Reduce debris flow

Debris flow is a phenomenon in which soil and boulders fluidized by surface water and
start to flow down slope in torrents with great energy and destructive power (Mizuyama
and Fujita, 1996). This is very common phenomenon in the Himalayan region during
monsoon period. For mitigation purpose construction of debris basin (debris dam), which
is a reservoir designed specially to trap sediment and debris is recommended (Vanoni,
1977; Mizuyama and Fujita, 1996). Debris dams are used on mountainous streams where
coarse-grained sediments occur. They are usually located on or more tributaries upstream
of a reservoir and sediments should be periodically removed. Ease of access to remove
sediment from the debris dams and the potential to re-use sediments make the application
of debris dam potentially feasible. In the absence of these conditions, the life of a debris
dam is likely to be short and its effectiveness limited (Palmieri et al., 2003).

6.6.3 Stream Channel Improvement and Stabilization

Stream channel improvement is an important structural measures used in watershed

project to reduce sediment inflow into the reservoir. Small channel such as gullies which
are formed by ongoing development of rill or surface erosion can be controlled by
constructing low check dam made of logs, stones and concrete. Gabions consisting of wire
cages filled with stones are good to construct low check dam and sills if durable stones to
put in the gabions are available (Mizuyama and Fujita, 1996). Geo-textiles are commonly
used in conjunction with other techniques to stabilize stream banks. Filter fabrics may be
used under rip rap and other armor to prevent the loss of fines through the armor layer.
Bio-degradable jute matting may be used to stabilize surface while vegetation established.
Fabrics also may be used in reinforced earth construction of erosion resistant blanks
(Harrison, 1996). These technologies for the protection of bank and gullies erosion are
common in Nepal.

Channel stabilization is required if channels themselves are deteriorating by down cutting,

bank erosion, or head cutting. Such deterioration results in production of sediment and in
loss by depreciation of productive land adjacent to the channel (Vanoni, 1977). One
approach to protect bank erosion could have been structural solution such as armoring
with erosion resistant material. Rip rap and concrete armoring systems can be quite
effective in combating bank erosion. Another approach is to change the condition that are
causing channel and bank erosion by restoring to stream to natural condition. Action in this
category include reshaping of vertical banks to achieve stable slopes, vegetative raw banks,
or even complete reconstruction of the stream channel to natural geomorphological
meanders and cross sections (Harrison, 1996). It is necessary to divert flow away from
erodible banks and to hold the stream thalweg gradient and prevent lowering with
accompanying bank under cutting.

6.6.4 Check Dam

An attempt to trap sediment using check dams are found effective for the reservoirs where
bed load or relatively coarse grain size accounts for a large percentage of sediment inflow.
Check dams have a small sediment storage capacity compared with the dams they are
protecting, and usually fill up fairly rapidly with course bed load sediments. Their effective
life as sediment trapping structures can be quite short. Unless the supply of coarser
sediments from the catchment is reduced by other conservation measures the effectiveness
of check dams as sediment trapping structures inevitable reduce over the time (HR
Wallingford, 2004). This will continue until a new river bed is established at a higher level,
and parallel to the original bed.

To be functional properly, the upper part of the check dam where deposition supposed to
take place must be excavated periodically and especially before floods. In some cases these
deposited material can also be used as aggregate for concrete. For this purpose there
should be easy access to the check dam site and its upper part. More than 2,000 check dams
have been constructed at about 57 dams in Japan (Sumi, 2003; Mizuyama and Fujita, 1996).
Mizuyama and Fujita (1996) reported that this is one of the most effective methods for
reduction of sediment inflow into the reservoir.

6.7 Sediment Routing

Sediment routing is a sediment management technique to route sediment inflow so as not

allowing them to deposit within the reservoir. This could be managed at the end of the
reservoir or within the reservoir. The currently being adopted techniques are sediment by
pass, off-channel storage, sediment sluicing or density current venting.

6.7.1 Sediment By Pass

The purpose of a bypass is to divert sediment laden flood flows around a reservoir. By-
passing a reservoir by making use of conveyance structures is often only feasible when
favorable hydrological and morphological conditions exist. Operating costs of the
conveyance structures due to high erosion rates of the sediments, as well as the benefits
lost by not capturing the flood flow must be taken into consideration (Palmieri et al., 2003).
In Japan, the sediment bypass system and tunnel have been studied most exhaustively
(Sumi, 2003; Sumi et al., 2004). Although, this technique involves high cost caused by tunnel
construction it is also applicable to existing dams. One of the important features is that it is
not necessary to drawdown of the reservoir level while bypassing the sediment laden flow,
and hence, no loss of storage capacity. Also this system has less impact on environment,
because the natural flood will be diverted to the downstream.

Sumi (2003), Sumi et al. (2004) provided several sediment bypass system that have been in
operation in Japan and Switzerland. One of the successful projects in which reservoir
sediment management is conducted bypass system is Asahi Dam in Japan. A sediment
bypass system (13.5 m high diversion weir and 2,350 m long bypass tunnel) constructed at
the upper part of the Asahi Reservoir to reduce the sedimentation into the reservoir
(Kataoka, 2003).

This is for the first time in Japan using such a technology for reservoir sediment
management and it is in operation since 1998. The measured turbidity in the Asahi River
and sedimentation volume in the reservoir before and after the bypassing operation show
that sediment bypass system has greatly reduced the prolonged turbidity and
sedimentation problems. It is estimated that 10% to 20% of the annual inflowing sediment
is deposited in the reservoir while the remaining 80% to 90% is bypassed downstream
through the bypass system (Sumi, 2003; Kataoka, 2003, Sumi et al., 2004).

Moreover, the environmental improvement of the river due to the employment of the
sediment bypass system has been recognized from the result of various surveys, such as
water quality and riverbed materials (Kataoka, 2003). Although, average annual reservoir
capacity loss is about 0.2% in Switzerland, big attentions have been paid for sediment
management. In Switzerland 5 reservoirs are equipped with a bypass gallery and their
performances are satisfactory (Boillat et al., 2003, Sumi et al., 2004).

6.7.2 Off-Channel storage

Off-channel storage reservoirs are built adjacent to main river channel (e.g., a small
tributary or on the flood plain). Water from the main river is diverted into the reservoir
during times of low sediment concentrations. Alam (2002) reported that for very large and
long reservoirs, a sediment diversion dam and associated gated structures provided at a
convenient location towards the upstream end of the reservoir might be best solution for
the sustainability of the project. Because moving sediments through a large and long
reservoir to the downstream is not feasible solution, this might require lowering of the pool
below levels which are not economically justifiable. However, this option is not available
for the management of sediments in existing reservoirs; it should be considered for new
projects (Palmieri et al., 2003). A schematic sketch of such concept is shown in Figure 6.4.

Figure 6.4: Schematic Sketch of Sediment Diversion Arrangement (Alam, 2002)

6.7.3 Sediment Sluicing

Sediment sluicing (or sediment routing) is an operational technique in which sediment-

laden inflows are released through a reservoir before the particles can settle, thereby
reducing the trap efficiency of the reservoir. The essential strategy under sediment sluicing
is to maintain, insofar as possible, the passage of natural high-discharge flows through an
in stream reservoir pool, utilizing these high flows to pass the inflowing sediment load
through the storage area. In this approach the reservoir is draw down either seasonally (as
in the case of Three Gorges Project) of for specific events (as may be done in smaller
reservoirs), allowing high velocity riverine flow to run along the length of the reservoir
(Morris, 2005). The reservoir is then refilled at the end of the event. Because it entails
substantial drawdown and refilling of the reservoir during high flood events, this strategy
is only suitable for reservoirs with a small storage capacity in relation to annual stream
flow (capacity: inflow ratio < 0,1).

Sediment sluicing partially preserves the natural sediment transport characteristics of the
river and it is the most environmentally sound sediment management strategy. However,
the major disadvantage of this method is that a significant amount of water must be
released during floods to transport sediments. Hence, it is most applicable at hydrologically
small reservoirs where the water discharged by large sediment transporting floods exceeds
reservoir capacity, making water available for sediment release without infringing on
beneficial uses. In practice, most efficient passing through of sediment is obtained when the
reservoir capacity is less than 5% of the mean annual runoff, although larger reservoirs are
also sluiced successfully (Basson and Rooseboom, 1996). Another disadvantage is that
sluicing may not be able to remove previously deposited sediment or pass the coarsest part
of the inflowing loads beyond the dam. Thus, routing needs to begin as early as possible
after dam construction to preserve capacity, and supplemental measures may also be
required (Morris and Fan, 1997).

It is convenient to provide reservoir sedimentation management in Sanmenxia Reservoir

and Three Georges Project (TGP) in China, because both projects are located in most
sediment laded rivers of the world and the sediment management techniques adopted in
these projects could have been interested anyone dealing with sediment management.

The Sanmenxia project is located in the lower part of the middle Yellow River. The drainage
area is about 688,400 km2, which is about 92% of the total drainage area of the Yellow
River (Yuqian, 1996). During the period from April 1960 to October 1964, the
sedimentation of the Sanmenxia Reservoir developed rapidly and its total storage capacity
was reduced from 5.5 billion m3 to 2.1 billion m3 (Han and He, 1996).

Since 1964 from the previous experience on sediment management in China,

reconstruction of this reservoir has been carried out. The reconstruction works include
enlarge its discharge capacity, opening eight bottom outlets (which were previously used
for diversion purpose) and lined for sluicing. The reconstruction work was completed in
December 1973. Sediments were sluiced by keeping the water low water level during flood
time. As a result the storage capacity gradually increased and stabilized in 1980. It is
reported that 3 billion m3 of total storage capacity has been gained as a result of sluicing
during this period (1973-1980) (Han and He, 1996; Yuqian, 1996). This project not only
demonstrates the perils of giving inadequate consideration to sediment management in the
planning and design of the a reservoir, but it also shows that sediment balance can be
achieved across an impounded reach even in a large reservoir on a river with an extreme
sediment load (Morris and Fan, 1997).

The case study of Sanmenxia Reservoir provides an example of a large multipurpose

seasonally empty reservoir operated with the primary objective of sediment routing. The
knowledge gained at Sanmenxia formed the basis for the design and management of
subsequent reservoirs where sedimentation has been considered from the early design
stage, including the Shiaolongdi and Three Gorges Projects in China (Morris and Fan, 1997).

Construction of TGP on Yangtze River in China began in 1993 and is projected to require 17
years. Yangtze is largest river in China and third largest river in the world (Han and He,
1996). When completed it will be the world’s largest hydropower project with 18,200 MW
of installed capacity. Many aspects of the project are both massive and extremely
challenging. Mean discharge for the project is 14,300 m 3/sec and the surface area of the
reservoir is 1.084 km2. More than 1 million people will be required to relocation. It has
storage capacity of 39 Km3, where as annual inflow is 415 km3. The capacity inflow ratio is
about 0.09 (Morris and Fan, 1997).

The average sediment concentration in the Yangtze River for TGP is 1.2 g/l (1200 ppm), but
average sediment concentration on Yellow river for Sanmenxia Project is 37 g/l (37000
ppm). However, the discharge of the Yangtze River is about 10 times larger than that of
Yellow River. Preservation of reservoir storage capacity is achieved mainly by employing
optimal operational mode. For this, three characteristics pool levels are adopted, namely
the flood control level (FCL), the normal pool level (NPL) and the dry season control level
(DCL). The provision of large capacities of discharge at low level and the abundance of
runoff of the Yangtze allow the employment of a strategy of reservoir operation summed
up in China as “Discharge the Turbid and Impounding the Clear”(DTIC) ( Tan, 2005)

Extensive studies have been made to identify the water level in the reservoir during flood
season to maintain the velocity necessary to route sediment through the reservoir. To pass
the sediment through dam, 23 bottom outlets at low level and 22 outlets at high level are
adopted (Morris and Fan, 1997; Han and He, 1996).

More information on sediment sluicing is available in the following literatures; Morris and
Fan, 1997; Basson and Rooseboom, 1996; Basson and Rooseboom, 1997; Palmieri et al., 2003;
Yuqian, 1996; Han and He, 1996).