1

Basic Concepts of
Applied Motor Learning
and Performance

OBJECTIVES
• Define motor learning and its relationship to other related disciplines
• Define motor control, motor development, motor behaviors, and motor
performance
• Understand how learned motor learning principles can be applied to various
professions such as physical education, exercise and sports science, sports
coaching, physical therapy, the military, police and special forces, ballet and other
dance forms, recreational activities, etc.
• Understand the importance of using new technology or training methods for the
enhancement of the motor learning process
• Understand the factors contributing to motor learning performance
• Understand the importance of research methods and know the nature of
experimental and descriptive research methods
• Understand the characteristics of this applied motor learning and performance
textbook
• Understand some of the important terminology used in research

1
 Chapter 1

Introduction
At the 2012 London Olympic Games, Ms. Gabby Douglas won an individual all-around
Olympic gold medal, Michael Jordon, a basketball legend, enthralls us with his skills, and
Bruce Lee’s lightning-quick actions knocking down multiple opponents within a second
(Picture 1, 2, and 3) have stunned the sports world. How can these athletes perform such
fascinating movements so flawlessly? What kinds of learning processes brought these ath-
letes to such levels? Is any human being capable of performing such incredible movements
with the proper training?

From a motor learning perspective, the majority of human movements are learned
skills (Enoka, 2009; Payne & Isaacs, 2008). The human body has a total of about 656
skeletal muscles and these muscles must be coordinated with each other to produce des-
ignated movements. All human actions or movements are the result of a neuromuscu-
lar integrated brain and body controlled process (Voight, Hoogenboom & Preventice,
2007). In other words, the nervous and skeletal muscle systems work together to perform
the designated and coordinated human movements.
Courtesy of iStockphoto.com

According to Lundy-Ekman (2007) and Bear, Con-

nors, and Paradiso (1996), there are billions of nerve
cells coordinated and working together from various
regions of the human brain. Certainly, it is a tremen-
dous challenge for a novice to learn the fundamental
motor skills required to eventually become an elite
athlete who can execute extraordinary coordinated
movements precisely and perfectly. When performing
certain motor skills such as those required for football,
gymnastics, free-style aerial skiing, ultimate fighting,
martial arts, combat sports, etc., any slight deviation
from the planned movements can result either in fail-
ure to perform the designated motor skills successfully
or in injury, possibly fatal. Without proper training, it
is almost impossible for any human being to engage

2
 Basic Concepts of Applied Motor Learning and Performance

in those coordinated movements. For example, kicking a ball, throwing a rock, or shoot-
ing a basketball are considered to be easy motor tasks to execute. But, without learning,
children cannot even perform these simple motor tasks properly. Consequently, motor
learning is essential for the majority of human movements, especially for many movement-
related professions.
Motor learning refers to the relatively permanent gains in motor skill capability asso-
ciated with practice or experience (Schimidt & Lee, 2005). Motor learning is an essential
subject for many different professions. Especially, students who major in physical educa-
tion/kinesiology, exercise or sports science, coaching education, physical therapy or the
pedagogy of movement, as well as people in the military, the police and special forces,
etc. should have a concrete understanding of the proper motor learning processes related
to particular motor skills. In sum, motor learning is a multifaceted set of internal processes
that effect relatively permanent change in human performance through practice, provided
the change of motor skills cannot be attributed to a human’s maturation, temporary state,
or instinct (Kluka, 1999). In other words, the main objective of motor learning is to make a
permanent change in the neurological functions which happen in the brain (see Figure 1.1).
In our society, people attempt to learn many different motor skills for a variety of
purposes. Some skills are very complex and difficult to perform while others are easily
learned. Sport scientists are always searching for the most effective training approaches
to help learners efficiently master the required motor skills in the minimal time. The fol-
lowing are the five characteristics of the motor learning process (Figure 1.2; Schmidt &
Wrisberg, 2008).

Identify external
stimuli

Decision-making based
on external stimuli and
experience in memory

Programming sends
electrical impulses to
relevant muscles

Figure 1.1.  Brain’s three stages of information processing in

responding to the above attack.

3
 Chapter 1

1) Motor learning is an internal process that cannot be observed from an external

perspective. This means that how much an athlete has learned is an unknown
factor from an outsider’s perspective because motor learning takes place inside
the learner’s brain and the muscular movements are only a reflection of brain
activities. Observing motor performance provides only an indirect assessment
of the learning progress of a learner.
2) Motor learning is a set of processes for the purpose of reaching specific learn-
ing objectives. Obviously, different types of learning will produce different
results and sports scientists continuously search for the best motor learning
processes for particular motor skills based on individual differences.
3) The goal of motor learning is to form the designated motor behavioral habits
through proper training.
4) Once a motor skill is learned, it becomes relatively permanent and will not
be easily forgotten. For example, once an individual has learned how to ride a
bike, he/she will never forget how to do it (Schmidt & Wrisberg, 2008).
5) According to Wang & Yang (2012), motor learning is not value free and it can
be negative to form a bad habit that is extremely hard to be changed once it is
formed.

Motor learning is an
internal process

Motor learning is a
set of processes Motor learning is to
form motor habits

Five Characteristics
of Motor Learning

Motor learning is Motor learning is not

relatively permanent a value that can
be negative

Figure 1.2. Five characteristics of motor learning.

4
 Basic Concepts of Applied Motor Learning and Performance

From the perspective of the discipline of kinesiology, several other academic disci-
plines are related to motor learning, namely motor behavior, motor control, motor devel-
opment, and motor performance. At the graduate level, kinesiology departments usually
offer these courses separately, even though these disciplines are interrelated. However, at
the undergraduate level, many schools only offer motor learning and motor development.
To provide a comprehensive understanding of motor learning and its related disciplines,
an introduction to the concepts of the various disciplines has been described as follows.
Motor behavior can be considered the study of executed human performances and
postures that are the result of integrated internal process that lead to a relatively perma-
nent change in performance (Figure 1.3; Kluka, 1999).

Motor learning

Motor
Behavior

Motor Control Motor Development

Figure 1.3. Motor behavior’s relationship with the related subjects.

Motor control is the study of postures and movements and the mechanisms that under-
lie them (Rose & Christina, 2006). Also, motor control can be defined as the study of how
an individual can execute designated motor skills through the neuromuscular control pro-
cess in response to external environmental demands (Haywood & Getchell, 2009; Latash
& Lestienne, 2006). For example, a race car driver’s brain activities include quickly pro-
cessing external information (seeing the opponents’ cars) to find an open space through
which to get ahead of the others and achieve success. Specifically, motor control deals
with issues such as information processing, attention and interferences, the mechanism of

5
 Chapter 1

Table 1.1. Three components of motor control areas of human movements

Motor Control
Neuromuscular control mechanism Neuromuscular mechanism of Unconscious control mechanism
of responding to external stimuli decision-making in advance for for controlling reflex movements
taking actions

muscular coordination, sensory contributions to motor performance, and production of

movements through neuromuscular systems (Table 1.1).
In sum, if researchers could understand the control mechanisms of the human brain
for producing coordinated muscular movements, a motor learning process could be scien-
tifically designed according to the characteristics of the neuromuscular control systems.
For example, the neuromuscular control mechanism of high jumping is quite different
from that of boxing because the action of high jumping can be planned in advance, while
a boxer’s action must rely on immediate external stimuli (opponent’s actions). Needless
to say, the advanced planning and consistency of movement control should be the high
jumper’s main concern in training; conversely, for boxing, speed, timing, and accuracy
of response to an opponent’s attack should be emphasized in training. More specifically,
extero- and proprio-sensory information recognition, speed of decision-making, and pro-
gramming of an action should be carefully examined to achieve the designated goals of
boxing. Hence, motor control mechanisms for high jumping and boxing are vastly differ-
ent. The human brain is a control center for carrying out movements and motor control
studies how the brain controls coordinated movements in response to varied external
environmental demands.
Motor development refers to the continuous, age-related process of change in move-
ment, as well as the interacting constraints (or factors) in the individual, environment, and
task that drive these changes (Haywood & Getchell, 2009). From a comprehensive per-
spective, motor development not only deals with the growth and developmental process
of human movements, it also studies how the learning process affects the developmental
process. Specifically, such study addresses both the process of change and the resultant
movement outcome. With a complete understanding of the normal growth and develop-
mental process as it relates to the motor learning process, teachers and practitioners can
teach motor skills effectively to populations ranging from preschoolers to older adults.
Motor performance is an end result or outcome of executing a motor skill that can be
observed from an external perspective. For example, coaches can see how a tennis player
actually plays a game and how he/she performs during practice or competition. A ten-
nis player’s motor skills for performing a forehand or backhand stroke or for serving can
be purposefully observed or assessed by instructors. Practically speaking, since motor

6
 Basic Concepts of Applied Motor Learning and Performance

Table 1.2. Three components contribute to motor performance

Factor Contribute to Motor Performance

Learner’s Characteristics Instructor’s Competence Learning Environment and

(age, gender, experience, (sports science background, Conditions
cognitive ability, genetic traits, athletic experience, knowledge (Undistractive learning
psychological characteristics, etc. of sport, administration and environment, facility and
communication skill, human equipment, sports field and
relation skills, etc.) settings, organization of training)

learning takes place in an internal fashion in a learner’s brain, one of the effective ways for
an instructor to understand how much a student has learned is to observe his/her perfor-
mance, which indirectly reflects the student’s learning progress (Table 1.2.). In addition,
other approaches such as asking students to explain the proper motor skill structures or
to distinguish between correct or incorrect motor skill demonstrations can be used to test
the extent of their understanding of motor skill concepts.

Applications of Motor Learning to Related Professions

Motor learning is a subject with broad implications from which people teaching in many
fields can benefit, ranging from the elementary school to the Olympic level, from recre-
ational sports to the military, from non-competitive to combat institutions, from indi-
vidual to team sports, etc. The emphasis in teaching can be quite varied and is based on
the purpose of the motor learning, the particular motor skills required, and the needs
of the learners. For example, at the elementary school level youngsters are taught basic
motor skills such as kicking, throwing, jumping, running, catching, or climbing and these
learned skills can then be transferred to various sports-related movements in the future.
At the Olympic level, the purpose of motor learning is to achieve peak performance in
competition. The following sections illustrate certain professions in which motor learning
is an essential component.
In the area of physical education, from elementary school to the college level, stu-
dents learn the different motor skills of various sports to keep fit, have fun, and develop a
healthy lifestyle (NASPE, 2004). Learning proper motor skills is one of the most important
objectives of physical education programs in school settings. With limited time available
for physical education classes, teachers would be wise to teach students the proper motor
skills for exercise and sports. According to Harter’s perceived competence motivation the-
ory (Harter, 1978; Harter, 1981), when an individual perceives himself/herself to be good
at doing something, his/her motivation to engage in this activity is enhanced as well. The
more successful the students are at mastering motor skills, the more likely they are to keep

7
 Chapter 1

Courtesy of Bigstockphoto.com
playing sports as their life-long leisure activities. In other words, the effective teaching of
motor skills to students in school settings will directly impact their future lifestyles and
exercise habits. Thus, school physical education teachers should understand motor learn-
ing principles in order to teach students the correct motor skills.
With a thorough knowledge of motor learning, exercise and sports science profession-
als can effectively help their clients design training programs that incorporate the ideal
movement activities required for the particular situation. One of the major responsibilities
of these specialists is to engage the athletes, who play different sports, in strength and con-
ditioning training; with an understanding of motor learning principles, they can properly
design appropriate training programs for these athletes.
Likewise, an understanding of particular motor skills in relation to fitness benefits
enables exercise science practitioners to design training programs that are enjoyable and
help clients achieve their personal training goals. Participants in certain sports, such as
football, soccer, ice hockey, boxing, martial arts, gymnastics, etc., are vulnerable to inju-
ries. Using their knowledge of the structure of various motor skills, sports scientists can
effectively advise these athletes on ways to avoid injury. In so many practical settings,
exercise programs have direct correlations with the particular sports skill training chosen.
Therefore, it would be very advantageous for exercise science specialists to know the motor
learning principles for their teaching or consultation activities.
In the coaching arena, one of the major responsibilities of coaches is to enhance
athletes’ technical skills since their performance is mainly determined by these skills,
along with their physical ability and psychological well-being. Athletes’ technical abilities
play a crucial role in whether they win or lose in competitions. Not only should a coach
teach proper technical skills, he/she should also be continuously developing creative new

8
 Basic Concepts of Applied Motor Learning and Performance

training methods to give the athletes an extra advantage in competition. This is because
today’s superior technical routines could be out of date in a few years. History has repeat-
edly shown that the human limits of performance of motor skills are constantly being sur-
passed. For example, today’s gymnastic routines could have been perceived to be impos-
sible to execute in the past. Likewise, the 10 seconds of 100-meter race records have been
repeatedly broken in the recent Olympic Games. Due to the efforts of sports scientists and
coaches, the level of technical training is now so far ahead that motor skills which once
seemed impossible to learn have now become attainable. These accomplishments can, in
part, be attributed to the advancement of our knowledge in the area of motor learning and
its relationship to human movement potentials. Motor skill learning in the coaching arena
has always been one of the most important factors of training for achieving peak perfor-
mance in competition.
When injuries occur, physical therapists assist patients to recover through the appro-
priate rehabilitation processes. By assessing whether patients are capable of performing
certain movements or motor skills, they are able to determine the most effective treat-
ment methods. Sports injuries are sometimes unavoidable; millions of athletes from ama-
teurs to professionals are injured while participating in sports activities. For many ath-
letes, a speedy recovery from an injury is crucial for regaining their physical condition,
maintaining skill routines, regaining self-confidence, and achieving peak performance.
Hence physical therapists’ knowledge of motor learning plays a vital role in enabling them
to properly evaluate the degree of injury, design rehabilitation strategies, and assess the
recovery progress. Based on their evaluation, they can provide accurate recommendations
as to whether an athlete is capable of resuming certain technical training after an injury.
When physical therapists understand the structures of the various motor skills and poten-
tial volatile factors related to the injury, they can develop effective treatment strategies to
aid their patients’ recovery and provide them with valuable advice on how to avoid injuries
in the future with the correct movements.
Motor learning principles can be also used widely in military settings because sol-
diers must engage in combat with the enemy, either with bare bands or weapons, under
severe or critical conditions; many times, any slight delay in their actions in battle could
cost them their lives. Thus, soldiers’ efficient, forceful, and timely reaction to the enemy’s
attacks and their swift fighting abilities play a significant role not only in winning battles
but also in saving their lives. Military, special forces and ground soldiers, as well as police
officers, are required to learn various motor skills to carry out their job responsibilities.
With knowledge of motor learning principles, the professionals who train them can pur-
posefully develop appropriate training regimes to fit the needs of their job requirements.
Ballet and other forms of dance involve artistic, beautiful, and swift kinematic move-
ments that usually take years to perfect. In fact, many dancing movements are very difficult

9
 Chapter 1

to learn and master. Dancing instructors should learn human anatomy and motor learning
concepts in order to understand the relationship between a dancer’s anatomical capability
and the performance of these movements. By using scientific principles, dancers can speed
up their learning progress, especially for difficult and challenging movements that require
perfect coordination among different dancers, split-second timing of the jumps and turns,
and excellent body kinematics of the movements. Since dancing movements are consid-
ered to be process-oriented motor skills, dancers are
Kinematic movement – refers unable to observe their own movements during prac-
to a technique, body posture,
movement pattern, process tice or performance so they must rely on their instruc-
of movement, or structure tors’ accurate feedback to find out how well they are
of movement, which can be progressing. Without this external feedback, learning
only evaluated by subjective
approaches. cannot occur. Consequently, if the instructor cannot
grasp the key structures of certain motor skill rou-
tines, learning progress will be significantly compromised. Dancing instructors should
understand more clearly the critical components of dancing routines and properly teach
the skill transitions accordingly. In fact, dancing is great exercise for youngsters and adults;
many people truly enjoy dancing for pleasure, competition, or exercise.
In addition to the aforementioned professionals, many amateur athletes regularly
engage in different recreational sports or other physical activities in their spare time and
they also would like to learn motor skills to enhance their enjoyment or for self-improve-
ment and competition. Besides that, many of these amateur athletes serve as club coaches
teaching sports skills to children, training them to improve their skills, and running com-
petitions. In fact, there are thousands of sports clubs or sport organizations around the
world providing opportunities for people of all ages (from the very young to older adults)
to actively participate in sports activities. Having the necessary motor learning knowledge
would be very beneficial for these athletes and coaches. The range of professions that
involve motor skill related activities is much broader than we could possibly cover here.

Understanding Basic Scientific Methods in the

Motor Learning Process
Practitioners regularly have to face challenges and solve practical problems they may expe-
rience. Generally speaking, they gain their knowledge either through scientific approaches
or from real-life experiences through trial and error approaches (Weinberg & Gould,
2011). Any knowledge they gain based on their experience must be validated through
scientific methods and then the knowledge gained can become theory. If this knowledge is
not validated through scientific methods, it is called empirical knowledge. The advantages
of the empirical approach for gaining knowledge are that it is convenient, flexible, and
case-oriented. The disadvantages are that the results may be biased, invalid, or unreliable.

10