Cam Operated Hammer, Bending Machine

ABSTRACT

 The project “CAM HAMMER” being compact and Portable, handy

equipment, which is skillful and is having something different from the ancient conventional
hammering. It is a working project and having guarantee of success. This project is the
equipment useful to improve the quality of the gear being manufactured and can be made in
less time.

1.1 OPEATION:

To operate the cam hammer machine, electric motor, which is having 1440
rpm with the operating voltage of 250V A.C. in single phase with the continuous rating. It’s
horse power is 0.5 is used to rotate the cam shaft on which the pair of cam is installed. As the
camshaft and cam rotates, it raises the follower plate along with it during its rise period. 

The follower plate being installed on the ram shaft raises the ram along with
it. As the  cam reaches its maximum height its down of fall period suddenly starts loosing its
contact with the follower plate and the ram is suddenly lowered down with an impact on  the
table plate. The job along with the required die is kept on the table is exerted with the impact
loading deforming it to the desired shape. 

The rise of cam and follower and the stiffness of the retaining determine the
intensity of the impact exerted on the job. If the speed of the operation of the cam increases
the molecules of the material of the job-components finds no time to retain and this will help
in obtaining the deformed shape and size due to easily recovery of plastic stage rather the
elastic stage. Thus the rpm i.e. the speed of operation of the cam plays a vital role in the
forging operation. As the stiffness of the spring is increased the intensity of the impact
loading also goes on increasing.

Figure 1 Cam Operated Hammer, Bending machine 

Following Operations can be performed on this Machine

Blanking:

Blanking is the operation of cutting out flat areas to some desired shape. Blanking is usually
the first step in series of operations. The metal punched out is the required production in
blanking. For blanking the shear angle is given on the die.

Piercing:
Piercing is the operation of producing a number of eventually spaced holes in a regular
pattern on the sheet metal.

Forming:
It is the operation of bending a sheet of metal along a curved axis, such as U-shapes.

1.3. COMPONENTS USED

The main components of the cam operated hammer are,


DC Motor

Welding


Drilling


Spur Gear


Warm Gear


Mechanism used
This are explained below one by one

1.3.1 PMDC MOTOR

Basic configuration of a permanent magnet DC motor is very similar to that of a

normal DC motor. The working principle of any DC motor is same, i.e. when a current
carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, it experiences a force. A permanent magnet
DC motor also works on the same principle.

Construction

In a PMDC motor, permanent magnets (located in stator) provide magnetic field, instead of
stator winding. The stator is usually made from steel in cylindrical form. Permanent magnets
are usually made from rare earth materials or neodymium.

The rotor is slotted armature which carries armature winding. Rotor is made from layers of
laminated silicon steel to reduce eddy current losses. Ends of armature winding are connected
to commutator segments on which the brushes rest. Commutator is made from copper and
brushes are usually made from carbon or graphite. DC supply is applied across these brushes.
The commutator is in segmented form to achieve unidirectional torque. The reversal of
direction can be easily achieved by reversing polarity of the applied voltage.

The image below shows the construction of Permanent Magnet DC Motor 

 Permanent Magnet DC motor (disassembled)

Characteristics

Characteristics of PMDC motors are similar to the characteristics of dc shunt motor in

terms of torque, speed and armature current. However, speed-torque characteristics are more
linear and predictable in PMDC motors.

Applications Of Permanent Magnet DC Motors

Permanent magnet dc motors are extensively used where smaller power ratings are required,
e.g. in toys, small robots, computer disc drives etc. 

Advantages

1. For smaller ratings, use of permanent magnets reduces manufacturing cost.

2. No need of field excitation winding, hence construction is simpler.
 3. No need of electrical supply for field excitation, hence PMDC motor is relatively
more efficient.
4. Relatively smaller in size
5. Cheap in cost

Disadvantages

1. Since the stator in PMDC motor consists of permanent magnets, it is not possible to
add extra ampere-turns to reduce armature reaction. Thus armature reaction is more in
PMDC motors.
2. Stator side field control, for controlling speed of the motor, is not possible in
pemanent magnet dc motors.

In a dc motor, an armature rotates inside a magnetic field. Basic working principle of DC

motor is based on the fact that whenever a current carrying conductor is placed inside a
magnetic field, there will be mechanical force experienced by that conductor. All kinds of DC
motors work in this principle only. Hence for constructing a dc motor it is essential to
establish a magnetic field. The magnetic field is obviously established by means of magnet.
The magnet can by any types i.e. it may be electromagnet or it can be permanent magnet.
When permanent magnet is used to create magnetic field in a DC motor, the motor is referred
as permanent magnet dc motor or PMDC motor. Have you ever uncovered any battery
operated toy, if you did, you had obviously found a battery operated motor inside it. This
battery operated motor is nothing but a permanent magnet dc motor or PMDC motor.
These types of motor are essentially simple in construction. These motors are commonly used
as starter motor in automobiles, windshield wipers, washer, for blowers used in heaters and
air conditioners, to raise and lower windows, it also extensively used in toys. As the magnetic
field strength of a permanent magnet is fixed it cannot be controlled externally, field control
of this type of dc motor cannot be possible. Thus permanent magnet dc motor is used where
there is no need of speed control of motor by means of controlling its field. Small fractional
and sub fractional kW motors now constructed with permanent magnet.

Construction of Permanent Magnet DC Motor or PMDC Motor

As it is indicated in name of permanent magnet dc motor, the field poles of this motor
are essentially made of permanent magnet. A PMDC motor mainly consists of two parts. A
stator and an armature. Here the stator which is a steel cylinder. The magnets are mounted in
the inner periphery of this cylinder. The permanent magnets are mounted in such a way that
the N – pole and S – pole of each magnet are alternatively faced towards armature as shown
in the figure below. That means, if N – pole of one magnet is faced towards armature then S –
pole of very next magnet is faced towards armature. In addition to holding the magnet on its
inner periphery, the steel cylindrical stator also serves as low reluctance return path for the
magnetic flux. Although field coil is not required in permanent magnet dc motor but still it is
sometimes found that they are used along with permanent magnet. This is because if
permanent magnets lose their strength, these lost magnetic strengths can be compensated by
field excitation through these field coils. Generally, rare earth hard magnetic materials are
used for these permanent magnet.
 Rotor : The rotor of pmdc motor is similar to other DC motor. The rotor or armature
of permanent magnet dc motor also consists of core, windings and commutator. Armature
core is made of number of varnish insulated, slotted circular lamination of steel sheets. By
fixing these circular steel sheets one by one, a cylindrical shaped slotted armature core is
formed. The varnish insulated laminated steel sheets are used to reduce eddy current loss in
armature of permanent magnet dc motor. These slots on the outer periphery of the armature
core are used for housing armature conductors in them. The armature conductors are
connected in a suitable manner which gives rise to armature winding. The end terminals of
the winding are connected to the commutator segments placed on the motor shaft. Like other
dc motor, carbon or graphite brushes are placed with spring pressure on the commutator
segments to supply current to the armature.

Working Principle of Permanent Magnet DC Motor or PMDC Motor

As we said earlier the working principle of PMDC motor is just similar to the general
working principle of DC motor. That is when a carrying conductor comes inside a magnetic
field, a mechanical force will be experienced by the conductor and the direction of this force
is governed by Fleming’s left hand rule. As in a permanent magnet dc motor, the armature is
placed inside the magnetic field of permanent magnet; the armature rotates in the direction of
the generated force. Here each conductor of the armature experiences the mechanical force F
= B.I.L Newton where B is the magnetic field strength in Tesla (weber / m2), I is the current
in Ampere flowing through that conductor and L is length of the conductor in metre comes
under the magnetic field. Each conductor of the armature experiences a force and the
compilation of those forces produces a torque, which tends to rotate the armature.

Equivalent Circuit of Permanent Magnet DC Motor or PMDC Motor

As in PMDC motor the field is produced by permanent magnet, there is no need of

drawing field coils in the equivalent circuit of permanent magnet dc motor.
The supply voltage to the armature will have armature resistance drop and rest of the supply
voltage is countered by back emf of the motor. Hence voltage equation of the motor is given
by,

Where I, is armature current and R is armature resistance of the motor. Eb is the back emf and
V is the supply voltage.

Advantages of Permanent Magnet DC Motor or PMDC Motor

PMDC motor have some advantages over other types of dc motors. They are :

1. No need of field excitation arrangement.

2. No input power in consumed for excitation which improve efficiency of dc
motor.
3. No field coil hence space for field coil is saved which reduces the overall size
of the motor.
4. Cheaper and economical for fractional kW rated applications.

Disadvantages of Permanent Magnet DC Motor or PMDC Motor

1. In this case, the armature reaction of DC motor cannot be compensated

hence the magnetic strength of the field may get weak due to demagnetizing effect
armature reaction.
2. There is also a chance of getting the poles permanently demagnetized
(partial) due to excessive armature current during starting, reversal and overloading
condition of the motor.
3. Another major disadvantage of PMDC motor is that, the field in the air
gap is fixed and limited and it cannot be controlled externally.
Therefore, very efficient speed control of DC motor in this type of
motor is difficult.

Applications of Permanent Magnet DC Motor or PMDC Motor

PMDC motor is extensively used where small dc motors are required and also very effective
control is not required, such as in automobiles starter, toys, wipers, washers, hot blowers, air
conditioners, computer disc drives and in many more.

24V DC MOTOR 375W 1500RPM PMDC MOTOR

Basic Specification

Power <2000
Rated Current 20-25
Structure Permanent Magnet
Revolving Speed 1500-2000
Protection Feature Totally Enclosed
Application Boat, Car, Electric Bicycle, Fan, Home Appliance,
Efficiency 0.75
Rated Voltage Other
Reversing Brush
Detail Description

24V 375W/0.5HP 1500RPM PMDC MOTOR widely widely used as operating component
and driving component in textile, vehicle ,boat,Welding equipments.

mN.m (r/min)(W) (V) A (r/min)

Model Remark
TorqueSpeed PowerVotagecurrent≤Speed Tolerance
55ZYT01  63.7 3000 20 12/24 1.5 200  
55ZYT05  55.7 6000 35 12/24 2.5 300  
55ZYT51 92.3 3000 29 12/24 2.1 200  
55ZYT55  79.6 6000 50 12/24 3.45 300  
55ZYT61  76.4 5000 40 12/24 2.5 250  
55ZYT63/H1127.4 1500 20 12/24 1.25 100  
55ZYT72  95.5 2500 25 12/24 1.7 150  
55ZYT101  76.4 15000 120 12/24 7.5 700  
70ZYT01  159.2 3000 50 12/24 3.2 200  
70ZYT05  135.4 6000 85 12/24 5.2 300  
70ZYT16  191 2000 40 12/24 2.3 100  
70ZYT51 223 3000 70 12/24 4.3 200  
70ZYT55 191.1 6000 120 12/24 7.5 300  
70ZYT76/H1318.5 1500 50 12/24 3 150  
90ZYT05 294 3000 92 12/24 6.1 200  
90ZYT55 510 1500 80 12/24 5 100  
90ZYT105 733 3000 230 12/24 13.5 200  
90ZYT106 733 1500 125 12/24 6.5 100  
110ZYT05  637 3000 200 12/24 13 200  
110ZYT55 980 3000 308 12/24 16.5 200  
110ZYT105  1274 3000 400 12/24 22.5 200  
110ZYT106 1274 1500 245 12/24 12 100  
110ZYT155  2230 3000 700 12/24 45 200  
110ZYT156 2230 1500 375 12/24 22 100  
130ZYT05 3185 1500 500 12/24 28 100  
130ZYT55  3185 3000 1000 12/24 50 200  
130ZYT105 3822 1500 600 12/24 30 100  
130ZYT106 3822 3000 1200 12/24 55 200
1.3.2 WELDING

Arc-Welding

Introduction

Arc welding is the fusion of two pieces of metal by an electric arc between the pieces being
joined – the work pieces – and an electrode that is guided along the joint between the pieces.
The electrode is either a rod that simply carries current between the tip and the work, or a rod
or wire that melts and supplies filler metal to the joint.

The basic arc welding circuit is an alternating current (AC) or direct current (DC) power
source connected by a “work” cable to the work piece and by a “hot” cable to an electrode.
When the electrode is positioned close to the work piece, an arc is created across the gap
between the metal and the hot cable electrode. An ionized column of gas develops to
complete the circuit.

Basic Welding Circuit

The arc produces a temperature of about 3600°C at the tip and melts part of the metal being
welded and part of the electrode. This produces a pool of molten metal that cools and
solidifies behind the electrode as it is moved along the joint.

There are two types of electrodes. Consumable electrode tips melt, and molten metal droplets
detach and mix into the weld pool. Non-consumable electrodes do not melt. Instead, filler
metal is melted into the joint from a separate rod or wire.
The strength of the weld is reduced when metals at high temperatures react with oxygen and
nitrogen in the air to form oxides and nitrides. Most arc welding processes minimize contact
between the molten metal and the air with a shield of gas, vapour or slag. Granular flux, for
example, adds deoxidizers that create a shield to protect the molten pool, thus improving the
weld.

Advances in Welding Power Source Design and Efficiency

The electricity-consuming device – the key component of the arc welding apparatus – is the
power source. Electrical consumption from the approximately 110 000 to 130 000 arc
welding machines in use in Canada is estimated at 100 GWh a year.

In the past, power sources used transformer-rectifier equipment with large step-down
transformers that made them heavy and prone to overheating. They can be used for only one
function, i.e., one type of welding. In the 1990s, advances in power switching semiconductors
led to the development of inverter power sources that are multi-functional, lighter, more
flexible and that provide a superior arc.

Welding power sources use electricity when welding (arc -on) and when idling. Earlier
transformer-rectifier equipment had energy conversion efficiencies that ranged from 40 to 60
percent and required idling power consumption of 2 to 5 kW. Modern inverter power sources
have energy conversion efficiencies near 90 percent, with idling power consumption in the
order of 0.1 kW.

Modern inverter power sources are gradually replacing transformer-rectifier units. They
combine a quick return on investment, and, compared with transformer-rectifier units, are far
more portable and easier to operate, are multi-functional rather than mono-functional, create
superior arcs and combine higher-quality welds with longer arc-on time.
 The Five Most Common Arc Welding Processes

Popularit
Process Known Electrodes Shielding Operator y
as skill
required
Rigid Diminishin
Shielded SMAW metal Stick Low g
metal arc or stick coatings
welding
Gas metal arc GMAW Solid wire CO2 gas Low Growing
welding or MIG
Hollow
Flux core arc FCAW wire Core Low Growing
welding or MIG materials
Gas tungsten GTAW Tungsten Argon gas High Steady
arc welding or TIG
Submerged SAW Solid wire Argon gas High Steady
arc welding

Power sources produce DC with the electrode either positive or negative, or AC. The choice
of current and polarity depends on the process, the type of electrode, the arc atmosphere and
the metal being welded.

Energy Efficiency of the Power Source

• Modern inverter power sources have high energy-conversion efficiencies and can be
50 percent more efficient than transformer-rectifier power sources.

• Modern inverter power sources for idling power requirements are 1/20th of
conventional transformer-rectifier power sources.
• Modern inverter power sources have power factors that are close to 100 percent;
transformer-rectifier power source percentages are much lower, which reduces
electricity consumption.
• Modern inverter power sources are four times lighter and much smaller than
transformer-rectifier power sources. They are thus more portable and can be moved by
one person instead of four, making it possible to bring the welding equipment to the
job, not vice versa.
 • Modern inverter power sources are multi-functional and can be used for GMAW,
FCAW, SMAW and GTAW.

How Much Will I Save?

Assumptions
Work time Two shifts of eight hours for 250 days
a year (4000 hours)
Operating
factor 40 percent
Arc-on time 1600 hours per year
Idling time 2400 hours per year
Cost per kWh $0.12
Welding
process SMAW (Shielded metal arc welding)
Output power 300 amps at 32 volts – 9.6 kW
Inverter-Based Power Source Transformer-Rectifier Power
Source
Weight: 34 kg Weight: 126 kg
Energy conversion efficiency: Energy conversion efficiency:
78.7% 51.6%
Arc-on power: 10.4 Arc-on power: 18.6
kW kW
Idling power: 0.87
Idling power: 0.06 kW kW
Operating Electricity
Cost Operating Electricity Cost
Welding time $1,996.80 Welding time $3,571.20
Idling time $16.42 Idling time $250.56
 Annual Annual
electricity $2,013.22 electricity $3,821.76
cost cost
Annual
electricity $1,808.54
saving

Investment Investment
Purchase price $5,609 Purchase price $4,428
Price difference $1,181
8
Payback period months

The break-even point for investment in an inverter power source equipment occurs
approximately eight months after purchase. From then on, annual energy costs will remain
lower.

Purchasing Tips
Find the lowest-powered inverter power source that is most appropriate to your application.

• If you need process flexibility, choose multi-process equipment.

• Look for a power factor of 99 percent or higher.

• Look for an energy conversion efficiency (kVA out over kVA in) near 80 percent.

• Look for idling power consumption of less than 0.1 kW.

• Buy from a reliable supplier who provides field maintenance and at least a two-year,
all-parts warranty.

• Check manufacturers' Web sites for warranty information.

• Shop for competitive prices.

Operation Tips

Arc welding requires an operator and a power source. Both the operator and the equipment
have roles to play in making the welding process more energy efficient.

Some Important Definitions

Arc-on time: When the welder holds an arc between the electrode and the
work piece Idling time: When welding equipment is ready for use but is not
generating an arc
Operating factor: The ratio of arc-on time to the total time worked, often expressed as a
percentage:

Work time: Convention is to assume total annual work time of 4000 hours (two shifts).

Power Efficiency

Welding power sources draw power when idling. Efficiency is greater when idling is reduced
and the operating factor is close to 100 percent. The higher the operating factor, the more
efficient the process. The following are ways to improve efficiency:

• Use the most efficient welding process. Use gas metal arc welding (GMAW) instead
of shielded metal arc welding (SMAW). Typically, operating factors for SMAW fall
between 10 to 30 percent; operating factors for GMAW fall between 30 to 50 percent.

• Use multi-process inverter power sources. Modern inverter power sources can be
used for several welding processes and save time and effort when switching
processes. For example, the Miller XTM 304 can be used for GMAW, FCAW,
SMAW and GTAW.
• Automate when possible. Manage repetitive operations by applying advances in
automation and computer programming.
 • Reduce idling time. Cut the time spent on pre-welding tasks such as assembly,
positioning, tacking and cleaning, and on follow-up operations, such as slag removal
and defect repair.
• Position the work to allow down-hand welding. Experience has shown that down-
hand (vertical high to low) welding is faster, easier on the operator and more error-
free than other techniques.

• Train the welder. Well-trained welders work better and faster and are usually
conscious of energy savings opportunities.

Power Source Performance

Certain characteristics determine the energy efficiency of power sources:

• Power factor: Power factor is the ratio of “real” electrical power made available by
the welding power source for producing a welding arc (the power you can use) to the
"apparent" electrical power supplied by the utility (the power you pay for). The older
technology of transformer-rectifier power sources can have power factors in the order
of 75 percent; modern inverter power sources have power factors close to 100 percent.

• Arc-on power and idling power: Transformer-rectifier power sources use more
power in arc-on and idling modes than modern inverter power sources do with the
same output.

The following table shows that the average annual electrical energy required by a typical
transformer-rectifier source is five to nine times the energy required by an inverter power
source for the same job. In other words, the inverter source uses only 10 to 20 percent of the
power needed by a transformer-rectifier source.

Power Process Apparent Apparent Operating Annual

Source Arc-On Idling Factor Energy
Power Power (OF) Required
 (kW) (kW) (kWh)
Transformer SMAW 10.26 4.86 10% 18 600
– rectifier (stick) 10.26 4.86 30% 25 920
Inverter SMAW 3.91 0.12 10% 1 996
(stick) 3.91 0.12 30% 5 028

To compare the performance of power sources use the following formula:

The kVA input and output values for power sources at rated outputs can be found in
manufacturers' equipment data sheets.

COMMON ELECTRIC ARC WELDING

PROCESSES Shielded metal arc welding:

Shielded Metal Arc Welding, also known as manual metal arc welding, stick welding, or
electric arc welding, is the most widely used of the various arc welding processes. Welding is
performed with the heat of an electric arc that is maintained between the end of a coated
metal electrode and the work piece (See Figure below).
The heat produced by the arc melts the base metal, the electrode core rod, and the coating. As
the molten metal droplets are transferred across the arc and into the molten weld puddle, they
are shielded from the atmosphere by the gases produced from the decomposition of the flux
coating. The molten slag floats to the top of the weld puddle where it protects the weld metal
from the atmosphere during solidification.

Other functions of the coating are to provide arc stability and control bead shape. More
information on coating functions will be covered in subsequent lessons.

Equipment & Operation - One reason for the wide acceptance of the SMAW process is the
simplicity of the necessary equipment. The equipment consists of the following items. (See
Figure below)


Welding power source

Electrode holder

Ground clamp

Welding cables and connectors

Accessory equipment (chipping hammer, wire brush)

Protective equipment (helmet, gloves, etc.)

Welding Power Sources - Shielded metal arc welding may utilize either alternating current
(AC) or direct current (DC), but in either case, the power source selected must be of the
constant current type. This type of power source will deliver a relatively constant amperage or
welding current regardless of arc length variations by the operator. The amperage determines
the amount of heat at the arc and since it will remain relatively constant, the weld beads
produced will be uniform in size and shape. Whether to use an AC, DC, or AC/DC power
source depends on the type of welding to be done and the electrodes used. The following
factors should be considered:
Electrode Selection - Using a DC power source allows the use of a greater range of electrode
types. While most of the electrodes are designed to be used on AC or DC, some will work
properly only on DC.

Metal Thickness - DC power sources may be used for welding both heavy sections and light
gauge work. Sheet metal is more easily welded with DC because it is easier to strike and
maintain the DC arc at low currents.

Distance from Work - If the distance from the work to the power source is great, AC is the
best choice since the voltage drop through the cables is lower than with DC. Even though
welding cables are made of copper or aluminum (both good conductors), the resistance in the
cables becomes greater as the cable length increases. In other words, a voltage reading taken
between the electrode and the work will be somewhat lower than a reading taken at the output
terminals of the power source. This is known as voltage drop.

Welding Position - Because DC may be operated at lower welding currents, it is more

suitable for overhead and vertical welding than AC. AC can successfully be used for out-of-
position work if proper electrodes are selected.

Arc Blow - When welding with DC, magnetic fields are set up throughout the weldment. In
weldments that have varying thickness and protrusions, this magnetic field can affect the arc
by making it stray or fluctuate in direction. This condition is especially troublesome when
welding in corners. AC seldom causes this problem because of the rapidly reversing magnetic
field produced. Combination power sources that produce both AC and DC are available and
provide the versatility necessary to select the proper welding current for the application.
When using a DC power source, the question of whether to use electrode negative or positive
polarity arises. Some electrodes operate on both DC straight and reverse polarity, and others
on DC negative or DC positive polarity only. Direct current flows in one direction in an
electrical circuit and the direction of current flow and the composition of the electrode
coating will have a definite effect on the welding arc and weld bead.
Figure below shows the connections and effects of straight and reverse polarity.

While polarity affects the penetration and burn-off rate, the electrode coating also has a strong
influence on arc characteristics. Performance of individual electrodes will be discussed in
succeeding lessons.

Electrode Holder - The electrode holder connects to the welding cable and con- ducts the welding
current to the electrode. The insulated handle is used to guide the electrode over the weld joint and
feed the electrode over the weld joint and feed the electrode into the weld puddle as it is consumed.
Electrode holders are available in different sizes and are rated on their current carrying capacity.

Ground Clamp - The ground clamp is used to connect the ground cable to the work piece. It may
be connected directly to the work or to the table or fixture upon which the work is positioned.
Being a part of the welding circuit, the ground clamp must be capable of carrying the welding
current without overheating due to electrical resistance.

Welding Cables - The electrode cable and the ground cable are important parts of the welding
circuit. They must be very flexible and have a tough heat-resistant insulation. Connections at the
electrode holder, the ground clamp, and at the power source lugs must be soldered or well crimped
to assure low electrical resistance. The cross-sectional area of the cable must be sufficient size to
carry the welding current with a minimum of voltage drop. Increasing the cable length necessitates
increasing the cable diameter to lessen resistance and voltage drop.

Coated Electrodes - Various types of coated electrodes are used in shielded metal arc welding.
Electrodes used for welding mild or carbon steels are quite different than those used for welding the
low alloys and stainless steels. Details on the specific types will be covered in subsequent lessons.

Gas Tungsten Arc Welding is a welding process performed using the heat of an arc established
between a nonconsumable tungsten electrode and the work piece.
The electrode, the arc, and the area surrounding the molten weld puddle are protected from the
atmosphere by an inert gas shield. The electrode is not consumed in the weld puddle as in shielded
metal arc welding. If a filler metal is necessary, it is added to the leading the molten puddle. Gas
tungsten arc welding produces exceptionally clean welds no slag is produced, the chance inclusions
in the weld metal is and the finished weld requires virtually no cleaning. Argon and Helium, the
primary shielding gases employed, are inert gases. Inert gases do not chemically combine with
other elements and therefore, are used to exclude the reactive gases, such as oxygen and nitrogen,
from forming compounds that could be detrimental to the weld metal. Gas tungsten arc welding
may be used for welding almost all metals — mild steel, low alloys, stainless steel, copper and
copper alloys, aluminum and aluminum alloys, nickel and nickel alloys, magnesium and
magnesium alloys, titanium, and others. This process is most extensively used for welding
aluminum and stainless steel alloys where weld integrity is of the utmost importance. Another use
is for the root pass (initial pass) in pipe welding, which requires a weld of the highest quality. Full
penetration without an excessively high inside bead is important in the root pass, and due to the
ease of current control of this process, it lends itself to control of back-bead size. For high quality
welds, it is usually necessary to provide an inert shielding gas inside the pipe to prevent oxidation
of the inside weld bead.

Gas tungsten arc welding lends itself to both manual and automatic operation. In manual operation,
the welder holds the torch in one hand and directs the arc into the weld joint. The filler metal is fed
manually into the leading edge of the puddle. In automatic applications, the torch may be
automatically moved over a stationary work piece or the torch may be stationary with the work
moved or rotated in relation to the torch. Filler metal, if required, is also fed automatically.

Equipment and Operation - Gas tungsten arc welding may be accomplished with relatively
simple equipment, or it may require some highly sophisticated components. Choice of equipment
depends upon the type of metal being joined, the position of the weld being made, and the quality
of the weld metal necessary for the application. The basic equipment consists of the following:
  The power source
 Electrode holder (torch)
 Shielding gas
 Tungsten electrode
 Water supply when necessary
 Ground cable
 Protective equipment

Power Sources - Both AC and DC power sources are used in gas tungsten arc welding. They are
the constant current type with a drooping volt-ampere curve. This type of power source produces
very slight changes in the arc current when the arc length (voltage) is varied.

The choice between an AC or DC welder depends on the type and thickness of the metal to be
welded. Distinct differences exist between AC and DC arc characteristics, and if DC is chosen, the
polarity also becomes an important factor. The effects of polarity in GTAW are directly opposite
the effects of polarity in SMAW. In SMAW, the distribution of heat between the electrode and
work, which determines the penetration and weld bead width, is controlled mainly by the
ingredients in the flux coating on the electrode. In GTAW where no flux coating exists, heat
distribution between the electrode and the work is controlled solely by the polarity. The choice of
the proper welding current will be better understood by analyzing each type separately.

Direct current electrode negative (DCEN) is produced when the electrode is connected to the
negative terminal of the power source. Since the electrons flow from the electrode to the plate,
approximately 70% of the heat of the arc is concentrated at the work, and approximately 30% at the
electrode end. This allows the use of smaller tungsten elec- trodes that produce a relatively narrow
concentrated arc. The weld shape has deep penetra- tion and is quite narrow. Direct current
electrode negative is suitable for weld- ing most metals. Magnesium and aluminum have a
refractory oxide coating on the surface that must be physically removed immediately prior to
welding if DCSP is to be used.

Direct current electrode positive (DCEP) is produced when the electrode is connected to the
positive terminal of the welding power source. In this condition, the electrons flow from the work
to the electrode tip, concentrating approximately 70% of the heat of the arc at the electrode and
30% at the work. This higher heat at the electrode necessitates using larger diameter tungsten to
prevent it from melting and contaminating the weld metal. Since the electrode diameter is larger
and the heat is less concentrated at the work, the resultant weld bead is relatively wide and shallow.
Direct current electrode positive is rarely used in gas -tungsten arc welding. Despite the excellent
oxide cleaning action, the lower heat input in the weld area makes it a slow process, and in metals
having higher thermal conductivity, the heat is rapidly conducted away from the weld zone. When
used, DCEP is restricted to welding thin sections (under 1/8") of magnesium and aluminum.

Alternating current is actually a combination of DCEN and DCEP and is widely used for welding
aluminum. In a sense, the advantages of both DC processes are combined, and the weld bead
produced is a compromise of the two. Remember that when welding with 60 Hz current, the
electron flow from the electrode tip to the work reverses direction 120 times every second.
Thereby, the intense heat alternates from electrode to work piece, allowing the use of an
intermediate size electrode. The weld bead is a compromise having medium penetration and bead
width. The gas ions blast the oxides from the surface of aluminum and magnesium during the
positive half cycle.

DC constant current power sources - Constant current power sources, used for shielded metal arc
welding, may also be used for gas-tungsten arc welding. In applications where weld integrity is not
of utmost importance, these power sources will suffice. With machines of this type, the arc must be
initiated by touching the tungsten electrode to the work and quickly withdrawing it to maintain the
proper arc length. This starting method contaminates the electrode and blunts the point which has
been grounded on the electrode end. These conditions can cause weld metal inclusions and poor arc
direction. Using a power source designed for gas tungsten arc welding with a high frequency
stabilizer will eliminate this problem. The electrode need not be touched to the work for arc
initiation. Instead, the high frequency voltage, at very low current, is superimposed onto the
welding current. When the electrode is brought to within approximately 1/8 inch of the base metal,
the high frequency ionizes the gas path, making it conductive and a welding arc is established. The
high frequency is automatically turned off immediately after arc initiation when using direct
current.
AC Constant Current Power Source - Designed for gas tungsten arc welding, always
incorporates high frequency, and it is turned on throughout the weld cycle to maintain a stable arc.
When welding with AC, the current passes through 0 twice in every cycle and the must be
reestablished each time it does so. The oxide coating on metals, such as aluminum and magnesium,
can act much like a rectifier.. The positive half-cycle will be eliminated if the arc does not reignite,
causing an unstable condition. Continuous high frequency maintains an ionized path for the
welding arc, and assures arc re- ignition each time the current changes direction. AC is extensively
used for welding aluminum and magnesium.

AC/DC Constant Current Power Sources - Designed for gas tungsten arc welding, are available,
and can be used for welding practically all metals. The gas tungsten arc welding process is usually
chosen because of the high quality welds it can produce. The metals that are commonly welded
with this process, such as stainless steel, aluminum and some of the more exotic metals, cost many
times the price of mild steel; and therefore, the power sources designed for this process have many
desirable features to insure high quality welds. Among these are:

P Remote current control, which allows the operator to control welding amperage with a
hand control on the torch, or a foot control at the welding station.

Q Automatic soft-start, which prevents a high current surge when the arc is initiated.

R Shielding gas and cooling water solenoid valves, which automatically control flow before,
during and for an adjustable length of time after the weld is completed.

S Spot-weld timers, which automatically control all elements during each spot-weld cycle.
Other options and accessories are also available.

Power sources for automatic welding with complete programmable output are also available. Such
units are used extensively for the automatic welding of pipe in position. The welding current is
automatically varied as the torch travels around the pipe. Some units provide a pulsed welding
current where the amperage is automatically varied between a low and high several times per
second. This produces welds with good penetration and improved weld bead shape.

Torches - The torch is actually an electrode holder that supplies welding current to the tungsten
electrode, and an inert gas shield to the arc zone. The electrode is held in a collet-like clamping
device that allows adjustment so that the proper length of electrode pro- trudes beyond the
shielding gas cup. Manual torches are designed to accept electrodes of 3 inch or 7 inch lengths.
Torches may be either air or water-cooled. The air-cooled types actually are cooled to a degree by
the shielding gas that is fed to the torch head through a compos- ite cable. The gas actually
surrounds the copper welding cable, affording some degree of cooling. Water-cooled torches are
usually used for applications where the welding current exceeds 200 amperes. The water inlet hose
is connected to the torch head. Circulating around the torch head, the water leaves the torch via the
current-in hose and cable assembly. Cooling the welding cable in this manner allows the use of a
smaller diameter cable that is more flexible and lighter in weight.

The gas nozzles are made of ceramic materials and are available in various sizes and shapes. In
some heavy duty, high current applications, metal water-cooled nozzles are used.

A switch on the torch is used to energize the electrode with welding current and start the shielding
gas flow. High frequency current and water flow are also initiated by this switch if the power
source is so equipped. In many installations, these functions are initiated by a foot control that also
is capable of controlling the welding current. This method gives the operator full control of the arc.
The usual welding method is to start the arc at a low current, gradually increase the current until a
molten pool is achieved, and welding begins. At the end of the weld, current is slowly decreases
and the arc extinguished, preventing the crater that forms at the end of the weld when the arc is
broken abruptly.

Shielding Gases - Argon and helium are the major shielding gases used in gas tungsten arc
welding. In some applications, mixtures of the two gases prove advantageous. To a lesser extent,
hydrogen is mixed with argon or helium for special applications.

Argon and helium are colorless, odorless, tasteless and nontoxic gases. Both are inert gases, which
mean that they do not readily combine with other elements. They will not burn or support
combustion. Commercial grades used for welding are 99.99% pure. Argon is .38% heavier than air
and about 10 times heavier than helium. Both gases ionize when present in an electric arc. This
means that the gas atoms lose some of their electrons that have a negative charge. These
unbalanced gas atoms, properly called positive ions, now have a positive charge and are attracted to
the negative pole in the arc. When the arc is positive and the work is negative, these positive ions
impinge upon the work and remove surface oxides or scale in the weld area.

Argon is most commonly used of the shielding gases. Excellent arc starting and ease of use make it
most desirable for manual welding. Argon produces a better cleaning action when welding
aluminum and magnesium with alternating current. The arc produced is relatively narrow. Argon is
more suitable for welding thinner material. At equal amperage, helium produces a higher arc
voltage than argon. Since welding heat is the product of volts times amperes, helium produces more
available heat at the arc. This makes it more suitable for welding heavy sections of metal that have
high heat conductivity, or for automatic welding operations where higher welding speeds are
required.

Argon-helium gas mixtures are used in applications where higher heat input and the desirable
characteristics of argon are required. Argon, being a relatively heavy gas, blankets the weld area at
lower flow rates. Argon is preferred for many applications because it costs less than helium.
Helium, being approximately 10 times lighter than argon, requires flow rates of 2 to 3 times that of
argon to satisfactorily shield the arc.

Electrodes - Electrodes for gas tungsten arc welding are available in diameters from .010" to 1/4"
in diameter and standard lengths range from 3" to 24". The most commonly used sizes, however,
are the .040", 1/16", 3/32", and 1/8" diameters.

The shape of the tip of the electrode is an important factor in gas tungsten arc welding. When
welding with DCEN, the tip must be ground to a point. The included angle at which the tip is
ground varies with the application, the electrode diameter, and the welding current. Narrow joints
require a relatively small included angle. When welding very thin material at low currents, a
needlelike point ground onto the smallest available electrode may be necessary to stabilize the arc.
Properly ground electrodes will assure easy arc starting, good arc stability, and proper bead width.

When welding with AC, grinding the electrode tip is not necessary. When proper welding current is
used, the electrode will form a hemispherical end. If the proper welding current is exceeded, the
end will become bulbous in shape and possibly melt off to contaminate the weld metal.

The American Welding Society has published Specification AWS A5.12-80 for tungsten arc
welding electrodes that classifies the electrodes on the basis of their chemical composition, size and
finish. Briefly, the types specified are listed below:

c. Pure Tungsten (AWS EWP) Color Code: Green Used for less critical applications. The
cost is low and they give good results at relatively low currents on a variety of metals. Most
stable arc when used on AC, either balanced wave or continuous high frequency.

d. 1% Thoriated Tungsten (AWS EWTh-1) Color Code: Yellow Good current carrying
capacity, easy arc starting and provide a stable arc. Less susceptible to contamination.
Designed for DC applications of nonferrous materials.
3) 2% Thoriated Tungsten (AWS EWTh-2) Color Code: Red Longer life than 1% Thoriated
electrodes. Maintain the pointed end longer, used for light gauge critical welds in aircraft work.
Like 1%, designed for DC applications for nonferrous materials.

4) 5% Thoriated Tungsten (AWS EWTh-3) Color Code: Blue Sometimes called "striped"
electrode because it has 1.0-2.0% Thoria inserted in a wedge-shaped groove throughout its length.
Combines the good properties of pure and thoriated electrodes. Can be used on either AC or DC
applications.

5) Zirconia Tungsten (AWS EWZr) Color Code: Brown Longer life than pure tungsten. Better
performance when welding with AC. Melts more easily than thoriam-tungsten when forming
rounded or tapered tungsten end. Ideal for applications where tungsten contamination must be
minimized.

1.3.3: DRILLING

Drilling:

Drilling is a cutting process that uses a drill bit to cut or enlarge a hole of circular cross-section in
solid materials. The drill bit is a rotary cutting tool, often multipoint. The bit is pressed against the
workpiece and rotated at rates from hundreds to thousands of revolutions per minute. This forces
the cutting edge against the workpiece, cutting off chips from what will become the hole being
drilled.

Processes:

Drilled holes are characterized by their sharp edge on the entrance side and the presence of
burrs on the exit side (unless they have been removed). Also, the inside of the hole usually has
helical feed marks.

Drilling may affect the mechanical properties of the workpiece by creating low residual
stresses around the hole opening and a very thin layer of highly stressed and disturbed material on
the newly formed surface. This causes the workpiece to become more susceptible to corrosion at
the stressed surface. A finish operation may be done to avoid the corrosion. Zinc plating or any
other standard finish operation of 14 to 20 microns can be done which helps to avoid any sort of
corrosion.

Types of drilling:

 Spot drilling

 Center drilling

 Deep hole drilling

 Micro-drilling

 Vibration Drilling

Drilling in Metal:

Under normal usage, swarf is carried up and away from the tip of the drill bit by the fluting of
the drill bit. The cutting edges produce more chips which continue the movement of the chips
outwards from the hole. This is successful until the chips pack too tightly, either because of deeper
than normal holes or insufficient backing off (removing the drill slightly or totally from the hole
while drilling). Cutting fluid is sometimes used to ease this problem and to prolong the tool's life by
cooling and lubricating the tip and chip flow. Coolant may be introduced via holes through the drill
shank, which is common when using a gun drill. When cutting aluminum in particular, cutting fluid
helps ensure a smooth and accurate hole while preventing the metal from grabbing the drill bit in
the process of drilling the hole.

For heavy feeds and comparatively deep holes oil-hole drills can be used, with a lubricant
pumped to the drill head through a small hole in the bit and flowing out along the fluting. A
conventional drill press arrangement can be used in oil-hole drilling, but it is more commonly seen
in automatic drilling machinery in which it is the work piece that rotates rather than the drill bit.
Fig: 5.4.1 High speed steel twist bit drilling into aluminium with methylated spirits lubricant.

Spur gear
Introduction:

Gears are machine elements used to transmit rotary motion between two shafts, normally
with a constant ratio. 

The pinion is the smallest gear and the larger gear is called the gear wheel..   A rack is a
rectangular prism with gear teeth machined along one side- it is in effect a gear wheel with an
infinite pitch circle diameter.   In practice the action of gears in transmitting motion is a cam action
each pair of mating teeth acting as cams.  Gear design has evolved to such a level that throughout
the motion of each contacting pair of teeth the velocity ratio of the gears is maintained fixed and the
velocity ratio is still fixed as each subsequent pair of teeth come into contact.  

When the teeth action is such that the driving tooth moving at constant angular velocity
produces a proportional constant velocity of the driven tooth the action is termed a conjugate
action.   The teeth shape universally selected for the gear teeth is the involute profile.

Consider one end of a piece of string is fastened to the OD of one cylinder and the
other end of the string is fastened to the OD of another cylinder parallel to the first and both
cylinders are rotated in the opposite directions to tension the string(see figure below).   The point
on the string midway between the cylinder P is marked.   As the left hand cylinder rotates CCW the
point moves towards this cylinder as it wraps on .   The point moves away from the right hand
cylinder as the string unwraps.  The point traces the involute form of the gear teeth.

The lines normal to the point of contact of the gears always intersects the centre line joining
the gear centers at one point called the pitch point.  For each gear the circle passing through the
pitch point is called the pitch circle.  The gear ratio is proportional to the diameters of the two pitch
circles.  For metric gears (as adopted by most of the worlds nations) the gear proportions are based
on the module.

m = (Pitch Circle Diameter (mm)) / (Number of teeth on gear).

In the USA the module is not used and instead the Diametric Pitch d pis used

d p = (Number of Teeth) / Diametrical Pitch (inches)

Profile of a standard 1mm module gear teeth for a gear with Infinite radius
(Rack ).Other module teeth profiles are directly proportion . e.g. 2mm module teeth are 2 x this
profile.

Many gears trains are very low power applications with an object of transmitting motion
with minimum torque e.g. watch and clock mechanisms, instruments, toys, music boxes etc. These
applications do not require detailed strength calculations.
Standards:

 AGMA 2001-C95 or AGMA-2101-C95 Fundamental Rating factors and Calculation

Methods for involute Spur Gear and Helical Gear Teeth
 BS 436-4:1996, ISO 1328-1:1995..Spur and helical gears. Definitions and allowable values
of deviations relevant to corresponding flanks of gear teeth

 BS 436-5:1997, ISO 1328-2:1997..Spur and helical gears. Definitions and allowable values
of deviations relevant to radial composite deviations and runout information

 BS ISO 6336-1:1996...Calculation of load capacity of spur and helical gears. Basic

principles, introduction and general influence factors

 BS ISO 6336-2:1996...Calculation of load capacity of spur and helical gears. Calculation of

surface durability (pitting)

 BS ISO 6336-3:1996...Calculation of load capacity of spur and helical gears. Calculation of

tooth bending strength

 BS ISO 6336-5:2003...Calculation of load capacity of spur and helical gears. Strength and
quality o material.

If it is necessary to design a gearbox from scratch the design process in selecting the gear
size is not complicated - the various design formulae have all been developed over time and are
available in the relevant standards.  However significant effort, judgment and expertise is
required in designing the whole system including the gears, shafts, bearings, gearbox,
lubrication.  For the same duty many different gear options are available for the type of gear,
the materials and the quality.  It is always preferable to procure gearboxes from specialized
gearbox manufacturers materials.

Terminology - spur gears:

 Diametric pitch (d p )...... The number of teeth per one inch of pitch circle diameter.
 Module. (m) ...... The length, in mm, of the pitch circle diameter per tooth.

 Circular pitch (p)...... The distance between adjacent teeth measured along the are at the
pitch circle diameter

 Addendum ( h a )...... The height of the tooth above the pitch circle diameter.
 Centre distance (a)...... The distance between the axes of two gears in mesh.

 Circular tooth thickness (ctt)...... The width of a tooth measured along the are at the pitch
circle diameter.

 Dedendum ( h f )...... The depth of the tooth below the pitch circle diameter.

 Outside diameter ( D o )...... The outside diameter of the gear.

 Base Circle diameter ( D b ) ...... The diameter on which the involute teeth profile is based.

 Pitch circle dia ( p ) ...... The diameter of the pitch circle.

 Pitch point...... The point at which the pitch circle diameters of two gears in mesh coincide.

 Pitch to back...... The distance on a rack between the pitch circle diameter line and the rear
face of the rack.

 Pressure angle...... The angle between the tooth profile at the pitch circle diameter and a
radial line passing through the same point.

 Whole depth...... The total depth of the space between adjacent teeth.

Spur Gear Design:

 The spur gear is is simplest type of gear manufactured and is generally used for
transmission of rotary motion between parallel shafts.  The spur gear is the first choice option
for gears except when high speeds, loads, and ratios direct towards other options.  Other gear
types may also be preferred to provide more silent low-vibration operation.  A single spur gear
is generally selected to have a ratio range of between 1:1 and 1:6 with a pitch line velocity up to
25 m/s.  The spur gear has an operating efficiency of 98-99%.  The pinion is made from a
harder material than the wheel.  A gear pair should be selected to have the highest number of
teeth consistent with a suitable safety margin in strength and wear.   The minimum number of
teeth on a gear with a normal pressure angle of 20 desgrees is 18.

The preferred number of teeth is as follows

12 13 14 15 16 18 20 22 24 25 28 30 32 34 38 40 45 50 54 60
64 70 72 75 80 84 90 96 100 120 140 150 180 200 220 250

Materials used for gears:

Mild steel is a poor material for gears as as it has poor resistance to surface loading.   The
carbon content for unhardened gears is generally 0.4%(min) with 0.55%(min) carbon for the
pinions.  Dissimilar materials should be used for the meshing gears - this particularly applies to
alloy steels.  Alloy steels have superior fatigue properties compared to carbon steels for comparable
strengths.  For extremely high gear loading case hardened steels are used the surface hardening
method employed should be such to provide sufficient case depth for the final grinding process
used.

Material Notes applications

Ferrous metals

Low Cost easy to machine Large moderate power,

Cast Iron
with high damping commercial gears

Low cost, reasonable Power gears with medium

Cast Steels
strength rating to commercial quality

Power gears with medium

Good machining, can be
Plain-Carbon Steels rating to commercial/medium
heat treated
quality

Alloy Steels Heat Treatable to provide Highest power requirement.

highest strength and For precision and high
 durability precisiont

Corrosion resistance with low

Stainless Steels Good corrosion resistance.
power ratings. Up to precision
(Aust) Non-magnetic
quality

Hardenable, Reasonable Low to medium power ratings

Stainless Steels
corrosion resistance, Up to high precision levels of
(Mart)
magnetic quality

Non-Ferrous metals

Light weight, non-

Light duty instrument gears up
Aluminium alloys corrosive and good
to high precision quality
machinability

low cost commercial quality

Low cost, non-corrosive,
Brass alloys gears. Quality up to medium
excellent machinability
precision

Excellent machinability,
For use with steel power gears.
Bronze alloys low friction and good
Quality up to high precision
compatability with steel

Ligh weight low load gears.

Light weight with poor
Magnesium alloys Quality up to medium
corrosion resistance
precision

Low coefficient of thermal Special gears for thermal

Nickel alloys expansion. Poor applications to commercial
machinability quality

High strength, for low Special light weight high

Titanium alloys weight, good corrosion strength gears to medium
resistance precision

Low cost with low High production, low quality

Di-cast alloys
precision and strength gears to commercial quality

High production, low quality

Sintered powder Low cost, low quality,
to moderate commercial
alloys moderate strength
quality

Non metals
 Wear resistant, low water Long life , low load bearings
Acetal (Delrin
absorbtion to commercial quality

High production, low quality

Low cost, low quality,
Phenolic laminates to moderate commercial
moderate strength
quality

No lubrication, no Long life at low loads to

Nylons
lubricant, absorbs water commercial quality

Low friction and no Special low friction gears to

PTFE
lubrication commercial quality

Equations for basic gear relationships:

It is acceptable to marginally modify these relationships e.g to modify the addendum

/dedendum to allow Centre Distance adjustments. Any changes modifications will affect the
gear performance in good and bad ways...

Addendum h a = m = 0.3183 p

Base Circle diameter Db = d.cos α

Centre distance a = ( d g + d p) / 2

Circular pitch p = m.π

Circular tooth thickness    ctt = p/2

Dedendum h f = h - a = 1,25m = 0,3979 p

Module m = d /z

Number of teeth z=d/m

Outside diameter D o = (z + 2) x m

Pitch circle diameter d = z . m ... (d g = gear & d p = pinion )

Whole depth(min) h = 2.25 . m

Top land width(min) t o = 0,25 . m

Module (m):

The module is the ratio of the pitch diameter to the number of teeth. The unit of the module is
milli-metres.Below is a diagram showing the relative size of teeth machined in a rack with module
ranging from module values of 0,5 mm to 6 mm.

0,5    
0,8    1     1,25     1,5     2,5     3     4     5     6     8     10   12     16     20     25     32     40     50.

Normal Pressure angle α:

An important variable affecting the geometry of the gear teeth is the normal pressure
angle.  This is generally standardized at 20o.  Other pressure angles should be used only for special
reasons and using considered judgment. The following changes result from increasing the pressure
angle

 Reduction in the danger of undercutting and interference

 Reduction of slipping speeds

 Increased loading capacity in contact, seizure and wear

 Increased rigidity of the toothing

 Increased noise and radial forces

Gears required having low noise levels have pressure angles 15o to17.5o

Contact Ratio:

The gear design is such that when in mesh the rotating gears have more than one gear in
contact and transferring the torque for some of the time.   This property is called the contact
ratio.  This is a ratio of the length of the line-of-action to the base pitch.   The higher the contact
ratio the more the load is shared between teeth.  It is good practice to maintain a contact ratio of 1.2
or greater. Under no circumstances should the ratio drop below 1.1.
A contact ratio between 1 and 2 means that part of the time two pairs of teeth are in contact and
during the remaining time one pair is in contact.   A ratio between 2 and 3 means 2 or 3 pairs of
teeth are always in contact.   Such as high contact ratio generally is not obtained with external spur
gears, but can be developed in the meshing of an internal and external spur gear pair or specially
designed non-standard external spur gears.

Spur gear Forces, torques, velocities & Powers:

 F = tooth force between contacting teeth (at angle pressure angle α to

pitch line tangent. (N)

 F t = tangential component of tooth force (N)

 F s = Separating component of tooth force

 α= Pressure angle

 d 1 = Pitch Circle Dia -driving gear (m)

 d 2 = Pitch Circle Dia -driven gear (m)

 ω 1 = Angular velocity of driver gear (Rads/s)

 ω 2 = Angular velocity of driven gear (Rads/s)

 z 1 = Number of teeth on driver gear

 z 2 = Number of teeth on driven gear

 P = power transmitted (Watts)

 M = torque (Nm)

 η = efficiency

Tangential force on gears F t = F cos α

Separating force on gears F s = F t tan α

Torque on driver gear T 1 = F t d 1 / 2

Torque on driver gear T 2 = F t d 2 / 2

Speed Ratio =ω 1 / ω 2 = d 2 / d 1 = z 2 /z 1

Input Power P 1 = T1 .ω 1

Output Power P 2 =η.T 1 .ω 2

Spur gear Strength and durability calculations:

Designing spur gears is normally done in accordance with standards the two most popular
series are listed under standards above:

The notes below relate to approximate methods for estimating gear strengths. The methods
are really only useful for first approximations and/or selection of stock gears (ref links below). —
Detailed design of spur and helical gears is best completed using the standards.   Books are
available providing the necessary guidance.   Software is also available making the process very
easy.   A very reasonably priced and easy to use package is included in the links below
(Mitcalc.com)

The determination of the capacity of gears to transfer the required torque for the desired
operating life is completed by determining the strength of the gear teeth in bending and also the
durability i.e of the teeth ( resistance to wearing/bearing/scuffing loads ) .. The equations below are
based on methods used by Buckingham.

Bending:
The basic bending stress for gear teeth is obtained by using the Lewis formula

σ = Ft / ( ba. m. Y )

 F t = Tangential force on tooth

 σ = Tooth Bending stress (MPa)

 b a = Face width (mm)

 Y = Lewis Form Factor

  m = Module (mm)

Note: The Lewis formula is often expressed as

σ = Ft / ( ba. p. y )

Where y = Y/π and p = circular pitch

When a gear wheel is rotating the gear teeth come into contact with some degree of
impact.  To allow for this a velocity factor ( Kv ) is introduced into the equation.   This is given by
the Barth equation...

V = the pitch line velocity = d.ω/2 (m/s)

The Lewis formula is thus modified as follows

σ = K v.Ft / ( ba. m. Y )

Surface Durability:

This calculation involves determining the contact stress between the gear teeth and utilizes a
Herzian contact stress analysis. This is based on the analysis of two cylinders, in contact along their
When the value of E used is in MPa then the units of Z e are √ MPa . The Imperial version of Z e is
Cp with value of E used in psi and value of Cp = √ psi
The resulting formula for the compressive stress developed is as shown below

Note: r1 and r2are the radii of curvature of the tooth surfaces at the contact point.
As gear tooth wear is generally first found at the pitch point, the curvatures at the pitch point are

Design Process

To select gears from a stock gear catalogue or do a first approximation for a gear design select the
gear material and obtain a safe working stress e.g Yield stress / Factor of Safety. /Safe fatigue stress

 Determine the input speed, output speed, ratio, torque to be

transmitted

 Select materials for the gears ( pinion is more highly loaded

than gear )

 Determine safe working stresses (uts /factor of safety or yield

stress/factor of safety or Fatigue strength / Factor of safety )

 Determine Allowable endurance Stress Se

 Select a module value and determine the resulting geometry

of the gear

 Use the lewis formula and the endurance formula to establish

the resulting face width

 If the gear proportions are reasonable then - proceed to more

detailed evaluations

 If the resulting face width is excessive - change the module or

material or both and start again
Internal Gears:

1. Advantages: Geometry ideal for epicyclic gear design

2. Allows compact design since the center distance is less than for external gears.

3. A high contact ratio is possible.

4. Good surface endurance due to a convex profile surface working against a concave surface.

5. Disadvantage Housing and bearing supports are more complicated, because the external
gear nests within the internal gear.

6. Low ratios are unsuitable and in many cases impossible because of interferences.

7. Fabrication is limited to the shaper generating process, and usually special tooling is
required. ages:

WORM GEAR

A worm drive is a gear arrangement in which a worm (which is a gear in the form of a screw)
meshes with a worm gear (which is similar in appearance to a spur gear). The two elements are
also called the worm screw and worm wheel. The terminology is often confused by imprecise use
of the term worm gear to refer to the worm, the worm gear, or the worm drive as a unit.

Like other gear arrangements, a worm drive can reduce rotational speed or transmit higher torque.
A worm is an example of a screw, one of the six simple machines.
A gearbox designed using a worm and worm-wheel is considerably smaller than one made from
plain spur gears, and has its drive axes at 90° to each other. With a single start worm, for each 360°
turn of the worm, the worm-gear advances only one tooth of the gear. Therefore, regardless of the
worm's size (sensible engineering limits notwithstanding), the gear ratio is the "size of the worm
gear - to - 1". Given a single start worm, a 20 tooth worm gear reduces the speed by the ratio of
20:1. With spur gears, a gear of 12 teeth must match with a 240 tooth gear to achieve the same 20:1
ratio. Therefore, if the diametrical pitch (DP) of each gear is the same, then, in terms of the physical
size of the 240 tooth gear to that of the 20 tooth gear, the worm arrangement is considerably
smaller in volume.
TYPES

There are three different types of gears that can be used in a worm drive.

The first are non-throated worm gears. These don't have a throat, or groove, machined around the
circumference of either the worm or worm wheel. The second are single-throated worm gears, in
which the worm wheel is throated. The final type are double-throated worm gears, which have both
gears throated. This type of gearing can support the highest loading.

An enveloping (hourglass) worm has one or more teeth and increases in diameter from its middle
portion toward both ends.

Double-enveloping worm gearing comprises enveloping worms mated with fully enveloping worm
gears. It is also known as globoidal worm gearing

DIRECTIONS OF TRANSMISSION

Unlike with ordinary gear trains, the direction of transmission (input shaft vs output shaft) is not
reversible when using large reduction ratios, due to the greater friction involved between the worm
and worm-wheel, when usually a single start (one spiral) worm is used. This can be an advantage
when it is desired to eliminate any possibility of the output driving the input. If a multistart worm
(multiple spirals) is used then the ratio reduces accordingly and the braking effect of a worm and
worm-gear may need to be discounted, as the gear may be able to drive the worm.

Worm gear configurations in which the gear cannot drive the worm are called self-locking. Whether
a worm and gear is self-locking depends on the lead angle, the pressure angle, and the coefficient of
friction

.
2.0 Cam Shaft mechanism

A camshaft is a shaft to which a cam is fastened or of which a cam forms an

integral part.

Materials

Camshafts can be made out of several types of material. These include:

Chilled iron castings: Commonly used in high volume production, chilled iron camshafts have good
wear resistance since the chilling process hardens them. Other elements are added to the iron before
casting to make the material more suitable for its application.

Billet Steel: When a high quality camshaft or low volume production is required, engine builders
and camshaft manufacturers choose steel billet. This is a much more time consuming process, and
is generally more expensive than other methods. However, the finished product is far
superior. CNC lathes, CNC milling machines, and CNC camshaft grinders will be used during
production. Different types of steel bar can be used, one example being EN40b. When
manufacturing a camshaft from EN40b, the camshaft will also be heat treated via gas nitriding,
which changes the micro-structure of the material. It gives a surface hardness of 55-60 HRC. These
types of camshafts can be used in high-performance engines.

Figure 6 animation view of Cam shaft mechanism

Timing

A steel billet racing camshaft with noticeably broad lobes (very long duration)

The relationship between the rotation of the camshaft and the rotation of the crankshaft is of critical
importance. Since the valves control the flow of the air/fuel mixture intake and exhaust gases, they
must be opened and closed at the appropriate time during the stroke of the piston. For this reason,
the camshaft is connected to the crankshaft either directly, via a gear mechanism, or indirectly via a
belt or chain called a timing belt or timing chain. Direct drive using gears is unusual because of the
cost. The frequently reversing torque caused by the slope of the cams tends to cause gear rattle
which for an all-metal gear train requires further expense of a cam damper. Rolls-Royce V8 (1954)
used gear drive as, unlike chain, it could be made silent and to last the life of the engine. [9] Where
gears are used in cheaper cars, they tend to be made from resilient fibre rather than metal, except in
racing engines that have a high maintenance routine. Fibre gears have a short life span and must be
replaced regularly, much like a timing belt. In some designs the camshaft also drives
the distributor and the oil and fuel pumps. Some vehicles may have the power steering pump driven
by the camshaft. With some early fuel injection systems, cams on the camshaft would operate the
fuel injectors. Honda redesigned the VF750 motorcycle from chain drive to the gear drive VFR750
due to insurmountable problems with the VF750 Hi-Vo inverted chain drive.

An alternative used in the early days of OHC engines was to drive the camshaft(s) via a vertical
shaft with bevel gears at each end. This system was, for example, used on the pre-World War
I Peugeot and Mercedes Grand Prix cars. Another option was to use a triple eccentric with
connecting rods; these were used on certain W.O. Bentley-designed engines and also on
the Leyland Eight.

In a two-stroke engine that uses a camshaft, each valve is opened once for every rotation of the
crankshaft; in these engines, the camshaft rotates at the same speed as the crankshaft. In a four-
stroke engine, the valves are opened only half as often; thus, two full rotations of the crankshaft
occur for each rotation of the camshaft.

The timing of the camshaft can be advanced to produce better low RPM torque, or retarded for
better high RPM power. Changing cam timing moves the overall power produced by the engine
down or up the RPM scale. The amount of change is very little (usually < 5 deg), and affects valve
to piston clearances.

Duration

Duration is the number of crankshaft degrees of engine rotation during which the valve is off the
seat. In general, greater duration results in more horsepower. The RPM at which peak horsepower
occurs is typically increased as duration increases at the expense of lower rpm efficiency (torque).

Duration specifications can often be misleading because manufacturers may select any lift point
from which to advertise a camshaft's duration and sometimes will manipulate these numbers. The
power and idle characteristics of a camshaft rated at a .006" lift point will be much different from
one with the same rating at a .002" lift point.

Many performance engine builders gauge a race profile's aggressiveness by looking at the duration
at .020", .050" and .200". The .020" number determines how responsive the motor will be and how
much low end torque the motor will make. The .050" number is used to estimate where peak power
will occur, and the .200" number gives an estimate of the power potential.
A secondary effect of increased duration can be increased overlap, which is the number of
crankshaft degrees during which both intake and exhaust valves are off their seats. It is overlap
which most affects idle quality, inasmuch as the "blow-through" of the intake charge immediately
back out thru the exhaust valve which occurs during overlap reduces engine efficiency, and is
greatest during low RPM operation. In general, increasing a camshaft's duration typically increases
the overlap, unless the intake and exhaust lobe centers are moved apart to compensate.

Lift

The camshaft "lift" is the resultant net rise of the valve from its seat. The farther the valve rises
from its seat the more airflow can be provided, which is generally more beneficial. Greater lift has
some limitations. Firstly, lift is limited by the increased proximity of the valve head to the piston
crown and secondly, greater effort is required to move the valve springs to a higher state of
compression. Increased lift can also be limited by lobe clearance in the cylinder head casting.
Higher valve lift can have the same effect as increased duration where valve overlap is less
desirable.

Higher lift allows greater airflow; although even by allowing a larger volume of air to pass thru the
larger opening, the brevity of the typical duration with a higher lift cam results in less airflow than
with a cam with lower lift but more duration, all else being equal. On forced induction motors this
higher lift could yield better results than longer duration, particularly on the intake side. Notably
though, higher lift has more potential problems than increased duration, in particular as valve train
rpm rises which can result in less efficient running or loss of torque.

Cams that have excessive valve lift, running at high rpm, can cause what is called "valve float",
where the valve spring tension is insufficient to keep the valve following the cam at its apex. This
could also be a result of a very steep rise of the lobe, where the valve is effectively shot off the end
of the cam rather than following the cams’ profile. This is typically what happens when a motor
over revs. This is where the engine rpm exceeds the maximum design rpm. The valve train is
typically the limiting factor in determining the maximum rpm the engine can maintain either for a
prolonged period or temporarily. Sometimes an over rev can cause engine failure when the valves
become bent as a result of colliding with the piston crowns.

Position

Depending on the location of the camshaft, the cam operates the valves either directly or through a
linkage of pushrods and rockers. Direct operation involves a simpler mechanism and leads to fewer
failures, but requires the camshaft to be positioned at the top of the cylinders. In the past when
engines were not as reliable as today this was seen as too much trouble, but in modern gasoline
engines the overhead cam system, where the camshaft is on top of the cylinder head, is quite
common.

In mechanically timed ignition systems, a separate cam in the distributor is geared to

the engine and operates a set of breaker points that trigger a spark at the correct time in the
combustion cycle.

Figure 7 Cam shaft mechanism

4.1 ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS

ADVANTAGES:

 Compact size and portable

 Easy to move from one place to another place

 Operating principle is simple.

 Non-skilled person also operate this machine

LIMITATIONS

 Manually operated

APPLICATION

 For cricket ground.

CONCLUSION:
FUTURE WORK

We completed our project successfully with the available sources. But the results and
modifications are not up to the expectations. This can be further improved by incorporating the
following modifications to obtain better results.

The mechanism which we used i.e, cam shaft mechanism does not given excepted
efficiency. This efficiency can be increased by using some other mechanism.

REFERENCES:

1. www.merits.tech.in
2. www.oee.nrcan.gc.ca
3. http://www.esabna.com
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