Article No : a09_055

Drying Oils and Related Products

ULRICH POTH, BASF Coatings AG, M€unster, Federal Republic of Germany

1. Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 621 7.2. Cross-Linking by Reaction with Oxygen . . 628

2. History. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 622 7.3. Influence of Catalysts on Cross-Linking . . 629
3. Chemical Compositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 623 7.4. Yellowing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 630
4. Sources and Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 623 8. Modifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 630
4.1. Linseed Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 623 8.1. Boiled Oils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 631
4.2. Perilla Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 624 8.2. Stand Oils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 631
4.3. Tung Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 624 8.3. Blown Oils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 631
4.4. Oiticica Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 624 8.4. Factice, Sulfurized Oils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 632
4.5. Fish Oils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 626 8.5. Isomerized Oils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 632
4.6. Safflower Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 626 8.6. Copolymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 632
4.7. Sunflower Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 626 8.7. Maleinized Oils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 632
4.8. Soybean Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 626 8.8. Oil Boiling with Rosin, Copal, and Amber 633
4.9. Cottonseed Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 626 8.9. Oil Boiling with Phenolic Resins . . . . . . . . 633
4.10. Dehydrated Castor Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 626 8.10. Modifications by Transesterification . . . . . 633
4.11. Tall Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 627 8.11. Modifications Based on Fatty Acids . . . . . . 634
5. Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 627 9. Application, Importance, and Future Aspects 634
6. Testing and Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . 628 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 634
7. Film Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 628
7.1. Properties of Drying Oils for Film Formation 628

1. Definitions the molecule. Triglycerides containing a suffi-

cient amount of these fatty acids are drying oils in
Drying oils are fatty oils (! Fats and Fatty the narrow sense. Triglycerides with a significant
Oils) from different natural sources, which are content of fatty acids with two double bonds are
able to form coating films by reaction with semidrying oils. Oils containing predominantly
atmospheric oxygen. The reaction may take fatty acids with only one double bond are not able
place with the original, unmodified oils or after to dry.
modification. Oils which are able to form films Drying oils in the narrow sense are linseed oil,
on their own, without being modified, are called perilla oil, tung oil, oiticica oil, and different fish
drying oils in the narrow sense. Oils which are oils. Semidrying oils are cottonseed oil, soybean
able to form films if they are modified or mixed oil, sunflower oil, safflower oil, hemp oil, poppy
with other film-forming components are called oil, walnut oil, sesame oil, maize oil, grape
semidrying oils. Nondrying oils are also used to seed oils and the oils of Euphorbia, Coriander,
produce binders for coatings formulations, but Brassica, and Limanthes species. Peanut oil,
these oils and there modifications are not able castor oil, palm tree oil, olive oil, and almond
to form films by reaction with atmospheric oil are nondrying oils.
oxygen. Tall oil is not a triglyceride, but a mixture of
The reaction with atmospheric oxygen (au- mainly unsaturated fatty acids and rosin. Tall oil
toxidation) takes place with unsaturated fatty is formed as a byproduct in kraft (sulfate) pulping
acids containing more than two double bonds in (! Tall Oil). Refined tall oil can be used in the

2012 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim

DOI: 10.1002/14356007.a09_055
622 Drying Oils and Related Products Vol. 11

same way as fatty acids from soybean oil in the In 1298 MARCO POLO reported the use of tung
coating industry. oil as raw material in paints for the ships in the
Dehydrated castor oil is a drying oil. Dehy- Chinese Empire. But it was not until the late 19th
drated castor oil is prepared from castor oil by century that tung oil was shipped to Europe for
dehydration with sulfonic acids or at high tem- production of advanced oil varnishes.
peratures. Dehydrated castor oil contains a rather In the beginning of the 15th century the use of
high amount of 9,11-linoleic acid. turpentine oil (prepared by the new technique of
distillation, developed in the Oriental Empires)
was introduced into the preparation of oil
2. History varnishes (VAN EYCK brothers in Brugge and
Gent). This invention formed the basis for the
It was in the Stone Age that humans began to works of the most famous painters in the Nether-
grow plants and the early advanced civilizations lands at that time.
developed an agricultural system. Important was In the 16th century the first Chinese and Japa-
the cultivation of flax to produce linen, but nese painted articles were imported to Europe
linseed was also used for production of linseed and the Europeans started to copy those techni-
oil. First documents which give information on ques by using oil-based coatings. The demand for
the growing of flax are dated to the third dynasty painted articles became larger and the first coat-
in the Egyptian ‘‘Old Empire’’ (Pharaoh Snofru, ing manufactories were founded in France and
approx. 2650 B.C.). These documents only later in Germany. In the 18th century the method
describe the use of linseed oil as food and for to produce sheet metal was developed in Eng-
lamps, there is no indication that they were land. The coatings for the articles from sheet
used for painting. But it can be assumed that metal consisted of drying oil varnishes modified
oils were used as binders for pigments in addi- with furnace soot and asphalt. At the end of the
tion to inorganic binders, albumin, waxes, glues, 18th century the coating technique was also in-
and blood. troduced in France and Germany. The develop-
First paintings were artistic paintings for ment of traffic gave a new impetus for founding
religious objects or for objects representing and extension of paint industries, because of an
those in power. In the classic period of ancient increased demand for coatings for horse coaches
Greece paints were also used to protect objects. and ships. In the 19th century the industrial
Wooden ships were painted with varnishes pre- production of coatings and paints started in Eng-
pared from mixtures of waxes, rosins, and oils land, the Netherlands, and in Germany. Raw
(semidrying oils). materials for the oil based coatings were linseed
The first written document how to prepare oil oil, tung oil, amber, copals, and different types of
varnishes dates back to the 11th century. The rosin. The English varnish processing plants
monk RODGERUS OF HELMARSHAUSEN named THEO- were famous.
PHILUS PRESBYTER described in his ‘‘Schedula When the natural raw materials became rare
diversarum artium’’ [1] how to prepare a varnish (mainly amber and copals), chemists started to
by melting amber (lat. glassa) together with look for synthetic replacements. The first syn-
linseed oil. In the Middle Ages drying oils were thetic resins which were combined with oils were
combined with metal oxides (white lead, red lead the phenolic resins. Later so-called oil-reactive
or minium, brown stone) not only to prepare phenolic resins were prepared. The alkyd resins
different colors, but also to improve drying (early formed the most important group of synthetic
13th century, HERAKLIUS, ‘‘De coloribus et artibus resins which combined the air drying of oils or
Romanorum’’ [2]). Furthermore, it was found by oil-derived fatty acids with the physical drying of
empirical experiments that the drying properties a polyester molecule. Alkyds became the most
of oil varnishes could be improved if the oils were important group of resins for paints and coating
exposed to sunlight (stand oil), or cooked (boiled from the 1930s to the 1980s and nearly totally
oil). Use of other driers (metal vitriols) in oil replaced the older varnishes based on oils
varnishes was introduced. The knowledge to combined with amber, copals, and rosins.
prepare advanced oil varnishes was kept as an Currently alkyds are also being replaced by other
important secret [3]. binder systems.
Vol. 11 Drying Oils and Related Products 623

3. Chemical Compositions [5] a-Eleostearic Acid [4337-71-7], 9-cis,11-

trans,13-trans-octadecatrienoic acid, Mr
Fatty Acids with Isolated Double Bonds. 278.44, mp þ 49  C, bp (1560 Pa) 235  C,
Important contents of drying oils are the iodine value 274 %, acid number 202, is a com-
fatty acids with isolated double bonds, i.e., lino- ponent of tung oil.
leic, linolenic, arachidonic, and clupanodonics
acid.

Linoleic Acid [60-33-3], all-cis-9,12-octade-

cadienoic acid, Mr 280.45, mp
5.0  C, bp
(1333.2 Pa) 224  C, iodine value 181 %, acid
number 200. Various oils, which are used for
the production of air-drying coatings, contain a a-Licanic Acid, 9-cis,11-trans,13-trans,
significant amount of linoleic acid: safflower oil, trans-4-ketooctadecatrienoic acid, Mr 292.40,
sunflower oil, cottonseed oil, and soybean oil. mp þ 75  C, iodine value 260 %, acid number
Linoleic acid is also the main component of tall 202, is a constituent of oiticica oil.
oil and a constituent of other semidrying oils
which are used for specialties or artist paints.

Conjugated Linoleic Acid, all-trans-9,11-oc-

Linolenic Acid [463-40-1], all-cis-9,12,15- tadecadienoic acid, Mr 280.45, iodine value
octadecatrienoic acid, Mr 278.44, mp
5.0  C, 260 %, acid number 202, is prepared by isomeri-
bp (1333.2 Pa) 225  C, iodine value 274 %, acid zation of 9,11-linoleic acid (see Sections 8.5) or
number 202. Linolenic acid is the main constitu- by dehydration of ricinolic acid form castor oil
ent of linseed oil and perilla oil. (see Section 4.10).
There are other high unsaturated fatty acids in
Boleco oil, Isano oil, in the oil of Marigold and in
the oils of Balsaminaceae species but until now
they did not find any industrial use.

Arachidonic Acid [7771-44-0], all-cis- 4. Sources and Types [6], [7]

5,8,11,14-eicosatetraenoic acid, Mr 304.47, mp

49.5  C, iodine value 334 %, acid number The composition of important drying oils is
184, and clupanodonic acid [2548-85-8], all- shown in Table 1. Properties of commercial
cis-4,8,12,15,19-dodecosapentaenoic acid, Mr drying oils are listed in Table 2.
330.52, mp
78.0  C, bp (666 Pa) 236  C, io-
dine value 384 %, acid number 170. These fatty
acids are components of fish oils, which have
nearly the same properties (for coatings and 4.1. Linseed Oil [8], [9]
varnishes) as linseed oil.
Linseed oil is a drying oil. It is the oil of the seed
of flax (Linum usitatissimum) which has been
Fatty Acids with Conjugated Double cultivated by humans since the Stone Age. Flax is
Bonds. Also fatty acids with conjugated double mainly grown to produce fibers (linen) and is
bonds are important constituents of industrially cultivated in the Baltic states, Canada, USA,
used drying oils, i.e., a-eleostearic acid, a-lica- Argentina, India, and since the nineties also
nic acid, and conjugated linoleic acid. (again) in middle Europe. The seed consists of
624 Drying Oils and Related Products Vol. 11

11 – 17
22 : 5.6

6 – 18
6 – 18
32 – 43 % oil, the main fatty acids are linoleic
acid and linolenic acid. Linseed oil is mainly used
as a raw material for paints (varnishes, stand oils,
alkyds, combinations with phenolic resins, mal-

1 – 16
0–2
1–6
22 : 1

einized oils, urethane oils, styrolized oils) and

glaziers putty and to produce linoleum, normally
not for foods. Films from linseed oil are stable to

13 – 19a
13 – 29a
water and other agents but they are not sufficient-
20 : 4.5

6–9
ly light-stable and have a tendency for yellowing.
9 – 15
1–2
2–8

4.2. Perilla Oil

20 : 1

Perilla oil is prepared from the seeds of Perilla

fructescens (Labiatae species), grown in India
77 – 86b
73 – 83c
35 – 60
5 – 11
traces
traces
0–3

0–1
0–1
0–2
18 : 3

and Indochina. The seed consists of 30 – 51 %

oil. The composition of Perilla oil is similar to
that of linseed oil. The oil is of local importance.
33 – 58
43 – 56
44 – 68
73 – 79
17 – 24

11 – 25
8 – 10
1–4
0–1
1–3
18 : 2
number of C-atoms : number of double bonds

4.3. Tung Oil [10–16]

13 – 44
15 – 33
14 – 33
13 – 21
12 – 34
17 – 22
13 – 16
10 – 16

8 – 13

Tung oil is isolated from the nut-like seeds of the

4–9
18 : 1

tung tree (Aleurites fordii, Euphorbiaceae spe-

cies) in China and Japan. Tung trees are also
cultivated in USA, Malawi, and Argentina. The
7 – 10
8 – 12
traces
0–2

6–9
16 : 1

seed consists of 25 – 45 % oil. 80 % of the oil

consists of the triple unsaturated, conjugated a-
eleostearic acid. Tung oil is easy to polymerize
traces
24 : 0

and is still being used for coatings. Tung oil is

used for preparation of stand oils, for alkyds, and
in combinations with phenolic resins. Tung oil is
0–1
22 : 0

often mixed with linseed oil. Oxygen uptake

during drying is lower than that of linseed oil.
Films from tung oil are more elastic than those
0–1
0–3
0–1

0–1

from linseed oil and more stable to yellowing.

20 : 0

Products based on tung oil and its modifications

Table 1. Composition of drying oils (figures are given in %)

are used for water-resistant paints (marine

varnishes) and corrosion protection. A special
1–4
2–6
1–5
1–4
2–5
1–3
3–4
2–4
1–3
4–5
18 : 0

use is the preparation of wrinkle finishes. These

finishes dry very fast in the presence of driers and
form regularly wrinkled surfaces (paints for ma-
17 – 29

17 – 19
16 – 19
7 – 11

8 – 13
3–7
3–6
4–6

3–4
6–7
16 : 0

chine facings).
traces
traces
traces

4.4. Oiticica Oil [17]

0–2

3–8
7–8
6–8
14 : 0

a-Eleostearic acid.

Oiticica oil is isolated from the seeds of Licania

a-Licanic acid.

rigida (Chrysobalanaceae species) in Brazil. The

Cottonseed oil

Menhaden oil

and C 18 : 4.
Sunflower oil
Safflower oil
Name of oil

Soybean oil

Oiticica oil
Linseed oil
Herring oil

Sardine oil

seed consists of 50 – 60 % oil, which consists

Tung oil

mainly of licanic acid. Like a-eleostatic acid

licanic acid contains three conjugated double
a
b
c
 Vol. 11

Table 2. Properties of drying oils (commercial, refined)

Name of Color Acid Iodine Saponification Unsaponifiables Viscosity Titer a,  C Refractive i Density at Specifications
oil Gardner number value number (max.), % at 20  C, ndex nD
20 20  C, g/cm3
(max.) (max.) (Wijs) mPa  s

Cottonseed oil 4 1 110 – 120 188 – 196 1.5 approx. 60 30 – 37 0.918

[8001-29-4]
Soybean oil 2 0.4 120 – 141 188 – 195 1.5 approx. 60 20 – 24 1.472 – 1.477 0.917 – 0.925 DIN 55938 ASTM D
[8001-22-7] 1462 BS 5170
Sunflower oil 2 1 125 – 135 188 – 196 1.5 approx. 60 16 – 24 1.475 0.920
[8001-21-6]
Safflower oil 2 1 140 – 150 188 – 196 1.5 approx. 60 16 – 17 1.475 – 1.478 0.923 – 0.926 DIN 55942
[8001-23-8]
Linseed oil 4 0.6 160 – 200 188 – 195 1.5 approx. 60 19 – 21 1.4785 – 1.4825 0.926 – 0.933 DIN 55933 DIN 55934 ISO
[8001-26-1] 150 BS242 BS 243
Fish oil 6 4 190 – 205 188 – 194 1.5 approx. 50 25 – 31 1.482 0.930
[8016-13-5]
Tung oil 8 5 160 – 180 189 – 195 1.0 200 – 400 36 – 37 1.511 – 1.522 0.930 – 0.940 DIN 55936 ASTM D
[8001-20-5] 12 ISO 277 BS 391
Oiticia oil 11 10 145 – 155 186 – 193 1.5 44 – 47 1.510 0.977 – 0.988 ASTM D 601
[8016-35-1]
a
Temperature range where the oil becomes turbid during cooling.
Drying Oils and Related Products
625
626 Drying Oils and Related Products Vol. 11

bonds and has a keto group in addition. That is linoleic acid. Soybean oil is mainly used for
why oiticica oil has nearly the same properties as foods, the paint industry uses only a small part of
tung oil. It is of local interest. the large quantities of soybean oil produced.
Fatty acids from soybean oil are used for alkyds.
Also stand oil are prepared from soybean oil.
4.5. Fish Oils [18–21] Soybean oil is much slower drying than linseed
oil. But the films are more durable and stable to
The various fish oils originate from different yellowing.
organs of fish and differ in their composition.
Oils from herring, menhaden, and sardine are of
industrial interest. All of these oils contain fatty 4.9. Cottonseed Oil
acids with 18 to 22 carbon atoms and with up to
fife isolated double bonds. The drying properties Cottonseed oil is also a semidrying oil. It is
of fish oils are comparable with those of linseed obtained from the seeds of the cotton plant (Gos-
oil. Fish oils have a specific odor, the same holds sypium arboreum, G. hirsutum, G. barbadeuse,
true for products from fish oil. Fish oils are used and other species), which are located on the
for varnishes and alkyds for anticorrosive coat- cotton fibers. Cotton is mainly cultivated in
ings and primers. Egypt, China, Japan, North, and Middle America.
The seed kernels consists of 14 – 25 % oil. The
oil contains approx. 40 % linoleic acid. Cotton-
4.6. Safflower Oil [22], [23] seed oil is used for foods and a raw material for
fatty acids for alkyds (nonyellowing).
Safflower oil is a semidrying oil. It is obtained
from the seeds of Safflower (Carthamus tinctor-
ius, Compositae species), which is grown in 4.10. Dehydrated Castor Oil [28–30]
Egypt, Turkey, and North America. The pure
seed consists of 46 – 50 % oil. The oil contains Castor oil consists of a mixture of fatty acids
approx. 70 % linoleic acid. Safflower oil is for which contain up to 90 wt % ricinoleic acid (12-
high-quality foods and in the coating industry hydroxy-9-octadecanoenic acid). Castor oil is
mainly for nonyellowing alkyds. isolated from the bean-like seeds of the castor
plant (Ricinus communis), which is cultivated in
Brazil, India, the Philippines, South Africa, and
4.7. Sunflower Oil [24], [25] Southeast Europe. The seed consists of 50 –
60 wt % oil. Castor oil is a nondrying oil. In the
Sunflower oil is also a semidrying oil. It is paint industry castor oil is used for polyurethane
isolated from seeds of sunflower (Helianthus coatings, alkyds, and for the preparation of
annuus), which is grown in Eastern Europe, dehydrated castor oil and its fatty acids.
China, North America, Middle America, Dehydrated castor oil is prepared by dehydra-
Australia, and Eastern Africa. The seeds consist tion of castor oil with sulfonic acids and remov-
of 42 – 63 % oil. The oil contains approx. 60 % ing the crystalline hydrates. Dehydrated castor
linoleic acid. In the coating industry sunflower oil oil consists mainly of conjugated 9,11-linoleic
is applied in high quality alkyds (nonyellowing) acid and some 9,12-linoleic acid. During dehy-
and in artists’ paints. dration polymerization may occur as side reac-
tion. Dehydrated castor oils are available with
different viscosities. Dehydrated castor oil is a
4.8. Soybean Oil [26], [27] drying oil. The film forming properties are simi-
lar to those of tung oil, but the drying velocity of
Soybean oil is a semidrying oil. Soybeans are dehydrated castor oil is lower. The films are
the fruits of soy (Glycine max, Leguminosae stable against yellowing, are elastic and water
species) which is mainly grown in China, Ar- resistant. Dehydrated castor oil is used for oil
gentina, Brazil, and USA. The beans consist to varnishes – often combined with other oils – for
18 – 20 % of oil. The oil contains approx. 50 % pigment pastes and for printing inks.
Vol. 11 Drying Oils and Related Products 627

4.11. Tall Oil (! Tall Oil) [31–37] closed, agitated tanks under partial vacuum at
80 – 90  C in the presence of 1 – 5 wt % fuller’s
Tall oil is a byproduct of the kraft (sulfate) earth for up to 30 min. Afterwards, the oil is
pulping process. Crude tall oil consists of a filtered over filter presses.
mixture of fatty acids (45 – 55 wt %), rosin
(30 – 40 wt %), and unsaponifiable components Deacidizing Crude oils may contain 1 –
(10 – 13 wt %). The fatty acids can be separated 3 wt % of free fatty acids. This content can be
and used as components for alkyds. Tall oil has a lowered to below 0.1 wt % by deacidizing. In the
similar fatty acids composition as soybean oil, older process equivalent amounts of caustic soda
but normally the content of oleic acid is higher. (sodium hydroxide) are added which convert the
Furthermore, tail oil fatty acids contain unusual free fatty acids to sodium soaps at 90  C. The
isomers, e.g., octadecadienoic acids with double process is carried out under slow stirring to avoid
bonds in the 5-,9-, and 5-,12-positions. emulsifying. The sodium soaps are separated in
form of an aqueous, concentrated soap solution
(soap stock). The soap stock is separated and
5. Production removed and the oil is dried under vacuum. The
process is problematic regarding the residual
The industrial production of oils from vegetable soap contents in the oil and the oil losses by
materials (oilseeds) and animal materials (select- saponification.
ed fish organs) by pressing (cold and hot) and In the newer process the fatty oils are deaci-
extraction is described in detail in ! Fats and dized by distillation (physical deacidizing). The
Fatty Oils. oil, which is free from other impurities, which
may form decomposition products during the
Refining. [6], [38] (! Fats and Fatty Oils, process, is vacuum steam-distilled at 210 –
Chap. 6.). Some of the trace components con- 270  C and the fatty acids are distilled off. The
tained in fatty oils are accepted for use of oils in final acid content is 0.01 wt %. This process
foods. But when used in coatings the trace com- includes also a deodorization step. The process
ponents may negatively affect the film forming avoids contamination of the oil with soaps and
properties. The impurities extracted together the loss of neutral oil is lower than in the older
with fatty oils include gums, phosphatides, car- process.
bohydrates, proteins, colorants, and waxes.
The classic refining procedure consists of the Deodorization is essentially a vacuum steam-
following sequential, stepwise treatments of the distillation, by which odorous volatile com-
oil: degumming, bleaching, deacidizing, and, if
pounds, mainly aldehydes and ketones, are
necessary, deodoration and dewaxing. driven from the nonvolatile oils. Other volatiles,
such as free acids, sterols and tocopherol, are also
Degumming is performed by adding approx-
removed. Deodorization is carried out with steam
imately 0.1 wt % of phosphoric acid or the equiv-
under reduced pressure at 1.0 – 2.5 kPa and
alent amount of citric acid and subsequent agita-
180 – 220  C for 2 – 6 h.
tion of the oil for approx. 30 min at 80 – 90  C.
The acids coagulate the gums and the coagulate is
removed by filtration or by centrifugation. The Dewaxing Linseeds and sunflower seeds are
process can be supported by a treatment with covered with a thin layer of wax. Particles of this
fuller’s earth. wax were dissolved during oil pressing and ex-
traction. Wax dissolved in the oil crystallizes
Bleaching removes the vegetable colors, during storage, especially during cooling and the
such as chlorophyll and carotene, autoxidation oil becomes turbid. The wax contents would
products, soaps, traces of heavy metals, residues result in film defects in the coatings. Dewaxing
of phosphorus-containing materials, and odor- consists of cooling the oil to 4 – 10  C and
ants. In bleaching solid adsorbents, such as acti- holding it at this temperature until the crystalli-
vated fuller’s earth and in special cases activated zation process is finished. Then the wax is
carbon, are added. Bleaching is carried out in removed by filtration.
628 Drying Oils and Related Products Vol. 11

6. Testing and Specifications [39] accelerated sufficiently by higher temperatures

and catalysis.
The properties of drying oils are tested in specific
tests. The methods and target values are defined
in national (DIN, DGF, ASTM, BS) and interna- 7.2. Cross-Linking by Reaction with
tional (ISO) standards and specifications. Oils are Oxygen
characterized by color, acid number, saponifica-
tion value, amount of unsaponifiable contents, The mechanisms of film formation of drying oils
iodine number (amount and activity of double have been studied in investigations on oil mole-
bounds), viscosity, refractive index, and specific cules and appropriate model substances [41]. The
density (! Fats and Fatty Oils, Section 11.3., see process occurs in different overlapping steps and
Table 2). The fatty acid composition is deter- the total reaction sequence and the molecular
mined by gas and liquid chromatography [40]. structure of the film forming polymers are com-
plex [42], [43]. Different reaction mechanisms
are followed, depending on the type of double
7. Film Formation bonds and the use of catalysts.

7.1. Properties of Drying Oils for Film Oils with Nonconjugated Double Bonds.
Formation The initial autoxidation step in the case of oils
with nonconjugated double bonds is the forma-
Besides their ability to dry by reaction with tion of hydroperoxides in allyl position to the
atmospheric oxygen, drying oils have other spe- double bonds [44–48]. Since the 11-position of
cific properties. Due to the long aliphatic chains linoleic and linolenic acids and – in the case of
of the fatty acids and their double bond content, linolenic acid also the 14-position – are activated
the coatings based on oils and related products by two double bonds, the reactivity of these
have a low viscosity and excellent wetting prop- positions is the highest. First a radical is formed
erties on different types of substrates (metals, at these positions by dehydrogenation, then oxy-
wood) and pigments. That is why drying oils can gen is added and a hydroperoxide is formed by
form the base for ‘‘high-solids’’ paints, corrosion recombination with the hydrogen radical. The
protection paints, pigment pastes, fillers, and reactivity of drying oils is based on the meso-
artist’s paints (! Artists’ Colors). In addition, meric stabilization of the radical intermediate:
drying oils have an excellent solubility in a broad the unpaired electron is delocalized over several
variety of solvents, including simple aliphatic carbon atoms along the chain, and less energy is
hydrocarbons, which are low cost solvents, odor- required to eliminate the hydrogen radical [49].
less, and physiologically safe. Also the oils Additionally isomerization may take place,
themselves are no hazardous products. Their analytical investigation on esters of linoleic acid,
molecular structure imparts excellent flow and for example, showed higher amounts of conju-
leveling properties during film formation. When gated unsaturated 9- and 13-hydroperoxides
cross-linking is finished the films still contain besides hydroperoxides in 8-, 10-, 12- and 14-
mainly aliphatic structures, which are hydropho- position [50–53].
bic and rather stable to water and some water- Since the next steps of film forming lead to
soluble agents. A disadvantage is their sensitivity different higher molecular products, the analysis
to basic agents, which will saponify the ester of these products is much more complex. De-
groups. That is why oils and related products are composition products of the film in different
not the optimum bases of waterborne coatings. states, byproducts of the film-forming reaction,
But in principle the hydrophobicity of the fatty were investigated by mass spectroscopy [54–56].
acids is an advantage also for waterborne coat- Time-laps infrared spectroscopy was used to
ings, if the drying oils are incorporated well and follow the process [57]. The analytical result led
protected from saponification (e.g., in aqueous to the interpretation that the next important step is
polyurethane dispersion based on alkyds with the formation of peroxy radicals by decomposi-
unsaturated fatty acids). Another disadvantage tion of the hydroperoxide (bimolecular dispro-
is that drying requires much time and cannot be portionation at higher concentration). Then a
Vol. 11 Drying Oils and Related Products 629

free-radical chain process is started by formation undergo redox reactions. The degree of activity
of oxygen bridges between fatty acid molecules may be also influenced by the molecular com-
and by activation of C-radicals and formation of patibility of the metal ion with the double bond
C–C bridges. The reaction is terminated by re- system. Examples of metals in active driers, in
combination of different radicals. order of decreasing activity, are:
The reaction is strongly influenced by tem-
Co > Fe > Mn > Ce > Pb > Zr
perature, light, and traces of substances which
may act as catalysts or inhibitor. For example, at
lower temperatures more C–O–C bonds are pro- The metals are added to drying oils and related
duced than at higher temperatures, where forma- products (drying alkyds) at a concentration of
tion of C–C bridges is favored [58]. 0.005 – 0.2 wt %. The driers speed up two reac-
tion steps of the drying process, the activation of
Oils with Conjugated Double Bonds. react methylene bonds to form hydroperoxides and,
differently from those with isolated double more important, the redox reaction in which
bonds. Tung oil for example absorbs less oxygen radicals are formed from the hydroperoxides
during drying, 12 wt % instead of 16 wt % in [69–75]. If the hydroperoxides are transformed
case of linseed oil [49], [59–61]. Analysis shows faster to radicals, the radical chain polymeriza-
that the starting reaction is not the formation of tion takes place more efficiently. The films are
hydroperoxides, but of cyclic peroxides formed more homogeneous and become stable to disso-
by direct oxygen attack on the conjugated bond lution in a shorter time. The metal ions are
system [62]. Reaction of the peroxides with reoxidized during the process. A simplified illus-
allylic methylene groups or dissociation leads to tration of the reaction of a drying oil with oxygen
radicals. The radicals initiate a radical chain in the presence of cobalt driers is shown in
reaction, yielding C–O–C bonds and C–C Figure 1.
bridges [63]. Due to the easy 1,4-addition of
radicals to conjugated double bonds, formation
of C–C bridges is preferred. The reaction is
terminated by recombination of radicals or
disproportionation.

7.3. Influence of Catalysts on

Cross-Linking

All oxidative drying systems are formulated by

adding small amounts of catalysts for drying, the
so-called driers. Driers (siccatives) are oil-solu-
ble metal salts of organic acids. The soaps with
best solubility are obtained from 2-ethylhexanoic
acid and naphthenic acids, in earlier times rosin
acids and linoleic acid were in use [64], [65].
The soaps are produced from metal oxides or
hydroxides and the acids, either by fusion or by
precipitation [66]. The driers are usually dissolved
in aliphatic or aromatic hydrocarbons, water-
emulsifiable versions are available [67], [68].
The driers are classified in two groups, distin-
guished by the mode of action: active driers and
auxiliary driers.

Active Driers. consist of metals occurring Figure 1. Simplified reaction of a drying oil with oxygen in
in several oxidation states and being capable to the presence of a cobalt drier
630 Drying Oils and Related Products Vol. 11

Suitable combinations of metals allow syner- is defined as a toxic substance and has to be
gistic improvement of the total drying effect. substituted.
Thus, in the past most siccatives consisted of
combinations of cobalt and lead. Cobalt pro-
7.4. Yellowing
motes the formation of hydroperoxides rather
fast on the film surface. This is connected with Films of highly unsaturated oils and related
the risk that the surface is cross-linked more products with isolated double bonds tend to
quickly than the other coating layers. Thus, yellow under specific conditions. Films of lin-
oxygen cannot diffuse into the film and wrinkles seed oil and related products yellow in the dark,
can be formed. Lead promotes hydroperoxide but the yellowing will largely disappear if the
decomposition and accelerates polymerization film is exposed to light. Irreversible yellowing
and ensures that the film is formed evenly over takes place if films from linseed oil and related
all coating layers. Also zirconium ions form products are aged or baked at higher tempera-
complex compounds with hydroperoxides that tures. The yellowing is caused by formation of
decompose slowly [76], zirconium has the same colored polyenes or quinone structures, starting
effect as lead. Since lead is defined as a hazardous from conjugated unsaturated hydroperoxides via
component, most of the new drier compositions ketones as intermediates [80–82]. The formed
consist of mixtures of cobalt and zirconium. But 1,4-diketones may also react with ammonia
also cobalt is in discussion as possible health risk. (farmhouses, stables, and rest rooms) to yield
Because no real alternative to cobalt exist, the substituted pyrroles that can form colored pro-
newer formulation contain smaller amounts of ducts by oxidation [83], [84]. For white and other
cobalt driers. light colors linseed oil should be replaced by less
yellowing products from semidrying oils, or
better, alkyds based on these oils.
Auxiliary Driers are soaps of metals which
But also the driers (manganese, cobalt) can
form only one oxidation degree but which acti-
form complexes with oximes, which may cause
vate the primary active driers. They do not cata-
discoloration in films, mainly by aging [85].
lyze autoxidation by themselves. Auxiliary driers
are added in higher concentration than the pri-
mary driers, up to 0.6 wt % of metal. Examples of 8. Modifications
metals for auxiliary driers are calcium, barium,
and zinc. The effect is explained by the basic The rather effective cross-linking of drying oils
reaction of these driers, which mainly compen- by reaction with atmospheric oxygen suffers
sate the effect of acid groups present the oil, from the disadvantages of a low viscosity of the
and thus prevent precipitation of the active unsaturated triglycerides, and the fact that the
drier metals [77]. Auxiliary driers can also be drying process has to proceed to a significant
absorbed on surfaces, e.g., from pigments extent until a rather hard solvent- and chemicals-
instead of the active driers and the active driers resistant coating film is formed. This process
are not involved in the process [78]. Barium is requires a lot of time. Early in history the painters
more toxic than lead and should no longer tried to improve the drying properties of oils. One
be used. way was the combination of the chemical drying
If the total content of metals in a film is rather of oils with products which form films by physi-
high, they will be active indefinitely, causing cal drying (waxes, rosins, amber). When the
oxidative breakdown of the film. Therefore, the compatibility or solubility constituted a problem,
amount of driers used must be carefully balanced the components were heated to form stable mix-
to achieve a high degree of cross-linking but to tures. Furthermore, it was found that addition of
avoid an early film decomposition. particular pigments to the oils improved the
During storage of wet paints reaction with drying velocity of the coating films. If oils were
oxygen must be avoided. The addition of oximes stored in glass bottles in the sun light or heated in
(methyl ethyl ketoxime) stabilizes against skin the absence of oxygen the oil became more
formation by reaction with oxygen in the con- viscous. The higher viscosity of these oils results
tainer [79]. But now also methyl ethyl ketoxime also in a reduction of drying time.
Vol. 11 Drying Oils and Related Products 631

When rosins, copals, and amber became rare The process used for manufacturing of stand
or were too expensive, various synthetic resins oils must be adjusted to the reactivity of the
were developed as combination partners for oils. drying oils. Stand oils of linseed oil and soybean
In the beginning mainly phenolic resins were oil are produced in agitated stainless steel reac-
used. Phenolic resins were later replaced by tors at 280 – 300  C in an inert gas stream
alkyds, which combine the chemical drying of (carbon dioxide, nitrogen). The reactor may be
double bonds of fatty acids with physical drying heated by heat-transfer oils, superheated steam,
of a phthalic polyester. electrical induction, or resistance heating. The
reactor should be equipped with water cooling
facilities (half-pipes outside the reactor wall or
internal cooling coils). The process is controlled
8.1. Boiled Oils
by temperature and time, the progress of reaction
is determined by measuring the viscosity and the
Boiled oils are combinations of drying oils and
acid number of samples. A linseed stand oil needs
stand oils with siccatives. To accomplish a
40 – 45 h at 280  C to attain viscosities of about
homogeneous distribution of the driers in the oil,
10 – 15 Pa  s. Viscosity increase of soybean oil
the oxides or salts of the driers are incorporated
is much slower. Decomposition products of the
by heating the mixture to higher temperatures
production of stand oils are removed by distilla-
( 100  C, boiling). The metal oxides or salts
tion, under vacuum if necessary.
form salts with part of the fatty acids by saponi-
Tung oil is heated in small batches (20 –
fication. The main bases for boiled oils is linseed
50 kg) rapidly to 260  C, held for 7 – 12 min
oil. The driers may consist of 0.1 – 0.3 wt %
at that temperature (exothermic reaction takes
cobalt or about 0.4 wt % lead, sometimes com-
place) and then flash-cooled with minimum the
bined with 0.1 wt % of manganese.
same amount of cold tung stand oil.
Boiled oils are used for varnishes, mainly
Stand oils are used in varnishes, oil paints,
lithographic varnishes, and printing inks (pig-
enamel varnishes, and fillers. Stand oils dry more
ment pastes).
homogeneously than their starting oils and give
Currently it is easier to produce varnishes in a
more elastic and water-resistant coating films.
cold process, i.e., by mixing oils and stand oils (or
Although stand oils dry more slowly than drying
their mixtures with other resins) with solutions
alkyds, stand oils are used in combination with
of metal driers.
alkyds to raise the solids of paints to reduce the
amount of solvent to evaporize. Linseed stand oil
has a lower tendency for yellowing than linseed
8.2. Stand Oils oil. Tung stand oil and soybean stand oil are even
more stable to yellowing than linseed oil. Tung
Stand oils are drying oils with increased viscosi- stand oil is superior to linseed stand oil in forming
ty. The viscosity increase results from heating of hard and water-resistant films, but the films are
the oils in the absence of oxygen. During heating more brittle. Thus, linseed stand oil is often
an intermolecular polymerization process combined with tung stand oil in varnishes.
occurs. The main reaction is a Diels – Alder
reaction between unsaturated fatty acids, acting
as partly as dienes and partly as dienophiles [86], 8.3. Blown Oils
[87]. The step that controls the reaction rate of
oils with nonconjugated double bonds (linseed For production of blown oils, drying oils are
oil) is the isomerization into conjugated double blown with air at 90 – 120  C. During this pro-
bonds with concurrent trans rearrangement cess, hydroperoxides are formed and decompose
[88–90]. Therefore, oils with conjugated double into radicals which lead to increase in molecular
bonds react very fast. Stand oils consist of esters mass by a radical chain transfer reaction. In
of polymeric fatty acids, containing a significant addition, keto groups and hydroxy groups
amount of cyclic polymeric fatty acids [91]. The are formed. Blown oils have viscosities up to
reaction may be catalyzed by the addition of 3 Pa  s and are much more polar than stand oils.
small amounts of anthraquinone [92]. The drying properties are reduced.
632 Drying Oils and Related Products Vol. 11

Blown oils from linseed oil and soybean oil cess. Unreacted monomers are distilled off after
are used as plasticizers for polymers which dry the process. The content of styrene in styrenated
physically, for printing inks, for putties, and oils is 20 to 45 wt %. During the polymerization
sealings. Blown linseed oil is used for core of nonconjugated oils and styrene, grafting of
binders for casting. styrene molecules to chains onto oil molecules
occurs. Starting from the active methylene
groups of the oil, polysterene bridges are formed
8.4. Factice, Sulfurized Oils [105], [106]. It is important to avoid the forma-
tion of styrene homopolymer, because it is not
Factice is a mixture of drying oils with sulfur or compatible with the oil. Conjugated oils form
disulfur dichloride. Like oxygen, sulfur is able to Diels – Alder adducts connected by short
react with the double bond system in a radical bridges of polystyrene, the viscosity increases
chain reaction. The polymerization occurs very more rapidly than the viscosity resulting from the
effectively over the whole film layer. Varnishes grafting nonconjugated oils [107], [108]. The
containing factice oils can be applied in a wet-on- compatibility of styrenated oils with other poly-
wet process. mers is limited. Using vinyltoluene, a-methyl-
styrene, or dicyclopentadiene gives copolymers
with a much better compatibility and solubility.
8.5. Isomerized Oils Cyclopentadiene and indene form only Diels –
Alder adducts both with conjugated and noncon-
During isomerization isolated double bonds are jugated oils.
transferred into conjugated double bonds and cis Copolymers of oils have improved drying
double bonds are converted into trans double properties, the resulting films are harder and
bonds. The process is carried out with metal more resistant to water and chemical agents than
catalysts at 100 – 140  C. Linseed oil and saf- the films from drying oils and alkyds.
flower oil are isomerized in the presence of a
nickel catalyst, finely distributed on diatoma-
ceous earth or active carbon [93–95]. Isomerized 8.7. Maleinized Oils [109–112]
oils take up less oxygen during drying than the
corresponding starting oils and form elastic films Maleic anhydride is a dienophile and easily
with higher water resistance. reacts with conjugated double bonds in a Diels –
The alkali isomerization process is carried Alder reaction to form a substituted cyclohexane
out with the methyl ester of fatty acids to afford dicarboxylic anhydride. The process is carried
fatty acids with conjugated double bonds. out at 80 – 120  C [113], [114]. Nonconjugated
They are used in alkyds, mainly for stoving unsaturated oils react with maleic anhydride in a
enamels [96–98]. ene reaction via the active methylene groups to
form substituted succinic anhydride derivatives
[115], [116]. But also Diels – Alder reactions
8.6. Copolymers may take place if the isolated double bonds are
converted into conjugated during the process.
Copolymers of drying oils are produced by heat- The reaction is carried out at 180 – 240  C.
ing unsaturated oils with unsaturated monomers Maleinized oils with 5 – 8 wt % of maleic
[99], [100], preferably styrene. Additionally, anhydride (less than 1 mol per triglyceride) are
vinyltoluene [101], a-methylstyrene, dicyclo- esterified with glycerol and other polyols to form
pentadiene [102], pentadiene, and indene [103] oil-modified polyesters. Their properties are sim-
are used as monomers, also methylmethacrylate ilar to those of alkyds, and oil-modified polye-
is described. Copolymerization is carried out at sters dry faster than the original oils and form
higher temperatures, catalysts are peroxides, e.g., harder and more water-resistant films.
di-tert butyl peroxide [104]. The process may be Maleinized oils with 16 – 24 wt % maleic
run in bulk or in solution. A feed process for anhydride are reacted with water or alcohols to
monomer dosing is preferred for most exother- yield maleinized oils with high acid numbers
mic reactions to guarantee a reproducible pro- (100 – 200). After neutralization of the acid
Vol. 11 Drying Oils and Related Products 633

groups with ammonia or – more preferably – synthetic resins used for industrial coatings were
amines, the maleinized oil becomes water-thin- the phenolic resins (! Phenolic Resins). But the
nable [117]. The product is combined with normal phenolic resins (resols) are not compati-
phenolic or amino resins [118–120]. These wa- ble with oil. The first step to overcome the
ter-thinnable combinations are mainly used as problem was the combination of rosin-modified
anticorrosive primers for electrodeposition. In phenolic resins with drying oils [124]. The sec-
electrodeposition the part to be coated is ond step was the preparation of so-called alkyl-
immersed in a tank and direct current is applied. phenolic resins (from alkyl-substituted phenols)
In the process the binder systems (together with [125], [126]. These alkylphenolic resins are able
pigments and additives) are coagulated on the to react with oils, preferable tung oil, to yield
anode, which is the surface of the substrate to be adducts between the double bond system and the
coated [121–123]. The coagulated film can be methylol and OH group of the phenolic resin
rinsed with water and is then stoved at 175 – [127]. The process is carried out at 240  C, using
180  C for 20 – 30 min. The process ensures a mixture of 2 – 4 parts tung oil and 1 part
that film formation takes place on all parts which alkylphenolic resin. The reaction products have
are immersed in the tank. Starting in the 1960s, good drying properties and the films are highly
such systems gained importance as corrosion resistant to water and chemicals. The product
protective primers in the automotive industry. were used for industrial coatings and especially
In the late 1970s the systems were mainly for yacht varnishes. For this application they
substituted by a resin system for a cathodic were much more suited than alkyd varnishes.
deposition process. But the maleinic oils are still These combinations are often replaced by poly-
in use for industrial primers. urethane coatings, but yacht varnishes are
still available.
8.8. Oil Boiling with Rosin, Copal, and
Amber
8.10. Modifications by
In the past oils – and also drying oils – were used Transesterification
as solvent for different natural resins. The target
was to convert the natural resins into a suitable If drying oils are heated with an excess of
form for application and to combine the film polyols, glycerol, pentaerythrol, or dipentaery-
properties of the natural resins with the drying throl at 230 to 260  C, mono- and diglycerides
properties of the oil. The higher the melting point [128–131] are obtained. The alcoholysis (trans-
of the natural resins, the better the film properties. esterification) is an equilibrium process. Salts of
Copals were better than rosins, and amber was alkali or alkaline-earth metals serve as catalysts.
better than copals. To improve the properties of To avoid the formation of incompatibilities of
rosins, rosins were transferred into rosin salts the catalyst in the reaction mixture or the final
with calcium and zinc, into rosin esters with product, the use of lithium salts is preferred. The
glycerol and pentaerythrol, and maleinized and reaction is controlled by the added quantity of
esterified (! Resins, Natural, Section 5.5.). It polyols, the reactivity of the OH groups, the
was not easy to melt the high molecular natural temperature, and the time. The progress of the
resins (copals and amber) and starting in England reaction is determined by measuring the solu-
special know-how was gathered for this process. bility of the reaction mixture in methanol or
The combinations of oils, different natural ethanol. Transesterification products are starting
resins and related products and siccatives formed materials for production of alkyds, urethane oils,
the basis for the oil varnishes, the first industrially and urethane alkyds.
used coatings.
Alkyds. (! Alkyd Resins) are prepared by
8.9. Oil Boiling with Phenolic Resins reaction of the transesterification products and
phthalic anhydride. The process was developed
When the natural resins became rare the investi- in 1927 and was the first important process for
gation to prepare synthetic resins began. The first production of air-drying alkyds.
634 Drying Oils and Related Products Vol. 11

Urethane Oils [132], [133] are prepared films. However, they suffer from two important
from the transesterification products and toluy- disadvantages: (1) Oil- or fatty acid-based
lene diisocyanate. Products obtained by reaction coating materials need too much time for film
of the transesterification products with mixtures formation by air drying to be used in advanced
of phthalic anhydride (first esterified) and toluy- industrial coatings application processes (e.g.,
lene diisocyanate are called urethane alkyds. automotive coating application) and (2) these
Urethane oils and urethane alkyds dry faster than coating materials are not easy to transfer into
alkyds to give harder and more resistant films, but water-based systems – to avoid organic solvents
the films are not weather-resistant. Urethane oils for ecological and economical reasons – due to
and urethane alkyds are used for wood coatings, the sensitivity to react by saponification. On the
preferably for parquet varnishes. other hand, since the 1980s there has been grow-
ing interest to increase the use of natural renew-
able raw materials. Drying oils and related
8.11. Modifications Based on Fatty products meet this demand. Several institutes
Acids started to investigate the possibility to decrease
the agricultural food production in Europe and to
Fatty acids are produced from drying oils by replace growing of plants for food partly by
saponification. The fatty acids are the basis for growing of plants which produce raw materials
the production of alkyds (! Alkyd Resins) and for industrial use [135–140]. There are new
epoxy esters. In contrast to oil varnishes and proposals to grow plants which contain drying
paints, alkyds and epoxy esters based on unsatu- or semidrying oils or plants which contain fatty
rated fatty acids are still important coating acids plus other chemically reactive groups.
materials.

References
9. Application, Importance, and
Future Aspects General References
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