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Efficient Soil and Water Management under Limited Water Supply Condition

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Integrated Soil and Water Resource Management for Livelihood and
Environmental Security. 2015. Rajkhowa, D.J., Das, Anup, Ngachan, S.V.,
Sikka, A.K. and Lyngdoh, M. (Eds.) pp 1-19. ICAR Research Complex
for NEH Region, Umiam – 793 103, Meghalaya, India

Efficient Soil and Water Management under

Limited Water Supply Condition
RAMAN JEET SINGH, D. MANDAL, B.N. GHOSH, LEKH CHAND, N.M. ALAM AND
N.K. SHARMA

Introduction
Irregular or insufficient rainfall can be a serious limitation to agricultural production,
causing low yields and even crop failure. This is particularly true in drylands, where
productivity levels are generally low. In most cases, a great deal can be done to improve the
efficiency of rainwater use. In arid and semi arid regions, uncertain erratic and scanty rains
coupled with meager irrigation facilities leads to low and unstable yields. Low and erratic
rainfall, high evaporation rate and limited water holding capacity of surface soils are the
main constraints in agricultural production (Bhan, 1997).
India is endowed with plenty of natural resources including rainfall. Vast areas in the
country are rainfed which contribute about 44% of total food grains and support about 40%
human and 60% livestock population of the country. The major chunk of cereals, millets,
oilseeds and pulses is produced in these areas. In India, average annual rainfall of 1190 mm
on 329 million ha makes a total of 400 million ha m of water, of which 150 million ha m
enters into soil. Of the remaining, about 180 million ha m goes as runoff and 70 million ha
m is lost through evaporation. Of the total runoff, only 20 million ha m is properly harvested
by all major and minor irrigation systems (Reddy and Reddi, 1992).
Annual rainfall in several parts of drylands is sufficient for one or more crops per
year. Erratic and high intensity storms leads to runoff and erosion. The Effective rainfall
may be 65% or sometimes less than 50%. Hence, conservation agriculture is one way of
improving soil moisture management. To cope with drought which is a regular feature in
one or the other part of the country, contingent crop planning is required. Success in rainfed
agriculture depends on the efficient utilization of rainwater. Therefore, soil management
practices have to be tailored to store and conserve as much rainfall as possible by reducing
the runoff and increasing storage capacity of soil profile (Sardana and Grewal, 2003). A
number of simple technologies have been developed to prevent or reduce water losses and
to increase water intake.

Central Soil and Water Conservation Research and Training Institute

218, Kaulagarh Road, Dehradun-248 195, India

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 Efficient Soil and Water Management

Soil moisture management for sustainable farming system

A significant cause of low production and crop failure in rainfed agriculture is lack of
water in the soil. This is caused by a combination of low and erratic rainfall and poor
utilization of the water that is available. Soil moisture management is, therefore, a key
factor when trying to enhance agricultural production (Saxena et al., 1998). The major
source of water in the arid region of Western Rajasthan is rainwater. Average annual rainfall
is very erratic in amount (CV>50%), time and space. Intense rain of short duration in sandy
soil leads to uncontrolled movement of water down the slope and cause erosion and
unproductive loss of water. This calls for suitable soil and water conservation measures to
be adopted in such areas.
Increasing the amount of water stored in the soil can result in:
● Improving yields (If there are also enough nutrients)
● Reduce risk of yield losses due to drought
● Recharge of groundwater, securing the water level in wells and the continuity of
river and stream flows.
A little can be done to increase the amount of rainfall or the number of rainfall events,
the focus should be on improving the capture of rainfall, the availability of water in the soil
and water use efficiency in rainfed agricultural lands. This means that the amount of water
that enters the soil (Infiltration) must be increased and that the moisture lost through runoff
and evaporation must be reduced. Increasing soil cover and better soil management can
help to achieve this. Soil should be disturbed as little as possible, there should be permanent
soil cover and the amount of organic matter should be increased. Thus, a sustainable farming
system is one in which the beneficial effects of various conservation practices at least equal
or more than offset the adverse effect of degradative processes.
Treasure hunting in drylands
Water rainfalls on the soil surface, part of it will infiltrate into the soil to replenish
soil water or flow through to recharge the groundwater. Another part will runoff as overland
flow and the remainder will evaporate directly from unprotected soil surfaces and from
plant leaves.The amount of water that can be held in the soil and made available for crop
use is not only determined by the amount of rain that falls but also by the chemical and
physical properties of soil (Benites and Castellanos, 2003). When most people think about
soil, they think about the solid part. But the pore spaces or the structure of the soil are just
as important.
Pore spaces
The number, size and continuity between pore spaces play a crucial role in determining
the amount of water that can infiltrate into the soil, and the amount of water that the soil can
absorb, hold and supply back to plants.It is important to have many interconnected pores of
a wide range of sizes, particularly at the soil surface (FAO, 2003). This improves infiltration,
reduces runoff and benefits crop growth.The number, size and connections between soil

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 Raman Jeet Singh et al.

pores vary according to the type of soil and the way it is managed. Little can be done about
the type of soil, but good land management can have a great impact on restoring, improving
and protecting soil porosity. This in turn will increase available soil water contents and the
interconnected pores will minimize any potential risk of water logging.
Crop water stress
Crop water stress develops when the plant cannot extract water from the soil through
its roots as fast as it losses moisture from the surfaces of its leaves. To ensure that the crops
will be able to utilize the available rainfall, we must understand the causes of poor soil
structure, at the surface as well as below the surface. At the soil surface, the impact of
raindrops on a bare soil surface can decrease porosity through the formation of surface
scales and crusts. These limit the rate of infiltration, leading to increased runoff. Runoff is
responsible for soil erosion and peak river flows (Shaxson, 2001). Any traffic in the field,
such as machinery, ploughing or the impact of human feet or animal hooves, can put pressure
on the sub soil, especially when the soil is in a moist condition. Pressure destroys pore
spaces, in particular the interconnected pore space.
Tillage, in particular turning over the soil by ploughing, can also lead to a decline in
soil fertility. It decreases organic matter content and has a negative effect on soil biological
activity, for example by destroying the burrows of earthworms (McGarry, 2000).

Practices to improve infiltration conserve water and reduce runoff

Conservation of soil and water through scientific techniques is of paramount
importance in areas of low and uncertain rainfall devoid of any assured source of irrigation.
Soil conservation practices viz. bench terracing, land leveling, proper drainage and land
configuration which are aimed at reducing the runoff velocity and increasing the opportunity
time for the rainwater to infilter into soil profile are quite effective in conserving soil and
water and improving crop yields (Saxena et al., 1998). Appropriate land configuration viz.
contour farming, ridge formation, broadbeds, terracing, compartmental bunding, deep tillage,
dead furrows hold great promise for in situ conservation of moisture and nutrients.
Contour bunding
This practice consists of constructing small earthen/loose stone embankment across
the slope on contour at some predetermined spacing.
The main objective of contour bunding is:-
● To intercept the overland runoff flowing down the slope.
● To reduce the velocity of flowing water which causes erosion.
● To provide increased opportunity time for water to infiltrate.
The specification of contour bunding system depends upon rainfall, soil type, slope
and vegetation. Studies conducted at Jadan, Pali (Raj.) showed that contour bunding at 2%
slope has increased the moisture storage by 44.4% and 18.8% respectively when total rainfall
were 427 mm and 782 mm. The increase in moisture storage increased the production of
grasses in the area (Bhan, 1997).

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 Efficient Soil and Water Management

Contour trenching
This practice is suitable for soil and moisture conservation in range/pasture land. The
practice consists of excavation of trenches along the contour and excavated earth is placed
on the down slopes as mound. The trench breaks the slope length, reduces the velocity of
surface runoff and consequently retards its scoring action and carrying capacity (Sardana
and Grewal, 2003). The water retained in the trenches help in conserving moisture and
provides advantageous site for sowing and planting.
Contour farming
Soil erosion is a serious problem in undulating, slopping lands, light textured soils
and in high rainfall areas. Indiscriminate grazing and felling of trees accelerates it. The
hilly catchments are torn by rills and gullies with high drainage density (7-9 km/km2). Under
these conditions, cultural operations should be practiced across the slope i.e. along the
contour. Soil erosion can be checked by contour bunding, ploughing across the slope,
plugging of gullies, construction of bunds, planting trees and shrubs and providing grass
cover (Reddy, 1999). Construction of ridges and furrows and cultivation across the slope
on contour lines intercept rainwater and facilitate its infiltration into soil, for further use of
crops (Table 1).

Table 1. Runoff and soil loss with cultivation along the slope and contour cultivation

Treatment Runoff (mm) Soil loss (t/ha)

Dehradun
Along the slope 670 28.5
Contour cultivation 511 19.3
Ootacomund
Along the slope 52 39.0
Contour cultivation 29 15.0
Bellary
Along the slope 48 5.5
Contour cultivation 20 3.6
Anantpur
Along the slope 40 4.5
Contour cultivation 20 2.5

Field bunding and leveling

Excessive runoff during monsoon results in severe soil erosion causing loss of not
only precious top soil but also nutrients. Farmers generally hesitate to make bunds of adequate
size/section with the notion that it would result in loss of area which could otherwise be
used for crop cultivation and would involve huge investments in construction. However,
stabilization of field bunds pays rich dividends (Sharma and Singh, 2013).

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 Raman Jeet Singh et al.

Proper land leveling considerably reduces runoff of water and soil loss. Where slope
is <5%, earthen bunds should be made and major land leveling should be avoided. For areas
having <5% slope, construction of bench is required to reduce erosion and conserve moisture
(Sharma and Singh, 2013). The field bunds can be protected from breaches by planting
grasses on top and sides of field bunds. Over a period of time, such barriers help in automatic
leveling (Table 2).
Table 2. Effect of bunding + leveling on
Runoff farming moisture storage
High intensity rainstorms are quite
common during monsoon resulting in Treatment Yield Percent
excessive runoff. Runoff water collection (kg/ha) moisture in
and storage in natural or artificial
Control 754 8.1
structures and its effective utilization are Bunding 1018 8.9
the important aspects of rainwater Leveling 1226 8.9
management (Bhan, 1997). The excess Bunding + leveling 1490 9.3
water over and above storage structures
can be directed through grassed waterways to a natural course so that it does not cause soil
erosion.
Runoff farming is basically a water harvesting system specially designed to provide
supplemental or life saving irrigation to crops during critical periods of moisture stress/
critical phenophates of crops of watershed. Efficient rainwater management acts as insurance
for crops during rainfall deficit periods.
Runoff concentration by micro catchment
Under this system, micro catchments with 3-5% slopes on either side are constructed
with crop to catchement ratio of 0.5:1 to 1:1. Catchment can be prepared by scraping the
soil from the area designated as catchment and then shaping it to provide to desired slope
(Sardana and Grewal, 2003). In sandy soil situations with very low water storage capacity
fruit crops may have preference over seasonal field crops in this system. Owing to deep
rooted system, fruit crops can utilize the moisture stored in the sub-station.
Sub-surface barrier
From the flat lands with sandy soils, a huge quantity of water and nutrients are lost
due to deep percolation.These soils therefore, become infertile and unproductive.
Productivity of such soils can be improved by placing a 2 mm thick layer of asphalt at 60 cm
depth in the soil profile. There was above five times reduction in percolation and 100%
increase in water and nitrogen retention of soil with asphalt barrier. Asphalt barrier can be
rapidly and conveniently placed with the help of AMOBAR machine. However, in absence
of machine, asphalt barrier can be placed (Saxena et al., 1998).
After removing the loose sand with the help of tractor or bulldozer, this technique can
be applied over a limited area for growing nursery plants, vegetables and some high value crops.

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 Efficient Soil and Water Management

Soil amendments
Agricultural lands with sandy soils have poor moisture retention characteristics and
low fertility levels affect crop production. Addition of pond sendiments, which is available
at local ponds, river etc. and gets dry during summer at the rate of 75 tonnes/ha to loamy
sandy soil could increase the moisture retention characteristics, available water capacity,
wind stable aggregates and decrease the infiltration rate of the soil, can be used for better
crop production (Bhan, 1997).
Similarly, sandy soils with poor organic matter status which generally get compacted
and affect the seedling emergence and crop growth can be successfully used for better crop
production by application of farm yard manure in association with urea to supply nitrogen
50% from each source. Application of FYM with urea increases the moisture retention
characteristics of the soil, decrease the compaction level and saturated hydraulic conductivity
of soil. This result in increase in crop production (McGarry, 2003).
Stubble mulch farming
Crop residue maintained over the soil can serve as a mulch surface. Stubble mulch
cover on sandy soil reduces wind erosion, increase soil moisture storage by reduction in soil
evaporation, improve dry aggregates stability and increase crop yields (Bhan, 1997).
Wind strip cropping
Wind strip cropping proved to be useful practice in areas covered with soil, prone to
wind erosion, low rainfall and high wind regime. Erosion resistant crops like grasses are
alternated with erosion susceptible crops like pearl millet and grain legumes perpendicular
to the wind direction (Table 3) (Muthuraman, 1993). Strips of perennial grasses of Lasiurus
sindicus and Ricinus communis established at right angle to the direction of prevailing winds
reduce the impact of threshold velocity of wind to minimum and thus checked the erosion
of wind and increase the crop production (Bhan, 1997).

Table 3. Runoff and soil loss as influenced by different conservation practices at Agra

Practice Rainfall (mm) Runoff (% of rainfall) Soil loss (t/ha)

Cultivated fallow 340 28.5 17.37

Grass cover 7.6 0.47
Bajra along slope 19.1 7.06
Bajra along contour 15.6 2.50
Bajra on contour+mulch 15.3 1.64
Bajra,Moong strip (3:1) 17.3 2.50

Use of mulches
Mulching is a practice to use of crop residues (Vegetative mulch), organic manures
and other litter as well as synthetic materials viz. polyethylene sheets etc. to reduce the

6
 Raman Jeet Singh et al.

beating action of rain drops, runoff soil loss, evaporation and to keep down weeds and also
to moderate diurnal soil temperatures (Sharma and Singh, 2013).
In regions of low rainfall, it helps conserve soil moisture while in high rainfall areas,
it reduces runoff and soil loss (Table 4). Deficiency of water and high thermal regime of
soils are two most important factors which adversely affect crop production in sandy soils.
Surface mulches can be used to reduce evaporation losses, to prevent soil from blowing and
washing away. Application of grass mulches @ 6 t/ha could reduce mean maximum soil
temperature. Therefore, surface mulches can be used for favourably manipulating soil
environment for increasing crop production in sandy plains of Western Rajasthan (Bhan,
1997).

Table 4. Effect of organic residue mulching on runoff and soil less at Dehradun

Parameter Normal ploughing Normal ploughing

(mulch 4 t/ha)

Runoff as % of rainfall
1978 (Rainfall 1905.8 mm) 52.1 24.7
1979 (Rainfall 959.1 mm) 51.6 16.8
1980 (Rainfall (1111.8 mm) 44.5 25.3
Average (Rainfall 1325.6 mm 49.4 22.2
Soil loss (tones/ha)
1978 51.8 8.8
1979 33.3 3.5
1980 24.4 6.3
Average 36.5 6.2

A dry layer of soil mulch may be created on soil surface to break of the capillaries to
check upward flow of water. Surface mulching of crop residues or any organic residues on
the inter row spaces in line sown crops or on open land surface is employed to minimize soil
splash to reduce excessive heating of surface soil so that microbiological activities are not
adversely affected and physico-chemical properties of soil are improved which ultimately
result in increased yield of crops (Nanwal, 2001). This practice is known as organic residue
mulching (Table 5). Relatively small amounts of residues are effective in enhancing
infiltration by reducing runoff, erosion and surface crusting. However, larger amounts of
residues are required to significantly reduce evaporation losses and to control weeds. Residue
mulching also minimizes the effect of cracking in heavy textured soils. Experiment conducted
at several locations has revealed that use of organic mulch in rabi crops increased crop yield
to the tune of 30%.
As the surface water infiltrate into the soil, colloidal soil particles are filtered out in
surface layer. This process impedes water flow into and through soil pores leading to surface
scaling and soil compaction. Hence, reduced infiltration increases surface runoff. A

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 Efficient Soil and Water Management

modification of traditional mulching called vertical mulching has been developed for heavy
soils where infiltration is a problem. Trenches are dug at 5-10 cm intervals depending on slope
and sizes of 30x60 cm across the slope on grade. They are filled with stalk materials (stubbles)
which keep the cracks open and allow better water intake (Sardana and Grewal, 2003).

Table 5. Effect of organic residue mulching on yield (q/ha) of kharif crops

Crop variety Control Mulching Increase over control

Jowar ‘Varsha’ 18.60 24.50 5.90

Maize ‘Azad uttam’ 12.56 14.61 2.05
Cotton ‘Vikas’ 7.57 10.02 2.54
Cotton ‘Vikas’ 5.60 7.83 2.23
Bajra ‘Mainupur’ 6.07 7.80 1.73
Bajra ‘WCC-75’ 14.58 18.26 3.68

Tillage
The surface soil should be kept open for the entry of water through the soil surface.
‘In situ’ moisture conservation is the most ideal approach to sustain productivity in drylands.
Management techniques that increase infiltration and soil water storage and decrease water
loss caused by runoff, evaporation and weeds could increase quantity of water retained in
soil for subsequent use by crops (McGarry, 2000).
a. Off-season tillage : Any tillage that is carried out between two crop periods is termed as
off season tillage. This aims at keeping the soil open for more water to soak into the soil,
to destroy insect pests and to control weeds. Off season tillage, however, is not suggested
for aridsoils (Sandy soil of desert regions) as this would accelerates wind erosion.
b. Deep ploughing and chiseling : In dry land areas due to continuous shallow ploughings
over the years the sub soil below the plough sole has become compact which hinders
development of roots and percolation of water (Table 6). Deep ploughing or chiseling of
field after crop harvest after 3-4 years have been found to increase infiltration rate moisture
storage and crop yields (Bhan, 1997).

Table 6. Effect of tillage on Jowar ‘Varsha’ under rainfed condition

Tillage practices country Yield Increase Over plough

(q/ha) (kg/ha) country

Two ploughing by country plough 26.5 - -

Two ploughing by cultivator 26.4 0.1 -
Two ploughing by disc harrow 28.5 2.0 7.6
One ploughing by victory plough 29.9 3.4 12.8
followed by one ploughing by cultivator - - -

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 Raman Jeet Singh et al.

c. Minimum tillage: For reducing evaporation losses and consequently improving moisture
storages in the soil profile repeated ploughings after each effective rainfall in fallow
lands is regarded as useful practice. However, the result of studies conducted at Kanpur
on maize-wheat cropping system revealed that for much ploughing is beneficial neither
to maize nor to wheat crop as this practice disturbed soil structure and causes loss of soil
moisture. Three ploughings were found optimum for both maize and wheat gave higher
yield of maize (1.9 and 0.33 q/ha respectively) and wheat (2.3 and 2.2 q/ha) six and zero
tillage respectively (Saxena et al., 1998). It is, therefore, suggested that as far as possible
land surface should be least disturbed during monsoon season to reduce soil loss. Chemical
weed control or discing during the last showers in the month of September may be
restored under minimum tillage practices (Table 7).

Table 7. Yield of bajra as affected by rain water management through deep tillage

Practice Yield (kg/ha) under different season rainfall

237 mm 238 mm 701 mm
Seeding on non deep tillage soil with no 1039 1574 2502
inter row water harvesting
Seeding on deep (20 cm) tillage soil with 1242 2133 2716
inter row water harvesting (19.5%) (35.5%)

Bench terracing
The system uses most of the principles of runoff farming to conserve and utilize
runoff for grain production. The bench terrace system uses level contours benches with
terrace ridge to control erosion and retain, spread and infiltrate storm runoff from cultivated
contributing area that are not treated to increase runoff (Reddy and Reddi, 1992). On slopping
and undulating lands, farming should be practiced with bench terracing. It helps in better
retention of soil moisture and nutrients and facilitates application of irrigation, if available.
It is desired to develop terrace of suitable size having 1-2% slope.
Cultural practices
The crop productivity may be increased by having proper agronomic practices under
conditions of both excess and scarcity of water. To sustain the productivity in water deficit
environments, it is important to identify the factors that improve plant survival and
productivity of field crops.
a. Crops and cultivars: About 30% area in the country is drought prone and suffers from
critical water shortage at one or the other time during crop growth. From crop growth
(physiology) point of view, there may be three major patterns of drought:
● Terminal drought
● Unpredictable drought
● Unpredictable terminal drought

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 Efficient Soil and Water Management

Proper matching of environment especially rainfall pattern with crop growth stages
(critical phenol-phases of water needs) is required for successful cultivation of crops under
condition of water scarcity and occasional droughts (Nanwal, 2001). It is, therefore, important
to select proper crop, crop cultivars or cropping system best suited to the conditions. The
desirable traits of crops and their cultivars are rapid germination, early establishment and
development of deep root system, short duration of the crops i.e. rapid phonological
development, developmental plasticity, heliotropic movements and ability to transfer larger
parts of assimilates from stem to grains (Sharma and Singh, 2013).
Probability of occurrence of different amounts of rainfall and corresponding length
of growing season could be taken as a criterion for selecting suitable crops and cropping
system in an agroclimatic region. Crops and cultivars differ not only for total water
requirements but also in their soil moisture extraction pattern. For instance, Moth bean
{Vigna aconitifolia (Jacq.)} is the most drought tolerant crop for kharif season. Clusterbean
{Cymaopsis tetragonoloba (Linn.)}, is also drought resistant and utilizes moisture quite
effectively due to its deep tap root system. Maize gives better performance over sorghum
under adequate water supply condition due to its ability to extract water from top layer (up
to 45 cm) and pearlmillet performs better than sorghum under extremely dry conditions as it
extracts little water from the entire soil profile while sorghum extracts more water from
subsoil (45-135cm) (Table 8).

Table 8. Moisture use efficiency (MUE) of different crops

Crops Grain yield (q/ha) Total moisture (mm) MUE (kg/ha/mm)

Bajra 2.9 80-95 9.35

Moong 10.2 261 3.91
Guar 14.4 261 5.52

In post rainy season, it is the available moisture in the soil profile that dictates the
choice of crops. Suitable short duration, high yielding cultivars of cereals, pulses and oilseeds
adapted to different rainfed areas/regions were identified and recommended. Purity of seed
assumes greater significance during years of low rainfall. The soils of medium to high water
holding capacity (sandy loam, loam, clay loam, silt loam) are suitable for double cropping.
In adequate residual moisture after kharif crop especially in upper soil profile, raya or Indian
mustard has an advantage. On the clay loam soils, chickpea performs better than raya (Reddy,
1999).
In agroclimatic regions, where length of growing season is longer than duration of a
single crop but not enough for sequential cropping, intercropping could be a better choice.
Research work conducted at ICRISAT, Hyderabad revealed that sole crop of pigeonpea is
likely to fail once in 5 years, sole sorghum once in 8 years but sorghum + pigeonpea
intercropping would fail only once in 36 years (Bhan, 1997).

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 Raman Jeet Singh et al.

b. Sowing time : Kharif crops should be sown as early as possible with onset of monsoon
when at least 30 cm of soil profile is in optimum moisture conditions, when about 25-30
mm rainfall is received within a week’s time and one of the showers is not less than 15
mm. Early sowing prevents the crop from attack of certain pests and diseases viz. shoot
fly in hybrid sorghum, downy mildew in hybrid maize, aphid in mustard and also facilitates
early sowing of rabi crops (Singh, 1995). Adjustment in sowing time may be required for
some genotypes to avoid critical period of moisture stress (Table 9 and 10). Sowing of
sesamum in July escapes the incidence of phyllody than its sowing in June.

Table 9. Growth parameters as influenced by dates of sowing in moong bean

Treatment Plants/running Plant ht. Branches/plant Dry matter

March 20 18.65 27.85 3.08 27.28

March 30 19.95 30.05 4.03 28.93
April 9 19.50 28.85 3.68 28.08
S.Em+ 0.18 0.28 0.13 0.38
CD at 5% 0.62 0.96 0.43 1.32

Table 10. Grain yield of wheat cultivars (mean of 4 years) as affected by changing
dates of sowing under rainfed condition

Cultivar Grain yield (t/ha)

Oct. 15 Oct.30 Nov. 14

IWP 72 1.37 3.59 4.04

Kalyan Sona 1.50 3.58 3.97
C-306 3.26 3.45 3.97

c. Sowing methods: Planting rainy season crops on ridges and winter crops in bottom of
furrows has significant advantage over sowing on flat beds. Sowing of rainy season
crops at the edges of ridges in ridge and furrow system ensures good crop stand due to
reduced soil crusting in dry lands. As far as possible, inter row water should be properly
harvested by ridge-furrow methods of sowing (Table 11). In water scarcity situations,
water in furrows is available to root of plants. These furrows allow the excess water to
drain out of the field to be collected in ponds, tanks and depressions for life saving
irrigations and profile recharging for establishment of rabi crops, if there is heavy
downpour (Idnani and Singh, 2008).
Sowing should be done with pora method or seed drill especially during rabi. Under
situations of low rainfall, row spacing should be reduced since the plant growth under such
conditions is likely to be adversely affected. Conversely during rabi wider row spacing does

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 Efficient Soil and Water Management

Table 11. Effect of planting method on yield of kharif pulses at New Delhi

Crops Yield (q/ha)

Ridge planting Flat planting Increase over control

(q /ha) (%)

Arhar 28.5 21.8 6.7 36.7

Urd 11.3 7.6 3.7 48.6
Moong 7.6 4.8 2.8 58.8

well under water scarcity conditions (Bhan, 1997). Lesser number of plants will use leftover
moisture efficiently for sustained growth and production of crops and would result in assured
harvest. Strip cropping and intercropping is simple, cheap and effective soil conservation
practices (Table 12).

Table 12. Grain yield (Mean of 3 years), consumptive use (CU) and WUE of wheat +
lentil intercrops

Cropping system Grain yield (t/ha)

Wheat Lentil Wheat CU of water WUE

equivalent (mm) (kg ha-1mm-1)

Wheat (W) sole crop 3.72 - 3.72 214 17.7

Lentil (L) sole crop - 2.36 4.72 150 31.3
W+L l:l row ratio 2.44 0.86 4.17 172 24.1
W+L 1:2 row ratio 1.74 1.30 4.35 160 26.7
W+L 2:1 row ratio 2.83 0.62 2.84 181 21.9
W+L 2:2 row ratio 2.38 0.92 4.22 173 24.3

d. Seed treatment : For proper germination and crop establishment and to safeguard against
seed borne pests, seeds must be treated with recommended fungicides and insecticides
(ICAR, 1987). Hard seed coat crops viz. castor, cotton, sunflower should be soaked in
water for overnight for better performance and grain legumes should be inoculated with
appropriate strains of Rhizobium Beijernme.
e. Seed rate and plant population: The most crop requirement of dry land crops is to
attain good germination and maintain uniform and optimum plant stand. Depending upon
crop and climatic conditions, use about 25% higher than required seed rate and excess
plants should be thinned out about 2-3 weeks after sowing. Wherever needed, gap filling
should be resorted to maintain desired plant population (Nanwal, 2001).To cope with
unpredictable mid-term drought, improved water conservation practices and reduction

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in plant population can mitigate drought effects to some extent. Less plant density extracts
less soil water (Singh, 1995).
f. Interculture : Earthing up in standing maize crop provides physical support to plants
besides providing aeration of roots (Sharma and Singh, 2013). Ploughing in standing
crops creates mulch and facilitates earthing up, control weeds and better retaining of
rain water due to formation of furrows.
g. Integrated nutrient management : Dryland soils are poor in N, P, S and micronutrients
and therefore, fertilizer application in drylands is highly remunerative. Water holding
capacity of coarse textured soil can be improved by addition of organic matter and pond
sediments. In dryland conditions, the response to applied nutrients is, however, directly
proportional to the amount of water available. It is, therefore, desired to adopt integrated
water and fertilizer management strategies for better root development of crops and
greater moisture extraction. To exploit the water of deeper layers, it is imperative to
apply adequate amount of fertilizer in right time using proper method of application
(Bhan, 1997). Supply of nutrients in adequate amounts helps in early crop cover
development and reduced evaporation from soil. Placement of fertilizer at 7.5 cm deep
and seed at 5 cm in the same furrow followed by soil compaction results in better
germination, plant vigour, root development and consequently higher crop yields (Singh,
1995). Response of rabi crops to applied nitrogen depends upon soil type, available
moisture storage at seeding and seasonal rain received during the preceding rainy season
(Table 13). Nitrogenous fertilizers should be top dressed at critical growth stages
depending upon rains but top dressing should be done by the side or by hand placement
(Singh, 1990). Foliar application of urea, zinc or potassium chloride results in better
WUE and higher grain yield.

Table 13. Grain yield, consumptive use of water and WUE of wheat as affected by
depth of N and P placement under dryland conditions

Depth of fertilizer Yield (q/ha) Consumptive WUE

use (mm) kg/ha/mm
1981-82 1982-83 1983-84

64.12 26.10 34.4 110.0 31.1

12 4.29 28.5 37.1 111.0 33.2
18 4.34 31.0 39.5 112.0 35.2
CD (P=0.05) 0.15 1.7 2.0

Therefore, INM with particular emphasis on organic manure and biofertilizers, and
inclusion of legume crops and N-fixing forest trees in agroforestry system including alley cropping
and vegetative bunding should be practised as resources available with the farmers (Table 14).

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Table 14. Effect of vegetative barriers on the yield of rainfed urd, cotton and sorghum

Vegetative barriers Yield of crops (q/ha)

Urd ‘T-9’ Cotton ‘Vikas Sorghum‘CSV-15’

Earth Bund 7.03 6.60 7.86

Vetiveria zizanoides 8.01 8.82 8.72
Leucena leucocephala 7.42 9.77 10.07
Cenchrus cilliaris 7.50 8.07 8.64
Sashanea sesban 8.61 10.51 8.88
Cajanus cajan (Perennial) 8.58 10.04 9.90

h. Weed control : Weeds reduce the productivity of crops by competing for essential resources,
by allelopathic effects, inducing attack of diseases, pests and by reducing the efficiency
of farm operations. Hence, weed control improves crop productivity and imparts more
stability to crop production. Timely weeding is not possible during rainy season due to
various reasons. In years of low rainfall, weed control assumes greater importance due
to scarcity of moisture. Traditional methods of weeding are laborious and time consuming
(Nanwal, 2001). Hence, improved tillage implements should be used where moisture at
sowing is adequate, chemical weed control along with one hoeing may provide the most
desired benefits.
i. Irrigation at critical growth stages : In each crop, there are some growth stages at which
moisture stress leads to irrevocable yield loss. These stages are known as critical growth
stages (Kramer, 1969). Under limited water supply conditions, irrigation is scheduled at
moisture sensitive stages and irrigation is skipped at non-sensitive stages. In cereals,
panicle initiation and flowering stages are moisture sensitive stages (Table 15 and 16).
In pulses, flowering and pod development stages are most important moisture sensitive
stages (Gupta, 1975 and Idnani and Singh, 2008).

Table 15. Moisture sensitive stages of important crops

Crop Critical stages Crop Stages

Rice Panicle initiation, flowering Wheat CRI, jointing and milking

Maize Silking, Tasseling Sorghum Seedling, flowering
Pearlmillet Pancile initiation, flowering Groundnut Rapid flowering, pegging, early
Grain pulses Flowering and pod formation pod formation
Sugarcane Formative stage Safflower From Russette to flowering
Soybean Blooming and seed formation Cotton flowering and boll development
Tobacco Transplanting to full bloom Potato Tuber initiation to maturity
Gram Preflowering and pod filling stage
CRI: Current root initiation stage

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 Raman Jeet Singh et al.

Table 16. Effect of irrigation at critical stages on productivity of different crops

Irrigation at Yield (q/ha) Addition yield over unirrigated

(q/ha) (%)

Wheat
Unirrigated 18.4 - -
CRI stage 34.7 16.3 88.6
Flowering 24.8 4.4 34.8
CRI+flowering 38.8 20.4 110.8
Barley
Unirrigated 21.2 - -
Tillering 36.0 14.8 67.9
Milking 26.2 5.0 23.1
Tillering+milking 38.2 17.0 80.22
Mustard
Unirrigated 13.4 - -
Flowering 20.7 6.8 51.5
Flowering+grain filling stage 38.2 17.0 80.22
Gram
Unirrigated 19.3 - -
Before flowering 28.2 8.9 51.3
Before flowering+ 31.1 11.8 60.1
Grain filling stage

Source: Singh (1990) and Singh (1995)

Rain water harvesting

Rain water harvesting can be defined as the collection of runoff water from treated or
untreated land surface and can store it in open reservoir or in soil itself (Gupta et al., 1971).
The ‘Khadin’ cultivation is the best example of runoff farming in Western Rajasthan. In this
practice runoff water is first collected in large area with a constructed bund down slope and
is used to recharge the soil profile and cultivation is done on conserved receding moisture
(Singh, 1995).
Water harvesting can be done either through in situ water harvesting where water is
stored in the soil profile itself or by collection and storage of runoff in a reservoir or pond
for recycling, when needed.
a. In situ water harvesting
i. Inter-row water harvesting: Under this system, furrow of about 30-40 cm width
(15 cm deep) are alternated by ridges of 60-70 cm. The furrows and ridges are laid out by
ridge marker at right angle to the field slope. This reduces runoff and at the same time, water
is concentrated in furrows causing better water availability (Singh, 1995). Inter row method
is particularly suitable for medium to heavy textured and deep to moderately deep soils. In
light soils, the crops are planted in furrows whereas, in heavy soils, the planting may be

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 Efficient Soil and Water Management

done on ridges to eliminate the hazard of water logging. The disadvantage with system
observed is that if there is a rainfall with high intensity soon after sowing, the loose top soil
of the micro-catchment caves in as a result of which the seeds are buried deep under the soil
and crusting problem occurs resulting in poor germination.
ii. Inter-plot water harvesting: In inter-plot water harvesting, the runoff water is
contributed to cropped plots by adjacent bare plots either on one side or both sides. These
adjacent plots are provided with certain slope to augment the runoff water towards cropped
plot for increasing available moisture in the soil profile to saturate the root zone (Sardana
and Grewal, 2003). In this system, it is necessary to ascertain the ratios between cropped
area and catchment area, together with optimum slope, depending upon soil characteristics
and rainfall pattern of the region. If the slope provided is greater, the possibility of soil
erosion increases and lesser slope gives more opportunity time for water to infiltrate in the
catchment itself and thus reduces the amount of contributed runoff to the cropped area.
Various scaling materials like plastic, janta emulsion and pond clay were tried to
increase runoff. The normal catchment also get compacted in subsequent years, the soil of
catchment area compacts and weed growth retards, resulting in higher runoff. The
disadvantage with the system is that a large area has to be kept uncropped but this decreases
the probability of crop failure during unfavourable rainfall conditions.
iii. Pit and trench method for horticultural crops: One of the most limitations of the
in situ water harvesting approach is that a sizeable proportion of the harvested water is lost
in deep percolation to the Murrum sub-stratum due to low soil moisture storage capacity of
soil profile (Saxena et al., 1998). Most of this water is not available to the field crops having
normal root system and benefits of water harvesting are considerably reduced. Bentonite
barrier technique for supporting the initial establishment of tree (plants both silvi and
horticulture) in sandy soils has also been developed. Under this technique, pits of 40-50 cm
diameter and 75 cm depth are dug with tractor auger. About 3 kg of Bentonite is mixed in
2.5 cm soil depth at the bottom of pit. Bentonite soil mixture 1:1 is then placed all around
the sides of pits as 2 cm layer. With the help of a hollow cylindrical frame, it has been
observed that soil moisture storage in the pit is increased by about 100% under this technique.
The increased storage helps the tree seedlings established well and reduce mortality in the
initial stages (Muthuraman, 1993). As an alternative to the Bentonite technique, 3 m circular
catchment with 5% slope was found effective for tree establishment. This provided 90 to
95% success in tree establishment of Acocia tortilis, Zuzube and Prosopis Cineraria.
b. Desert strip water harvesting systems
Desert strip cropping uses water harvested from a collector area to help in supplying
the moisture requirements of a cultivated crop on a smaller farmed area. This system was
tried in Arizona (USA). An advantage of leaving the collector area in its natural state is that
it can be used in its traditional manner for livestock raising (Benites and Castellanous,
2003). If the crop is a failure, only a small amount of land is lost to the livestock raising

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 Raman Jeet Singh et al.

activity. If a crop is produced, the collector area helps in providing the moisture for crop as
well as feed for the livestock. This system is more suitable for lands having regular and
continuous gentle slope.

Transpiration control
Water is lost through transpiration mainly from stomatal pores on leaves. According
to Kramer, 1969 transpiration can be reduced by:-
● Increasing the leaf resistance to water vapor loss by using anti-transpirants
● Reducing the net energy uptake by leaves by increasing leaf albedo
● Reducing shoot growth by growth retardants
● Increasing the air resistance to water vapor transfer with wind break/shelterbelts.
a. Antitranspirants
Antitranspirants are materials which decrease water loss from leaves by reducing the
size or number of stomatal openings leading to decreased rate of water vapour diffusion
from leaf surfaces (Reddy and Reddi, 1992).
i. Inhibiting stomatal opening : Phenylmercuric acetate, alkenyl succinic acids, atrazine
ii. Film forming : Mobileaf, hexadecanol and silicons
iii. Reflectant type : Kaolin (5%), celite
iv. Growth retardants : Reduce shoot growth and increase root growth, Cycocel (CCC).
Use of antitranspirants with different levels of nitrogen (Table 17), grain as well as
straw yields of barley significantly increased over control in different years (Agarwal and
De, 1976).

Table 17. Grain and straw yield of barley as affected by rates of N and mulch cum
antitranspirants

Treatment Grain yield (q/ha) Straw yield (q/ha)

1972-73 1973-74 Pooled 1972-73 1973-74 Pooled
N level (kg/ha)
0 27.28 16.42 21.85 46.38 30.80 38.59
30 41.59 21.89 31.92 72.53 40.70 56.61
60 43.05 22.99 33.02 76.99 44.62 60.81
CD at 5% 4.17 1.84 2.13 6.22 3.85 3.42
Mulch and antitranspirants
Control 32.37 18.87 25.62 51.08 35.62 43.35
Mulch 44.17 22.27 33.22 82.12 41.92 62.02
Kaolin 39.41 21.47 30.44 71.55 40.78 56.16
PMA 33.75 19.13 26.44 56.45 36.51 46.48
CD at 5% 3.07 1.05 1.59 5.93 1.86 3.05

Source: Agarwal and De (1976)

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 Efficient Soil and Water Management

b. Wind break and shelterbelts

These are effective for increasing the air resistance to water vapour transfer. Wind
breaks are any structures that obstruct wind flow and reduce wind speed while sheter-belts
are rows of trees planted for protection of crops against wind (Singh, 1995).

Conclusion
The problem of shortage of water to crops can be resolved by increasing total water
supply available to plants, increasing water use relative to other losses and efficient
management of scarce water. Modest irrigation, optimization approach, conjunctive use of
rainfall with limited irrigation and use of modern irrigation technique (drip as well as
sprinkler) have exhibited the efficiency to improve transpiration and make efficient use of
other resources like seed and fertilizers. Adoption of these approaches will certainly make
the efficient use of scarce water in water deficient regions of the world. For the efficient
utilization and better cropping of sandy soils one has to overcome their physical disadvantage
and to retain their advantage, water conservation technique i.e. contour bunding, contour
trenches micro-catchment, sub-surface barrier etc. are the effective measures to increase
moisture availability to the crop production and for controlling the soil erosion, stubble
mulch, wind break, tillage etc. can be successfully applied in the sandy soil of arid region
for better crop production and soil erosion control.

References
Agarwal, R. and De, R. (1976). Effect of application of nitrogen, mulching and antitranspirants on the growth
and yield of Barley under dryland conditions. Indian Journal of Agriculture Sciences. 47 (4):191-194.
Benites Jose and Costellanous, A. (2003). Improving soil moisture with conservation agriculture. LEISA India.June
(2003) p. 6-7.
Bhan, S. (1997). Soil and water conservation practical for sustainable agriculture in rainfed areas with particular
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