in Eq. (1)

FD = C1 D 2 − du 2 − dρ 1− dµ d

D 2 u2 ρ d
FD = C1 µ
D d ud ρ d
d
 µ 
FD = C1 ρ u D 2 2

 ρ uD 

 µ 
FD = ρ u 2 D 2 f  
 ρ uD 

FD = ρ u 2 D 2 f1 (Re)

10.1.3 Buckingham-pi Theorem

Buckingham-pi theorem got its name after its founder Edgar Buckingham
(1867–1940 AD), an American physicist. This method not only helps in estab-
lishing a functional relationship between the independent and dependent
variables, but also reduces the total number of parameters.
Statement
Given n variables that are expressible in terms of r independent dimensions, then there
are no more than (n − r) independent dimensionless variables.
552 Fluid Mechanics and Machinery

If there are n number of total variables, such that there exists a functional
relationship between them, that is,
f ( x1, x2, x3,. . ., xn ) = 0 (10.3)
The following steps are involved in the Buckingham-pi method:
1. List all the variables and express each of them in terms of fundamental
dimensions namely, mass [ M ], length [ L], time [ T ], temperature [Θ],
etc., as shown in Table 10.1.
2. Let the parameters collectively contain r number of fundamental
dimensions.
3. The number of repeating variables must be equal to the total number of
fundamental dimensions.
4. The number of dimensionless π-groups = n − r.
5. The number of parameters involved is now reduced by r and the functional
relationship needs to be established between only (n − r) π-groups, that is,
f ( π1, π2, π3, . . . , πn −r ) = 0 (10.4)
Suppose x1, x2,  and  x3 are the repeating variables, then the following π-groups
can be determined:
π1 = x1a 1 x2b 1 x3c 1 x4 
a 2 b2 c 2

π2 = x x x x
1 2 3 5 
 (10.5)
... 
πn − r = x1 x2 x3 xn 
an − m bn − m cn − m

The following points must be remembered while selecting repeating variables:

1. The repeating variables chosen must contain all the fundamental
dimensions collectively.
2. No two of the selected repeating variables have the same dimensions.
3. The dependent variable is generally not taken as a repeating variable.
4. The chosen repeating variables must represent variables from each of the
following categories—geometric, kinematic, and dynamic. In geometric
variables any one which is the most suitable among parameters such as
diameter, length, or height may be chosen. Kinematic means motion. The
most relevant among kinematic variables such as velocity, acceleration,
and discharge may be selected. The variables such as density, viscosity fall
under dynamic category.
Buckingham-pi method has been demonstrated in Examples 10.4 and 10.5.

Example 10.4  Using Buckingham-pi theorem, establish a functional relationship for

drop in pressure across a pipe of length L and diameter d with average wall roughness
 Dimensional Analysis and Similitude 553

height e. The fluid having density ρ and viscosity µ is flowing through the pipe with a
velocity V.
Solution:  The pressure drop is a function of the following parameters:
∆p = f ( ρ, µ, V , d, L, e ) (1)
The following are the fundamental dimensions of all the parameters involved:

∆p = [ ML−1 T −2 ]

ρ = [ ML−3 ]

µ = [ ML−1 T −1 ]

V = [ LT −1 ]

d = [L ]

L = [L ]

e = [L ]
Number of variables n = 7
Number of fundamental dimensions = 3 (i.e., M, L, and T )
Number of repeating variables (same as number of fundamental dimensions) r = 3
Thus, number of dimensionless terms (π-terms), n − r = 7 − 3 = 4
Hence, the number of variables is now reduced from 7 to 4 only.
Selection of repeating variables on the basis of rules discussed in Section 10.1.3:
Selecting ρ, μ, and d as repeating variables
Determining π-terms:
π1 = ρ aµ bd c∆ p

[ M 0 L0 T0 ] = [ ML−3 ]a [ ML−1T −1 ]b [ L ]c [ ML−1T −2 ]

Using the principle of dimensional homogeneity, that is, the power of each fundamental
dimension must be the same on either side of equation.
T:  b = −2
M:  a + b = −1  → a = 1
L:  3a + b − c = −1  → c = 2
Substituting the constants to get the first π-term

ρ d 2∆ p
π1 =
µ2
π2 = ρ aµ bd cV
[ M 0 L0 T0 ] = [ ML−3 ]a [ ML−1T −1 ]b [ L ]c [ LT −1 ]
554 Fluid Mechanics and Machinery

Using the principle of dimensional homogeneity

T:  b = −1
M:   a + b = 0  → a = 1
L:  3a + b − c = 1  → c = 1
Substituting the constants to get the second π-term
ρVd
π2 =
µ
π3 = ρ aµ bd cL

[ M 0 L0 T0 ] = [ ML−3 ]a [ ML−1 T −1]b [ L ]c[ L ]

Using the principle of dimensional homogeneity
T:  b=0
M:  a + b = 0  → a = 0
L:  3a + f b − c = 1  → c = − 1
Substituting the constants to get the third π-term
L
π3 =
d
The last π-term
π4 = ρ aµ bd ce
[ M 0 L0 T0 ] = [ ML−3 ]a [ ML−1T −1 ]b [ L ]c[ L ]
Using the principle of dimensional homogeneity
T:  b=0
M:  a + b = 0  → a = 0
L:  3a + b − c = 1  → c = −1
Substituting the constants to get the fourth π-term
e
π4 =
d
Therefore, the relation between dependent and independent parameters represented
by Eq. (1), is now reduced as
π1 = f1 ( π2 , π3 , π4 )

ρ d 2∆ p  ρVd L e 
= f1  , , 
µ2  µ d d
Dividing π1 by π 22 to get a new dimensionless term on the LHS to obtain the following
∆p  ρVd L e 
= f2  , , 
ρV 2  µ d d
The aforementioned equation takes the following form when the LHS is divided by ½
and the dimensionless ratio L/d is taken out of the function f2 :
∆p L  ρVd e 
= f3  , 
(1/2) ρV 2
d  µ d
 Dimensional Analysis and Similitude 555

The aforementioned relation is nothing but the well-known Darcy–Weisbach equation,

that is,
L  e  1 
∆p = f 3  Re,   ρV 2 
d  d  2 
where, the function f3 (Re , e/d ) is the friction factor, which can be obtained from
Moody’s chart.

Example 10.5  The lift L is produced by an airplane wing of chord length l at an

angle of attack α, when kept in a fluid with velocity V, density ρ, and viscosity µ. If the
speed of sound in fluid is a, establish a relationship among involved variables.
Solution: The lift L is a function of independent parameters listed in the problem
statement:
L = f (V, l , ρ , µ , a , α )  (1)
The following are the fundamental dimensions of all the parameters involved

L = [ MLT −2 ]

ρ = [ ML−3 ]

µ = [ ML−1T −1 ]

V = [ LT −1 ]

l = [L ]

a = [ LT −1 ]

α = [ M 0 L0 T0 ]
Number of variables n = 7
Number of fundamental dimensions = 3 (i.e., M, L, T )
Number of repeating variables (same as number of fundamental dimensions) r = 3
Thus, number of dimensionless terms (π-terms), n − r = 7 − 3 = 4.
Hence, the number of variables is now reduced from 7 to 4 only.
Selection of repeating variables on the basis of rules discussed in Section 10.1.3:
Selecting ρ, V, and l as repeating variables
Determining π-terms:
π1 = ρ aV bl cL
[ M 0 L0 T0 ] = [ ML−3 ]a [ LT −1 ]b [ L ]c[ MLT −2 ]

Using the principle of dimensional homogeneity, that is, the power of each fundamental
dimension must be the same on either side of the equation.
T:  −b − 2 = −2  →  b = −2
M:  a + 1 = 0  →  a = −1
L: −3a + b + c + 1 = 0  →  c = −2
556 Fluid Mechanics and Machinery

Substituting the constants to get the first π-term

L
π1 =
ρV 2l 2

π2 = ρ aV bl cµ

[ M 0 L0 T0 ] = [ ML−3 ]a [ LT −1 ]b [ L ]c [ ML−1T −1 ]

Using the principle of dimensional homogeneity, that is, the power of each fundamental
dimension must be the same on either side of the equation.
T: −b − 1 = 0  →  b = −1
M: a + 1 = 0  →  a = −1
L: −3a + b + c − 1 = 0  → c = −1
Substituting the constants to get the second π-term
µ
π2 =
ρVl

π3 = ρ aV bl ca

[ M 0 L0 T0 ] = [ ML−3 ]a [ LT −1 ]b [ L ]c[ LT −1 ]

Using the principle of dimensional homogeneity, that is, the power of each fundamental
dimension must be the same on either side of the equation.
T:  −b − 1 = 0  →  b = −1
M:  a=0
L: −3a + b + c + 1 = 0  →  c = 0
Substituting the constants to get the third π-term
a
π3 =
V
The fourth π-term will be same as angle of attack (dimensionless).
π4 = α

Therefore, the relation between dependent and independent parameters represented
by Eq. (1), is now reduced as
π1 = f1 ( π2, π3, π4 )

L  µ a 
= f1  , ,α 
ρV l
2 2
 ρVl V 

The aforementioned equation may be reduced to
L
CL = = f 2 (Re, M, α )
(1/2) ρV 2A

where, C L is the lift coefficient.
 Dimensional Analysis and Similitude 557

10.1.4 Taylor Analysis

The utility of dimensional analysis can be judged from its successful
predictions in various fields, for example, aviation, shipping, automotive sector,
etc. G.I. Taylor, a British physicist, used dimensional analysis for estimating
the energy released during a nuclear explosion. The analysis was based on
the released photographs of Trinity test in New Mexico in 1945 (Fig. 10.1). The
analysis provided a close estimate of the energy released during the actual test.
G.I. Taylor’s analysis1, 2 is based on the assumptions that shock wave (fire ball)
is spherical in shape and it emanates from a small space. The radius of the
fire ball R is a function of time t, energy released E, and the density of the
surrounding medium, that is, air ρ.

t = 0.006 s
100 m

t = 0.016 s
100 m

t = 0.053 s
100 m

Fig. 10.1 Schematic diagram showing progression of nuclear explosion

1. G.I. Taylor, The formation of a blast wave by a very intense explosion: Theoretical discussion. Proc. Roy.
Soc. A 201 (1950), pp. 493–509 [Reprinted in The Scientific Papers of Sir Geoffrey Ingram Taylor, Vol. 3,
G.K. Batchelor, ed., Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 510–521].
2. G.I. Taylor, The formation of a blast wave by a very intense explosion: II. The atomic explosion of 1945.
Proceedings of the Royal Society A 201, 1950, pp. 493–509 [Reprinted in The scientific papers of Sir Geoffrey
Ingram Taylor, G.K. Batchelor. ed., Vol. 3, Cambridge University Press, pp. 510–521].
558 Fluid Mechanics and Machinery

The fundamental dimensions of these parameters are

R = [L]
E = [ML2 T −2]
ρ = [ML−3]
t = [T]
Relating the dependent parameter with the independent parameters by power
law form,
  R = C1E aρ b t c(10.6)
[L] = [M0L0 T0 ] [ML2T−2]a [ ML−3]b [T]c
[M0L T0] = [M]a + b [L]2a − 3b [T]−2a + c
Equating the power indices (exponents) of M, L, and T, the following three
equations are evolved:
M:  a + b = 0
L:  2a − 3b = 1
T:  −2a + c = 0
Solving these equations to obtain exponents a, b, and c:
a =1/5
b = −1/5
c = 2/5
Substituting these constants in Eq. (10.6)
1/5
 Et 2 
R = C1  
 ρ 
The energy released is, thus, given by
ρR 5
E =C
t2
where, constant C =1/C15.
Assuming the constant C = 1, the expression for energy released during
explosion is given by

ρR 5
E=
t2
At t = 0.006 s, the radius of the fireball R = 80 m (approx.), the energy released
1.2 × 805
E= ⇒ E = 1.092 × 108 MJ
0.0062
 Dimensional Analysis and Similitude 559

10.2 SIMILITUDE
Real-life problems usually involve a number of phenomena occurring simultane-
ously, for example, fluid-structure interaction, fluid-thermal coupling, etc. This
makes the analytical solution of such complex problems very difficult. In addi-
tion, numerical solution requires extraordinary skills and computational facilities.
Further, conducting experiments on full-scale models involve huge finances and
meticulous planning. For example, it is not feasible to construct a full-scale model
of a dam/high-rise building/spacecraft just for experimental purpose. The
design has to be foolproof so that the chances of failure are the least. One way
of dealing with such problems is to conduct the experimental tests on the scale-
down models before going for construction or manufacturing. This will save time
and money and ensure the safe design of the actual structure or machine.
The structure or machine of actual size is known as prototype, whereas, its
geometric replica is termed as model. It should be noted that the model is not
always smaller than its prototype. When the prototype is of miniature type,
the model is usually scaled-up to carry out experimental tests. It should also
be remembered that while testing a model, the use of the same fluid is not
necessary. The similitude is defined as complete similarity between the model
and its prototype. The complete similarity is achieved only when the two are
geometrically, kinematically, and dynamically similar, as shown in Fig. 10.2.

Similitude
(Complete similarity)

Geometric similarity Kinematic similarity Dynamic similarity

Fig. 10.2 Organization chart for defining similitude

The model and prototype of an airfoil section has been shown in Fig. 10.3. The
model, as can be seen from the figure, is the geometric replica of its prototype.
The two are subjected to different velocities in a fixed ratio. The prototype and
model are subjected to different forces, namely, pressure force (Fp ), viscous force
(Fv), and gravity force (Fg ). Their directions are also shown in Fig. 10.3.

10.2.1 Geometric Similarity

The geometric similarity is also known as similarity of shapes, as shown in
Fig. 10.3. The model and prototype are said to be similar if the ratios of the
corresponding dimensions are equal, that is,
lm
= lr (10.7)
lp
560 Fluid Mechanics and Machinery

Vp Fp
Fv lp

Vm lm Fg
Fv Fp
ap
Fg
am

(a) (b)

Fig. 10.3 Airfoil section (a) Model (b) Prototype

where, lm and lp are the corresponding length dimensions of model and

prototype, respectively, and lr is known as the length scale factor or model ratio.
Attaining geometric similarity seems easier but the fact is that it is almost
impossible to attain. The reason is that the surface roughness needs to be
scaled down or scaled up in the same proportion, which may not be possible.
However, for the sake of convenience the geometric similarity does not include
surface roughness.

10.2.2 Kinematic Similarity

The similarity of fluid motion on model and prototype is termed as kinematic
similarity. The motion is defined in terms of velocity and acceleration. Both
these quantities involve distance and time. For distance, the length scale factor
is used as described in Eq. (10.7). For time, the time scale factor is defined in a
similar way:
t m (10.8)
tr =
tp

Similarly, the velocity scale factor

Vm lm /tm lr
Vr = ⇒ Vr = ⇒ Vr = (10.9)
Vp lp /tp tr

and, the acceleration scale factor

a lm tm2 lr
ar = m ⇒ ar = ⇒ ar = (10.10)
ap lp tp2 tr2

The physical meaning of kinematic similarity is that the fluid motion

represented by the patterns formed by streamlines on model and prototype
will be similar at a given instance.
 Dimensional Analysis and Similitude 561

10.2.3 Dynamic Similarity

Dynamic similarity pertains to similarity of forces acting on the model and
the prototype. According to this, the ratio of magnitude of forces on the
corresponding points at the surface of the prototype and model must be
constant. Table 10.2 shows the forces that may encounter in fluid flow.

Table 10.2 Forces in fluid flow

Force Formulae
Inertia force, Fi Fi = m × a ⇒ Fi = ρl 3 ×V 2/l ⇒ Fi = ρl 2V 2

Viscous force, Fv V 2
Fv = τ × A ⇒ Fv = µ ×l ⇒ Fv = µVl
l

Pressure force, Fp Fp = p × A ⇒ Fp = pl 2

Gravity force, Fg Fg = mg ⇒ Fg = ρl 3 g

Elastic force, Fe Fe = El 2

Surface tension force, Fσ Fσ = σ l

The ratios of inertia force to other forces are the famous non-dimensional
numbers used in fluid mechanics. Table 10.3 presents these non-dimensional
numbers.
On the basis of equivalence of these non-dimensional numbers, the dynamic
similarity is established between the model and the prototype. Depending upon
the type of flow, the equivalence of the particular non-dimensional number is
applied:
Reynolds model law  This law is applicable for the flow conditions where
the effects of viscous forces are predominant. For dynamic similarity in such
cases, the Reynolds number for model and prototype must be the same.
 ρV l   ρV l 
Rem = Rep ⇒   =  (10.11)
 µ m  µ p
Froude model law  This law is applicable when the flow is gravity-driven
flow, that is, flow in open channels and flow in tilted pipes. For dynamic similarity
in such cases, the Froude number for model and prototype must be the same.
 V   V 
Frm = Frp ⇒  =
 gl   gl 
(10.12)
 m  p
562 Fluid Mechanics and Machinery

Table 10.3 Non-dimensional numbers

Force Definition Formula Application

• Finds application in
internal as well as external
Reynolds Inertia force ρVl
Re = Re = flows
number,
Viscous force   µ • Helps in identifying
Re
whether the flow is
laminar or turbulent
• Finds application in open
Froude Inertia force V channel flows
number, Fr = Fr = • Helps in identifying
Gravity force gl
Fr whether the flow is
subcritical or supercritical
• Finds application in
Mach Inertia force V compressible flows
number, M= M= • Helps in identifying
Elastic force E/ρ
M   whether the flow is
subsonic or supersonic
Euler Inertia force V • Finds application in flows
number, Eu = Eu = with pressure or pressure
Pressure force p/ρ
Eu   difference is important
Weber • Finds application in
Inertia force We = V
number, We = two-phase flows, droplet
Surface tension force σ/ρl
We dynamics, etc.

Euler model law  This law is applicable where the pressure forces are
predominant. For dynamic similarity in such cases, the Euler number for
model and prototype must be the same.

 V   V 
Frm = Frp ⇒  =
 p/ρ   p/ρ 
(10.13)
 m  p

Mach model law  This law is applicable for compressible flows. As the
density varies due to pressure, there is elastic compression and the corresponding
force is known as elastic force. For dynamic similarity in such cases, the Mach
number for model and prototype must be the same.

 V   V 
Mm = M p ⇒  =
 E/ρ   E/ρ  (10.14)

 m  p
 Dimensional Analysis and Similitude 563

Weber model law  This law is applicable for the cases where the surface
tension force is significant. The surface tension comes into picture whenever
the liquid and the vapour phases come in contact. This force acts at the
liquid–vapour interface, for example, bubble and droplet dynamics. For
dynamic similarity in such cases, the Weber number for model and prototype
must be the same.
 V   V 
We m = Wep ⇒   =   (10.15)
 σ/ρ l
 m  σ/ρ l p
Let us consider the example of the wing of an aircraft having airfoil section,
shown in Fig. 10.2. It is required to test the model of the aircraft wing in a wind
tunnel and obviously the model should be set at the same angle of attack as
that of the prototype. The question is—at what air velocity should the model
be tested so that the lift produced by the prototype at a given speed and angle
of attack can be predicted? To find the solution to this problem, the following
steps are to be taken:
1. To attain the dynamic similarity between the model and the prototype, the
Reynolds model law must be satisfied,
ρmVm lm ρpVp lp
= (10.16)
µm µp
The air velocity at which the model will be tested inside the wind tunnel is
obtained from Eq. (10.16):
µm lp ρp
Vm = Vp (10.17)
µp lm ρm
2. In addition, the dynamic similarity requires equivalence of lift coefficients
for the model and the prototype.
Lp Lm
= (10.18)
(1/2) ρpVp lp
2 2
(1/2) ρmVm 2lm2
Therefore, lift produced by the prototype at the same angle of attack is obtained
from Eq. (10.18):
2 2
ρp  Vp   l p  (10.19)
Lp =     Lm
ρm  Vm   lm 

Example 10.6  A dam is to be constructed across a river, 25 m wide, to discharge the
water at the rate of 150 m3/s under a head of 5 m. Determine the dimensions for the
dam’s laboratory model if the available discharge at the test section is 30 L/s.
564 Fluid Mechanics and Machinery

Solution:  Using Froude model law,

Vm Vp Vm hm
Frm = Frp ⇒ = ⇒ =
ghm gh p Vp hp
The velocity ratio is the square root of depth ratio,
Vr = hr
Ratio of flow area
Am bm hm
= ⇒ Ar = br hr
Ap bp hp
From the geometric similarity,
bm hm
= ⇒ br = hr
bp hp
Discharge ratio
Q m Am Vm
= ⇒ Q r = A rVr ⇒ Q r = hr2.5
Qp A pVp
Substituting the values to get the value of
1/2.5
 30 ×10−3 
hr =   ⇒ hr = 0.03314
 150 
The head required for the dam’s model
hm = hr h p ⇒ hm = 0.03314 × 5 ⇒ hm = 16.57 cm
The width of the dam’s model
bm = br bp ⇒ bm = 0.03314 × 25 ⇒ bm = 82.85 cm

Example 10.7  To design an aircraft for the flight velocity of 350 km/h under
atmospheric conditions, a 1/5-th model of the aircraft is to be tested in a wind tunnel,
the pressure used in wind tunnel is 5 times the atmospheric pressure.
(a)  Determine the air velocity for testing the model.
(b)  What would the drag on the actual aircraft be if the drag on the model is 400 N?
Solution:  Since the aircraft is to be designed for low velocity, that is, 350 km/h. The
sound velocity at 25°C is 1245 km/h and the corresponding Mach number is less
than 0.3. Effect of compressibility does not come into picture, only Reynolds model
law would be sufficient for designing of the aircraft.
ρmVm lm ρpVp lp Vm µ ρp lp
Rem = Rep ⇒ = ⇒ = m
µm µp Vp µp ρm lm
The velocity ratio is, thus, given by
µ
Vr = r
ρr lr
 Dimensional Analysis and Similitude 565

Since pressure does not affect the viscosity significantly, µr = 1, the air density varies
with the variation in pressure. Considering isothermal conditions, p/ρ = constant.
ρm p
= m ⇒ ρr = pr ⇒ ρr = 5
ρp pp
Thus, the velocity ratio is
µ 1
Vr = r ⇒ Vr = ⇒ Vr = 1
ρr lr 5 ×1/5
The velocity of air at which the model to be tested inside the wind tunnel is
Vm = Vr Vp ⇒ Vm = 350 km/h
The ratio of drag forces
Dm 1
Dr = = ρr lr2Vr 2  D = ρV 2A
Dp 2
Therefore, the drag on the actual aircraft is
Dm 400
Dp = ⇒ Dp = ⇒ Dp = 2000 N
ρr lr2Vr 2 5 × (1/5)2 ×12

10.2.4 Distorted Models

One may come across some practical problems where the application of strict
adherence to similitude principles may not be possible. For example, in order to
model rivers, estuaries, ports, dams, etc., where there is a longitudinal slope and
large areal spread (basin), the same geometric scaling will lead to unexpected
erroneous results. In such cases, distorted scale modelling is recommended.
The vertical flow dimension (depth) is scaled by Froude model law while length
and width are scaled to the available space where the river model is to be built.
The horizontal scales are of the order of 1/200–1/1000, whereas, vertical scale
is of the order of 1/100 (see Example 10.8).

Example 10.8  To model a river, the horizontal scale is 1:500 and vertical scale is
1:50, determine (a) model bed slope if prototype bed slope is 0.0003 (b) river flow
velocity and discharge if the corresponding values for the model are 1 m/s and 30 L/s,
respectively.

Solution:  This problem demonstrates the use of a distorted model to model the river flow.
Given that hr = 1/50 and br = 1/500
The length ratio is the same as the width ratio to attain geometric similarity, that is,
lr = 1/500
(a)  Slope ratio
im hm /l m hr 1/50
= ⇒ ir = ⇒ ir = ⇒ ir = 10
ip h p /lp lr 1/500
566 Fluid Mechanics and Machinery

Thus, the bed slope for the river model is

i m = ir i p ⇒ im = 0.003
(b)  Velocity ratio is obtained from Froude model law

Vm hm
= ⇒ Vr = hr ⇒ Vr = 1/50 ⇒ Vr = 0.1414
Vp hp
The flow velocity of river
Vp = Vm /Vr ⇒ Vm = 1/0.1414 ⇒ Vm = 7.07 m/s
Ratio of flow area

Am bm hm
= ⇒ Ar = br hr
A p bp h p
Discharge ratio
1.5
Qm AV 1  1 
= mm ⇒ Q r = ArVr ⇒ Q r = br hr1.5 ⇒ Qr=  
Qp A pVp 500  50 
The discharge through river
Q p = Q m /Q r ⇒ Q p = 500 × 501.5 × 0.03 ⇒ Q p = 5303.3 m3/s

POINTS TO REMEMBER
• Dimensional analysis helps in developing a functional relationship between
the dependent and independent variables of a system. However, it does not
establish the exact relationship. For exact relation, experiments are conducted
to find out the unknown factors using regression analysis.
• There are two commonly used methods of dimensional analysis are Rayleigh
method and Buckingham-pi method. Buckingham-pi method is more
advantageous due to reduction in the number of variables by forming non-
dimensional groups.
• Similitude is the complete similarity between an actual system (prototype) and
its geometric replica (model). The model must comply with the prototype on
the basis on geometric, kinematic, and dynamic similarities.
• Geometric similarity is the similarity in shapes, kinematic similarity is the
similarity in motion, and dynamic similarity is the similarity of the forces
acting on them.
• The distorted models are used when it is difficult to adhere to uniform scaling
in all the dimensions. In such cases, the scaling factor is different for vertical
and horizontal directions.
 Dimensional Analysis and Similitude 567

    SUGGESTED READINGS
Douglas, J.F., J.M. Gasiorek, J.A. Swaffield, Fluid Mechanics, 3rd Ed., Addison-Wesley
Longman, Delhi, 1999.
Massey, B., Mechanics of Fluids, 8th Ed., Taylor and Francis, Noida, 2010.
Subramanya, K., Theory and Applications of Fluid Mechanics, Tata McGraw Hill Education
Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, 1993.
Taylor, B.N., A. Thompson, The International Systems of Units (SI  ), 2008 Ed., NIST
Special Publications 330, 2008.

MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS
10.1 Pascal-second is the unit of
(a)  drag (c)  dynamic viscosity
(b)  kinematic viscosity (d)  pressure
10.2 Froude number is the ratio of inertia force to
(a) viscous force (c)  gravity force
(b) buoyancy force (d)  surface tension force
10.3 Kinematic similarity is the similarity of
(a)  motion (c)  forces
(b)  dimensions (d)  all of these
10.4 Dynamic similarity is similarity of
(a)  forces (c)  motion
(b)  dimensions (d)  all of these
10.5 Is the true geometric similarity possible?
(a) Yes (c)  Can’t say
(b)  No (d)  Sometimes it’s possible
10.6 If Reynolds number and Froude number for model and prototype, to be tested
on the same fluid, are equal then the scale of the model is
1
(a)  Vr (c) 
Vr
(b)  Vr (d)  1.0
10.7 What will be the discharge ratio in a distorted model of harbour if horizontal
and vertical scales are Lr and hr, respectively?
1
(a)  Lr hr (c)  Lr hr 2
1 3
(b)  Lr 2 hr (d)  Lr hr 2
10.8 Distorted models are used for
(a) large prototype (c) large prototype with complex geometry
(b) prototype with large difference in (d)  none of these
     horizontal and vertical dimensions
10.9 Which law of similarity is trait for two phase flow in a horizontal tube?
(a)  Reynolds model law (c)  Euler model law
(b)  Froude model law (d)  Mach model law
568 Fluid Mechanics and Machinery

10.10 A 120 size model of a boat has a drag of 0.2 N while testing at a speed of 2 m/s
inside the laboratory with the fluid used for prototype. What will be corresponding
resistance in the actual boat?
(a) 0.16 kN (c)  16 
kN
(b) 1.6 kN (d)  160 kN

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1 0.1 What do you understand by dimensional homogeneity?
10.2 What is the significance of dimensional analysis?
10.3 What is similitude? What are different types of similarities between the model
and its prototype?
10.4 Why is it impossible to achieve geometric similarity between a model and its
prototype?
10.5 Discuss the need for distorted models.

UNSOLVED PROBLEMS
10.1 Using Rayleigh method, show that the discharge Q through the triangular notch
having vertex angle θ and head h is given by

Q  V 
= h 2f  θ , 
gh  gh 

where V is the velocity of approach and g is the acceleration due to gravity.
10.2 If the power P developed by a hydraulic turbine is found to depend on water
density ρ, speed of rotation N (rpm), runner diameter D, head available at turbine
inlet H and acceleration due to gravity g, develop a functional relationship among
the parameters using Rayleigh method.
 3 5 H g 
  Ans: P = K ρ N D f  D , N 2D  
  
10.3 Using Buckingham-pi method, show that the frictional torque T of a disc of
diameter D rotating with speed N in a viscous fluid having dynamic viscosity µ
and density ρ is given by
T  µ 
=f  2 
ρ N 2D 5  ρ ND 
10.4 Obtain the functional relationship using Buckingham-pi method for discharge
Q through a triangular notch which depends upon the head h above it, height H
and top width B of the notch, and fluid properties dynamic viscosity µ, density ρ,
surface tension σ, and acceleration due to gravity g.
 Q H B µ σ 
  Ans: = f , , , 
5/2 h h gρ h 3/2
ρ gh 2  
 gh 
 Dimensional Analysis and Similitude 569

10.5 Apply Buckingham-pi method to derive an expression for the shear stress τw at
the bed of a rough channel having flow depth h, average roughness height e, the
flow velocity V, fluid density ρ, and dynamic viscosity µ.
 τw  e µ 
  Ans: = f , 
 ρV 2
 h ρVh  
10.6 Determine the velocity of water at 50°C through a smooth pipe of diameter
150 mm, if the water flow is dynamically similar to the air flowing at a velocity
150 m/s through the pipe of 100 mm diameter at 25°C.
[Ans: 3.54 m/s]
10.7 An aircraft is to fly at 1440 km/h at a height of 10 km above the sea level (where
the temperature is −50°C and pressure is 26.5 kPa). A 1/20th scale model is
tested in a pressurized wind tunnel in which air is 25°C. For complete dynamic
similarity, what pressure and velocity should be used in the wind tunnel? (For air
μαT  1.5/(T + 117), K = γ p, p = ρRT, where the temperature T is in K, γ is the ratio
of specific heats).
[Ans: 1036.2 kPa, 462.4 m/s]
10.8 A 10 km long canal having flow depth of 5 m, width 100 m, and bed slope 0.002
is to be modelled inside the laboratory space of 20 m keeping vertical scale 1/5.
The average discharge through the canal is 10,000 m3/s. Determine the discharge
and dimensions of the canal model. [Hint: Use distorted model theory]
[Ans: Q = 56.5 L/s, b = 0.2 m, h = 0.1 m, i = 0.02]

Answers to Multiple-choice Questions

10.1 (c) 10.2 (c) 10.3 (a) 10.4 (a) 10.5 (b)
10.6 (d) 10.7 (d) 10.8 (b) 10.9 (d) 10.10 (b)