Introduction

Definition
A computer is an electronic device that accepts data, performs computations,
and makes logical decisions according to instructions that have been given to it;
then produces meaningful information in a form that is useful to humans. The
name computer comes from a Latin word Computer, meaning, “to compute”
Characteristics of Computers
The characteristics of a computer show the capability and the potential of the
computer for processing data. This saves time, space, money, labors etc. And
they answer the questions why computers are used? Why have they become so
popular?
 Speed
The ability of the computers to carry out their instructions in a very short
period of time is one of the main reasons for their popularity. Computers can
perform within a matter of seconds or minutes tasks that would be impossible
for a person to complete by hand in lifetime.
Its speed is measured by the amount of time it took to perform or carry out a
basic operation.And its speed measured in terms of micro second (10-6 one
millionths), nano second (10-9 one billionths), and Pico second (10-12 one
trillionths). Hence a computer with speed 1 microsecond can perform 1 million
instructions in just 1 second. ( For example in one second this computer can
perform the following tasks:
 Compute the grade point average for 3000 students
 Calculate the total number of all books used by students in a university
 Accuracy
Now a days computers are being used in life-and-death situations (For example,
jet pilots rely on computer computations for guidance, Hospitals rely on
patient-monitoring systems in critical –care units) which needs almost hundred
percent accuracy. From this we can understand that computer is accurate and
consistent. Unless there is an error in the input data or unreliable program the
computer processes with a very accurate.
 Durability and reliability

Generally, reliablility is the measurment of the performance of a computer,

which measured against some predetermined standard for operation without
any failure. The major reason behind the reliability of the computers is that, at
hardware level, it does not require any human intervention between its
processing operations. Moreover, computers have the built-in diagnostic
capabilities, which help in continuous monitoring of the system.
 Versatility
Computers are quite versatile in nature. They can perform multiple tasks
simultaneously with equal ease. For example, at one moment it can be used to
prepare a letter , the other moment it can be used to play music and in between
you can print a document as well. All this work is possible by changing the
program (sequence of instructions for computers). In brief, we can say that a

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computer can perform various tasks by reducing the task to a series of logical
steps.
 Diligence
A computer is free from tiredness, lack of concentration, fatigue, etc. It can
work for hours without creating any error. If millions of calculations are to be
performed, a computer will perform every calculation with the same accuracy.
Due to this capability it overpowers human being in routine type of work.

 Storage Capability
Computers can store large amounts of data and it can recall the required
information almost instantaneously. The memory of the computer is relatively
small and it can hold only a certain amount of information, therefore, the data
is stored on storage devices such as magnetic tape or disks. Small sections of
the data can be accessed very quickly and brought into the storage devices, as
and when required, for processing. In order to explain the idea of storage
capacity, we can take an example of CD-ROM and a hard disk. A single CD-
ROM can store up to 700 MB of data while a hard disk can have a capacity of
around 80GB (1GB=1024 MB).
Note: Even if the above main characteristics of computers are increasing with
time, the cost and size of computers are decreasing.
Historical Development of computers (Generation of
Computers)
computer developments are often categorized by generations. Actually there are
four generations and major characteristics that distinguish these generations
are the following;
 Dominant type of electronic circuit elements used.
 Major secondary storage media used.
 Computer language used.
 Types or characteristic of operating system used.
 Memory access time (time to store or retrieve a word or data from
memory).
Computer generations are usually categorized by dramatic improvement in the
hardware, typically refold or better increases in speed and reliability.
1. First generation (1950s)
 Used vacuum tubes as components for the electronic circuit.
 Punched cards were the main source of inputs, and magnetic grams
were used for internal storage.
 Operate in a speed of milliseconds (thousands of a second) and could
handle more than 10,000 additions each second.
 Most applications were scientific calculations.
2. Second generations (early 1960s)
 Transistors were the main circuit components. (Transistors are a solid
state device made from silicon which is smaller, cheaper, faster,

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 dissipate less energy and more reliable than vacuum tube but work in
the same way with the vacuum tube.)
 Invented by Bell Labs.
 Magnetic tapes (similar with home tape caste), used for main storage,
 Operate in microseconds (millionths of a second) with more than
200,000 additions possible each second.
 Business applications become more commonplace, with large data
files stored on magnetic tape and disk. (Magnetic disk: is a circular
platter constructed of metal or plastic materials coated with
magnetizable substance.)
 High-level languages COBOL and FORTRAN were introduced during
this period. Batch operating systems are used that permitted rapid
processing of magnetic tape files.
3. Third generation (late 1960s, early 1970s)
Characterized by solid-state logic and integrated circuit (IC). (A single, self-
contained transistor is called discrete component. In early 1960 electronic
equipment composed of discrete components transistors, capacitors, resistors,
…. They are
 manufactured separately
 Packed in their own containers and soldered (wired together) on a circuit
board. So the entire manufacturing process was cumbersome and
expensive. Do to these and other problems in 1958 the achievement that
revolutionized electronics started the era of microelectronics: the
invention of integrated circuit.
 Computer storage switched from magnetic cores to integrated circuit
boards that provide modularity (expandable storage) and compatibility
(interchangeable equipment
 New input/output methods such as optical scanning and plotters.
 Software become more important with sophisticated operating systems,
improved programming languages,
4. Fourth generation (late 1970s,early 1989s,)
 Greatly expanded storage capabilities and improved circuitry.
 Has a large-scale integrated circuits (LSI) which has several hundred
thousands transistors placed on one tiny silicon chip.
 Computer memory operates at speeds of nano seconds (billionths of a
second) with large computers capable of adding 15 million numbers
per second.

5. Fifth generation

The fifth generation computer is in progress. An architecture, which makes use

of the changes in technology and allows a simple and natural methodology for
solving problems, is being sought. These computers will have intelligent
processors i.e., processors which can draw inferences. Users will also be able to

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 interact with them in natural languages such as English, German etc. Japans
are working intensively on the project for developing the 5th generation.

Generation 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th

Circuit element Vacuum tube Transistor IC LSI VLSI

Storage Punched card Magnetic Tape Magnetic disk Mass storage device
Language Machine & Fortran, COBOL Structured Application oriented
assembly etc language
Operating system Operator control Batch system Application Time sharing
oriented
Mem. Access time 1ms 10µs 10ns 1ns
Approx. date 1946-57 1958-64 1965-71 From 1971 above

Examples ENIAC, UNIVAC, IBM7090, 7094 IBM system Late IBM product
UDVAC
Summary of generation of computers
Types of computers
There are different types of Computers. Their difference is depending on
different categories of characteristics.
 Classification by the method of operation (processing)
They are classified into three:
I. Analog Computers
Analog computers operate by measuring. They deal with continues variables;
they don’t compute directly with numbers, rather, they operate by measuring
physical magnitude such as pressure, temperature, voltage, current etc.

Examples

 Thermometer, Voltmeter, Speedometer

 Gasoline pomp – Contains an analog Computer that converts the flow of
pumped fuel into two measurements the price of the delivered gas and
the quantity of pumped fuel.
Note: They are special purpose computers.
Analog computers have limited accuracy
II. Digital Computers
Digital computers deal with discrete variables; they operate by counting rather
than measuring. They operate directly up on numbers (or digits) that represent
numbers, letters, or other special symbols.
Examples:
 Desk & pocket computers
 The general purpose computers
Digital computers have higher accuracy and speed than the analog ones.
III. Hybrid Computers
The best features of analog and digital computers can be combined into a single
device to form a hybrid computer. A hybrid computer processes the information
by collecting input data with analog method, convert it into digital quantities,
processes the digital values and convert the output from digital to analog form.

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 Example:
In hospital insensitive-care unit analog devices may measure a patient’s heart
function, temperature and other vital signs. These measurements may then be
converted into numbers and supplied to a digital component in the system. This
component is used to monitor the patient’s vital signs and to send an
immediate signal to the nurse’s station. If any abnormal readings are detected.
 Classification by purpose of application
Computers can be applied or used for different purposes. Based upon their
application, they are classified as special purpose or general-purpose
computers
I. Special purpose computers
They are designed to solve a single type of problem, that is their components
and function are uniquely adapted to a specific situation involving specific
application.
Example:
 The public telephone box
 Traffic control system
 Ticket machines (used in grocery, super market etc.)
 Pocket calculators
 Counters etc..
Most analog computers are special purpose computers.
II. General-purpose computers
They are designed to solve variety of problems through the use of “store
program concept”. A program or set of instructions designed to solve a problem
is read and stored into the memory and then executed by the computer one by
one. The same computer can be applied to solve another set of problem using
different program. General purpose computers are more flexible and versatile.
Examples
 Micro computers
 Mini computers
 Super computers etc.
 Classification by physical size, price, capacity and performance
At this stage, by a computer, we mean a general-purpose digital computer.
There is a wide variety of general purpose digital computers on the market place
today, in terms of physical size, price, capacity, and performance. They are then
classified as follows by their capacity and size:
 Super computers:
Super computers are the fastest, largest and most potential types of computer.
They have speed of hundreds of millions of operation per second, a primary
memory capacity of about 80 million characters, a secondary memory of
capacity of about 20 times its primary memory.
- They are multi-user systems in intercontinental range.
- They can carry out enormously complex scientific calculations.

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They are used to process huge amount of data and are commonly used in space
technology centers, meteorology stations,astronomical observatories, inter
continental communications, airline organizations.
 Mainframe computers:
Smaller than super computers in size and capacity, lower in speed & memory
capacity than the super computers. However they are multi-user systems and
handle hundreds of users, usually used in large organizations.
 Mini computers
Have relatively lower speed, can handle multi-users, are smaller in size than the
mainframe computers. They use terminals for inputs and output. Mini
computers are used in small organizations.
 Micro computers:
Micro computer (personal or desktop computer) is a computer whose CPU is
microprocessor. Microprocessor is a processor all of whose components are on a
single integrated-circuit chip. Since its CPU is integrated in a single circuit, it
can serve only a single user at a time. Most of home and personal office
computers are microcomputers. The relative performance and usage of personal
computer is relatively increased with a very high rate.
Application of Computers
 Why we use Computers?
The following are some of the capability of Computers, which are reasons to use
Computers.
 Store and process large amount of information with high speed and
accuracy;
 Transmit information across continents via communication channels;
 Simulate events;
 Perform complex mathematical computations and make comparisons;
 Monitor ongoing industrial operations;
 Perform repetitive processes with great ease, speed, and reliability;

Therefore, computers are applicable for any functions or process that requires
these abilities. The main areas of computer applications can be listed as
follows:
 Learning Aids:
Example: learning toys, programs range from simple arithmetic to calculus,
from English grammar to creative writing and foreign language, and from basic
graphics to engineering design models,)

 Entertainment:
Examples : Games

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  Commercial or business applications
Computers are needed to perform business operations that require handling
large amounts of data. Several computer applications are available to assist
business in working with large volumes of data.
Examples are:
 Text processing
 Accounting and Finance management
 Inventory control
 Database management
 Statistical Analysis
 Scientific – engineering and research applications
Using computers for scientific research, complex mathematical calculations,
design work, and analysis and control of physical systems.
Examples are:
 Space technology
 Meteorological observatory systems
 Astronomical investigations
 Design of machines and
 Control of manufacturing process
 Information Utilities
Information utilities companies use large computers that store huge amount of
information about many different subjects. These computer systems and their
vast amount of data are available for personal use. For example: information
utilities can allow a computer user to read the daily news , research published
works, send a letter to a friend, play games, make airline reservations, obtain
the latest stock market quotations, and perform many other activities.
Example: Internet.
 Electronic Banking and Service:
Example: Teller Machine (customers are issued cards that permit them to use
other banks teller machine’s)
Online banking (A bank customer can use his/ her computer to check account
balances, transfer funds, pay bills)
 Shopping from Home
Individual may now shop by computer in the comfort of their home.
 Household Control

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A growing number of the newer houses hold devices are computers controlled.
For example: Security systems, refrigerators, microwave ovens, washers,
stereos, and televisions. This computer controlled home security system
monitors movements, broken glass, unlawful entry without a security code, and
so on, and alerts the local police department.
 Weather and Environment
Computer equipment may show temperature ranges , precipitation levels and
wind flow and can used in weather forecasting. Computer can also helped in
overcoming environmental hazards.
 Transportation
Computers have affected almost every kind of transportation. Many aircraft can
fly under the control of the computer; in this situation, the captain simply
serves as a manger by telling the computer what to do. In Cars, computers have
provided functional controls such as spark and fuel control.
 Medical and Health Care
Computers have long been used by hospitals for routine record keeping. Today,
however, many people owe their lives to the computer. Computers are used in
hospitals as sensors (device that detect changes in blood pressure, heart rate,
temperature), testing (scan the body and provide 3-D figure), patient treatment.
 Routine and Dangerous Tasks
Computers are used in routine tasks. And they can perform task in
environments to dangerous for human workers.
 Consultant (Expert system)
An Expert system is a computer program, which can solve problems from a
specific knowledge base. These systems don't replace expert humans because
the knowledge base of expert system is given from the skilled specialist.
Example: Mycin (a medical diagnostic program by using sophisticated decision
making process).

Data representation inside computer

We enter data into a computer or review (see) output data from a computer
using the letter of alphabet, various special symbols, and the numerals in the
decimal number system. But since computer is an electronic device, which
understands electrical flow (signal), there is no letter, symbol or number inside
the computer. Computer works with binary numbers. As a semiconductor is
conducting or isn’t conducting; a switch is closed or opened. So data are
represented in the form of a code that can have a corresponding electrical
signal.

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When data is stored, processed or communicated within the computer system,
it is packed in units. Arranged from the smallest to the largest, the units are
called bit, byte, and word;
These units are based on the binary number system.
BIT:
 Bits are the smallest units and can convey only two possible states 0 or 1;
 Bit stands for Binary digits;
 A bit is a single element in the computer, on a disk that stands for either “ON”
indicating 1 or “OFF” indicating 0;
In the computer “ON” is represented by the existence of current and “OFF” is
represented by the non-existence of current. On a magnetic disk, the same
information is stored by changing the polarity of magnetized particles on the
disk’s surface.
BYTE:
Bits can be organized into large units to make them represent more and
meaningful information. This large unit is called a byte and is the basic “unit of
data representation” in a computer system. The commonly used byte contains 8
bits. Since each bit has two states and there are 8 bits in a byte, the total
amount of data that can be represented using a single byte is 28 or 256 possible
combinations. Each byte can represent a character (a character is either a
letter, a number or a special symbol such as +,-,?,*, $, etc).
A byte is then used as a unit of measurement in the computer memory,
processing unit, external storage and during communication. If the computer
memory is 524288 byte, this is expressed in short by saying 512KB, where KB
stands for kilobyte.
- 1 Kilobyte (1KB) is 210 or 1024 bytes
- 1 Megabyte (MB) is 220 bytes or 210 kilobytes
- 1 Gigabyte (GB) is 230 bytes or 220 kilobytes or 210 megabytes
WORD:

Word refers the number of bits that a computer process at a time or a

transmission media transmits at a time. Although bytes can store or transmit
information, the process can even be faster if more than one byte is processed
at a once. A combination of bytes, then form a “word”. A word can contain one,
two, three or four bytes based on the capacity of the computer. Word length is
usually given in bits. We say that a computer is an 8-bit, a 16 bit, a 32 bit or a
64 bit computer to indicate that the amount of data it can process at a time.
The larger the word length a computer has the more powerful and faster it is.
Concept of Number Systems and Binary Arithmetic
Since the early days of human civilization, people have been using their fingers,
sticks, and other things for counting. As daily activities became more complex,
numbers became more important in trade, time, distance, and in all spheres of
human life. A number system defines a set of values used to represent quantity.
There are various number systems e.g. decimal, binary, octal, hexadecimal, etc
each differs one another by the number of symbols used in the system. Each
numbering system used different symbols to represent a given quantity.For a

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computer, everything is a number whether it may be numbers, alphabets,
punctuation marks, its own instructions, etc. The number systems that are
generally used by computers are: decimal, binary, octal, and hexadecimal.
The Decimal Number System
The primary number system used is a base ten number system or decimal
number system. The Decimal number system is based on the ten different digits
or symbols (0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9).
Starting at the decimal point and moving to the left, each position is
represented by the base (radix) value (10 for decimal) raised to power. The
power starts at Zero for the position just to the left of the decimal point. The
power incremented for each positions that continues to the left. Moving to the
right of the decimal point is just like moving to the left except that we will need
to place a minus sign in front of each power.
For example: (8762)10 = (8*103) + (7*102) + (6*101) + (2*100)
(0.475)10= (4*10-1) + (7*10-2) + (5*10-3)
The Binary number system
Computers do not use the ten digits of the decimal system for counting and
arithmetic. Their internal structure (mainly the CPU and memory) are made up
of millions of tiny switches that can be either in an ON or OFF states. Two
digits, 0 and 1, are used to refer for these two states.
Binary number system is based on the two different digits; 0 and 1. With binary
number system, it is very easier for the hardware to represent the data. Binary
number system is base two number system.
For example: (01100)2 , (10110.011)2 , etc
Octal number system
The octal number system with its eight symbols (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7) is a base
8 system.
For example: (322)8, (10.25)8, etc
Hexadecimal number system
Hexadecimal number system is another number system that works exactly like
the decimal and binary number systems, except that the base is 16. It uses 16
symbols (0-9, and A-F characters to represent 10-15).
For example: (8F0)16 , (D.45)16, etc
Conversion between Number Systems
Computers use binary numbers for internal data representation whereas they
use decimal numbers externally. Therefore, there should be some conversion
between number systems in order to represent data in a computer that is
originally represented in other number systems. Some conversion methods are
discussed below.
Decimal to Binary
It is important to note that every decimal number system has its equivalent
binary number. For example:
Binary Decimal 01 1
10 2
0 0
11 3

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100 4 111 7
Binary Decimal 1000 8
1001 9 etc.
101 5
110 6

Conversion from binary to its equivalent decimal and from decimal to its equivalent
binary is possible. The method, which is used for the conversion of decimal into binary,
is often called as the remainder method. This method involves the following steps.

- Begin by dividing the decimal number by 2 (the base of binary number system)
- Note the remainder separately as the rightmost digit of the binary equivalent
- Continually repeat the process of dividing by 2 until quotient is zero and keep writing
the remainders after each step of division (these remainders will either be 0 or 1)
- Finally, when no more division can occur, write down the remainders in reverse order
(last remainder written first)

Example: Determine the binary equivalent of (44)10

Remainder MSB (Most Significant Bit)
2 44
0
2 22 0
2 11 1
2 5 1
2 2 0
2 1
1 LSB (List Significant Bit)
Taking the remainder in reverse order we have 101100. Thus the
binary equivalent of (44)10 is (101100)2
In general to convert a decimal number X to a number in base M, divide X by M, store the
remainder, again divide the quotient by M, store the remainder, and continue until the quotient
is 0. And concatenate (collect) the remainders starting from the last up to the first.

Example: Convert 7810 to base eight (Octal)

7810=1168

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Example: Convert 3010 to base sixteen (hexadecimal)

3010=1E16

Binary to Decimal
In the binary to decimal conversion, each digit of the binary number is multiplied by its
weighted position, and each of the weighted values is added together to get the decimal
number.
Example: Determine the decimal equivalent of (100100)2
1*25 + 0*24 + 0*23 + 1*22 + 0*21 +0*20 = 32+4 =36
Therefore, the decimal equivalent of (100100)2 is 36
In general To convert a number X consists of digits X1 X2 X3 …Xn in base m to decimal; simply
expand the number with base m. That is

(X1X2X3…Xn) m =X1*mn-1+X2*mn-2 +X3*mn-3+...+ Xi*mn-i+… Xn-1m1+Xn*m0

=Y10

Example: convert (234)8 to decimal

=2*82 + 3*81 + 4*80 = 128+24+4 = 156
Example: convert (A1B) 16 to decimal
=A*162 + 1*161 + B*160 = 2587
Binary (base2) to Octal (base 8) or hexadecimal (base16) and vice versa
To convert a number in binary to octal group three binary digits together starting from the last
digit (right) and if there are no enough digits add zeros to the front end (left) and find the
corresponding Octal of each group.

Example: Convert 1001001 to octal Convert 101101001 to octal

1001001=001,001,001 101101001 =101,101,001

= 1118 =5518

To convert binary to hexadecimal group four binary digits together starting from right and if
there are no enough digits add zeros at the left.

Example: Convert 111100100 to = (1E4)16

hexadecimal

111100100 =0001 1110 0100

=1 14 4

=1 E 4

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 Convert 111001111 to Hexadecimal =1 C F

111001111 =0001 1100 1111 =(1BF)16

=1 12 15

To convert from Octal to binary, convert each octal digit to its equivalent 3 bit binary starting
from right.

Example: Convert (675) eight to binary Convert 231eight to binary

675eight =110 111 101 231eight = 010 011 001

=(110111101)two =(10011001)two

To convert from Hexadecimal to binary convert each hex. Digit to its equivalent 4-bit binary
starting from right.

Example: Convert 23416 to binary Convert 2AC to binary

23416 =0010 0011 0100 2AC16 =0010 1010 1100

= 10001101002 =10101011002

Octal to hexadecimal and Vise versa

To convert from Octal to hexadecimal, first we have to convert to binary and the binary to
hexadecimal. To convert from hexadecimal to Octal, first we have to convert to binary and then
the binary to Octal.

Example: Convert 2358 to hexadecimal Convert (1A)16 to Octal

2388=010 011 101 1A=0001 1010

=0000 1001 1101 =000 011 010

=0 9 13 = 0 3 2

=9D16 =328

Summary of conversion from One base to another base

From base To base Method

2 10 Expand binary number in powers of 2

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10 2 Factor the decimal number by 2

2 8 Group 3 binary digits together

8 2 Each Octal digit is converted to 3 binary digits

2 16 Group 4 binary digits together

16 2 Each hexadecimal digit is converted to 4 binary digits

8 10 Expand the number in powers of 8

10 8 Factor the decimal number by 8

16 10 Expand the number in powers of 16

10 16 Factor the decimal number by 16

8 16 Go from 8 …….2…….16

16 8 Go from 16 …….2…….8

Computer System
A Computer System is composed of components that are classified either as
Computer hardware or Computer software.

Computer Hardware
Computer architecture is defined as the science of selecting and
interconnecting hardware components to create computers that meet
functional, performance, and cost goals. It can be described as the logical
structure of the computer system.
Computer hardware is the physical part of the computer that can be touched,
seen, broken.

What a computer in general does is, that

 It takes input (in various forms)

 Process it (according to a given set of instructions) and
 Produce an output (in required form).
 Store the information

Chapter One Page 14

Based on this the hardware part of a computer system is composed of a
number of interacting physical parts. The different hardware parts of a
computer which are responsible for these operations are illustrated by the
following model.
Central Processing Unit

Control Unit Arithmetic Logical Unit

(CU) (ALU)

Registers

Input
Primary Memory Output
Unit
Random Read Only Unit
Access Memory (ROM)

Secondary Storage Unit

Fig 3.1 Information flow in the computer hardware

The Central Processing Unit (CPU)

The CPU or the microprocessor (or simply processor) is referred as the brain of
the computer system; it is a VLSI chip inside the system, plugged onto the
motherboard. A processor controls all internal and external devices, and
performs arithmetic and logical operations. It is the most costly and main
component of the computer system.

A processor operates only on binary data, that is, data composed of 1s and 0s.
These 1s and 0s correspond to electrical switches being switched ON or
switched OFF.

The processor performs, supervises, and controls the arithmetic and logic
functions. It performs arithmetic operations such as additions, multiplication,
division, and logical operations such as ‘is A greater than B’?

The functions of a processor can be summed up as:

 Carrying out arithmetic and logical operations

 Controlling the use of main storage (memory) to store data and
instructions
 Controlling the sequence of operations
 Controlling all the parts of the computer system

Chapter One Page 15

The CPU consists of three main subsystems: The control unit (CU), the
Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU), and the Registers. The three subsystems work
together to provide the operational capabilities of the computer.
 Purpose of CPU
 Fetch instruction: The CPU read instruction from the memory
 Interpret instruction: the instruction must be decoded to determine
what action is required
 Fetch data: the execution of an instruction may require reading of
data from memory or an I/O module.
 Process data: the execution of an instruction may require performing
some arithmetic or logical operation on data.
 Write data: The result of an execution may require writing data to
memory or an I/O module.
 The Control Unit Instruction
register

Flags Control
unit
Registers

 Controls the flow of information.

 As the name implies, it performs all the control functions of the computer.
 It retrieves the instruction from memory.
 Translates those instructions into computer functions and sends signals to
other computer hardware units to carry out those functions.
 It is also responsible for determining the next instruction to be executed by
the computer.
 In general it serves as the computer traffic cope.
 The Arithmetic Logical Unit (ALU)
Register Register
Control unit
ALU flags
 It is referred as the computers "number crunchier ".
 It performs the arithmetic calculations: addition, subtraction, multiplication,
division and comparisons (and, or, xor) and it is used to keep track of and
execute instruction.
 All modern digital computers can do is addition;
 multiplication is merely a continuous addition;
 subtraction is the addition of the complements of the number to be
subtracted;
 Division is the addition of complements.
 Registers

Chapter One Page 16

 The registers are special purpose, high speed memory units. They hold various
types of information such as data, instructions, addresses, and the
intermediate results of calculations. Especially, they hold the information that
the CPU is currently working on.

Registers can be thought of as CPU’s working memory. As soon as a particular

instruction or piece of data is processed, the next instruction immediately
replaces it, and the information that results from the processing is returned to
main memory (RAM). Data and instructions do not enter either the ALU or the
CU, instead the ALU work on the data held in the registers along with the
instruction on which it acts.

Instruction addresses are normally stored in consecutive registers and are

executed sequentially. The control unit reads an instruction in the memory by a
specific address in the register and executes it. The next instruction is then
fetched from the sequence and executed, and so on. This type of instruction
sequencing is possible only if there is a counter to calculate the address of the
instruction after instruction. This counter is a register, which stores
intermediate data used during the execution of the instructions after it is read
from the memory.

The important registers within the CPU are:

Register Name Function

Program Counter (PC) A program counter keeps track of next instruction to be

executed

Instruction Register (IR) Holds the instruction to be decoded by the control unit

Memory Address Register Holds address of the next location in memory to be

(MAR) accessed

Memory Buffer Register (MBR) Is used for storing data either coming to the CPU or data
being transferred by the CPU

Accumulator (ACC) It is a general-purpose register used for storing temporary

results and results produced by arithmetic logic unit

Data Register (DR) Is used for storing the operands and other data.

Chapter One Page 17

Storage Units
Storage units are used to store data. There are two types of storage units:
Primary and Secondary.

Primary Storage
The primary memory or the main memory is part of the main computer
system. The processor directly stores and retrieves information from it. The
processor accesses the main memory in random fashion, that is, the processor
can access any location of this memory either to read information from it or
store information in it.
The primary memory is implemented by two types of memory technologies. The
first is called Random Access Memory (RAM) and the other is Read Only
Memory (ROM).

Random Access Memory (RAM)

RAM can be defined as a block of sequential memory locations, each of which

has a unique address determining the location and those locations contain a
data element. It stores programs and data that are in active use.

Storage locations in main memory are addressed directly by the CPU’s

instructions. It is volatile in nature, which means the information stored in it
remains as long as the power is switched ON. As soon as the power is switched
OFF, the information contained in it vanishes.

RAM can be further divided into two categories:

1. Dynamic RAM (DRAM): - This type of RAM holds the data in dynamic
manner with the help of a refresh circuitry. Each second or even less than
that the content of each memory cell is read and reading action refreshes
the contents of the memory. Due to this refreshing action, the memory is
called DRAM.

2. Static RAM (SRAM): - SRAM along with DRAM is essential for a system to
run optimally, because it is very fast as compared to DRAM. It is effective
because most programs access the same data repeatedly and keeping all
this information in the fast SRAM allows the computer to avoid accessing
the slower DRAM. SRAM is generally included in a computer system by the
name of cache.
Read Only Memory (ROM)

As the name suggests, read only memory can only be read, not written. In other
words, CPU can only read from any location in the ROM but cannot write. The
contents of ROM are not lost even in case of a sudden power failure, making it
non-volatile in nature. The instructions in ROM are built into the electronic

Chapter One Page 18

circuits of the chip. These instructions are called firmware. ROM is also random
access in nature.

 Types of ROM
 Masked ROM: It is a hard-wired device that contained a pre-programmed
set of data or instructions. The contents of such ROMs have to be specified
before chip production, so the actual data could be used to arrange the
transistors inside the chip.
 Programmable ROM (PROM): Blank PROM chips can be coded by anyone
with a special tool such as PROM-Programmers. However, once a PROM has
been programmed, its contents can never be changed. It is also known as
one-time programmable (OTP) device. Like other ROMs, the information
stored in PROM is also non-volatile, but they are more fragile that other
ROMs as a jolt of static electricity can easily cause fuses in the PROM to
burn out, changing essential bit pattern from 1 to 0.
 Erasable Programmable ROM (EPROM): It is programmed in exactly the
same manner as a PROM. However, unlike PROMs, it can be erased and
reprogrammed repeatedly. An EPROM can be erased by simply exposing the
device to a strong source of ultraviolet light for certain amount of time. An
EPROM eraser is not selective; it will erase the entire EPROM.
 Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM (EEPROM): It can be erased by
an electrical charge and then written to by using slightly higher-than-
normal voltage. It can be erased one byte at a time. Hence, the process of re-
programming is flexible, but slow. It is often used to store programmable
instructions in devices, such as printers and other peripherals.
 Flash ROM: Also called Flash BIOS or Flash memory, is a type of constantly
powered non-volatile memory that can be erased and re-programmed in
blocks. It is often used to hold control code such as the BIOS in a personal
computer. It is used in Digital cellular phones, digital cameras, LAN
switches, PC Cards for notebook computers, digital set-up boxes, embedded
controllers, and other devices.
Secondary Storage units

Secondary Storage: - Secondary storage or auxiliary storage, can take many

forms, which have traditionally included punched cards, papers tape, magnetic
tape, magnetic disk, floppies, and CD-ROMs.

The information in the secondary storage device can be accessed, depending

upon how the information is stored on the storage medium. Primarily, there are
two methods of accessing data from the secondary storage devices:

 Sequential: - Sequential access means the computer system must

search the storage device from the beginning until it finds the required
piece of data. The most common sequential access storage device would
be a magnetic tape where data is stored sequentially and can be

Chapter One Page 19

 processed only sequentially. This access method is less expensive than
other methods. The disadvantage of sequential organization is that
searching for data is slow.

 Direct: - Direct access, also known as random access, means that the
computer can go directly to the information that the user wants. The
most common direct access storage is the disk and the most popular
types of disks today are magnetic and optical disks.

Sequential Access Media

 Punched Cards
Punched cards are one of the oldest and most familiar forms of data storage.
There are two types of punched cards, 80 – columns, and 96 – columns and the
first one is a standard punched card. Using one card we can represent 80
characters.

 If only a numeric punch is in any column, it represents whatever

number is punched out.

 Punched Paper Tape

Punched paper tape is a continuous strip of paper used to store data in much
the same manner as punched cards. The paper tape is approximately one inch
wide & can have either six or eight channels. Eight channels paper tape is
based on the ASCII code. This storage media is less expensive and more
compact than punched cards.

 Magnetic Tapes

Magnetic tapes are a particularly popular form of secondary storage because of

their high data density (the number of bytes of instruction per inch of tape) and
their convenience in handling. Magnetic tapes are approximately one - half inch
wide and are made of Mylar – based plastic film which can be magnetized. Data
are stored on a magnetic tape by running the tape over the electromagnetic
called read/write head which magnetizes small spots on the tape. Seven-track
tapes store information as bytes of information, where each byte consists of a
six-bit code and a one-bit parity bit. Nine-track tape uses an eight-bit and a
parity bit.

An 800 bytes per inch density of magnetic tape and has a length of 100 inch
can store 80,000 bytes of information.
Direct (Random) Access Media

 Magnetic disks

Magnetic disks are metals or plastic platters coated with ferrous oxide, an easily

Chapter One Page 20

 magnetizable material. Magnetic disks allow for random access of information
and overcome the slow access time commonly found in tape files.
 Floppy disks
 Also called diskette.
 Used to store programs and data for a longer period outside the
computer system.
 Often used with mini and micro computers.
 Data is stored in concentric circles called tracks.
 Each track is further divided into sectors
 A sector stores the amount of information that can be read or written
in single operation.

Disk drive: - is part of a computer system which reads from and writes data on
a disk.

 Hard Disk

 A high capacity magnetic disk made up of metal which can be fixed in

the system unit of the computer.
 Serves as a secondary storage.
 Enables very fast accessibility of data.
 Accessing data from hard disk is faster than from floppy disks.
 The disks, which are usually grouped together into a disk pack, are
separated by small air spaces to allow access for read/write head.
 Each disk has approximately 200 tracks on which information is stored.
Tracks of the small number on all adjacent disks are referred to as a
cylinder of that disk.
 The disk pack is mounted on a magnetic disk drive which rotates the
disk at speed up to 1,000 revolutions per second.
 Cross section of a disk pack
 The total collection of tracks available on one movement of the access
mechanism is known as cylinder.
 The amount of time it takes to retrieve (or store) data from (or to) disk is
called the disk access time.
Input/output units
Input/Output units allow people and other technologies to put data into a
computer and get information out of a computer.

Chapter One Page 21

Input Unit
 Is the unit used to enter data into the computer so that it can be processed.
 It converts information from a form suitable to human beings to one
understandable by the computer.
Examples of input devices;
 Keyboard (which is the most widely used input devices)
 Disk derives (floppy and hard-disk derives)
 Mouse, trackball, joystick
 Scanner
 Light pen (a photo cell to choose a displayed response to
request further information).
 Voice synthesizer;
 CD-ROM Drive, etc.

Output Unit
Output is anything that comes out of a computer. The output may be a picture,
text or image. An output device is any machine capable of accepting and
representing information from a computer.

An output unit converts the result of the only-machine understandable form to

a form understandable by human beings.
Examples
 The Visual Display Unit (VDU) or monitor or screen
 Printers (dot matrix, desk wheel, laser printers)
 Plotters
 Voice (audio) response unit, Disk drives
 Types of Output Devices

1. Hard Copy: The physical form of output is known as hard copy. In general,
it refers to the recorded information copied from a computer onto paper or
some other durable surface, such as microfilm. Hard copy output is
permanent and relatively stable form of output. This type of output is also
highly portable. Paper is one of the most widely used hard copy output
media. Among the wide variety of hard copy output devices, the following are
the most commonly used ones.
a. Printers
b. Plotters
c. Microfilm

2. Soft Copy: The electronic version of an output, which usually resides in

computer memory and/or on disk, is known as soft copy. It is not
permanent form of output. It is transient and is usually displayed on the
screen. This kind of output is not tangible, that is, it cannot be touched. Soft
copy output includes audio and visual form of output, which is generated
using a computer. In addition, textual or graphical information displayed on
a computer monitor is also a soft copy form of output. Among the wide

Chapter One Page 22

 variety of hard copy output devices, the following are the most commonly
used ones.
a. Monitors
b. Audio response
c. Projectors

 Hard Copy Output Devices

A. Printers
The most common output device you will encounter will be the printer. Printer
is available in various forms, to suit the needs of various types of users. A
printer is an output device that prints characters, symbols, and perhaps
graphics on paper hardcopy.

Printers are categorized according to whether or not the image produced is

formed by physical contact of the print mechanism with the paper. Hence they
classified as impact and non-impact printers. Impact printers have contact; non-
impact printers do not.

1. Impact Printers
These types of printers form images by striking a mechanism such as a print
hammer or wheel against an inked ribbon, leaving an image on paper like a
typewriter. Impact printers are dying out, though you might still run across a
dot-matrix printer.

Characteristics of Impact printers:

 There is physical contact with the paper to produce an image

 Relatively low consumable(ink, ribbon, etc) costs
 Useful for bulky printing
 Very noisy
 Since they are mechanical in nature, they tend to slow
Impact printers include:

 Dot matrix Printers

 Daisy Wheel Printers
 Drum Printers
2. Non-impact Printers
Non-impact printers are faster and quieter than impact printers, and you find
them almost everywhere these days. Non-impact printers form characters and
images without direct physical contact between the printing mechanism and
the paper. Two types of non-impact printers often used with microcomputers
are:

o Laser printers
o Ink Jet Printers

Chapter One Page 23

 B. Plotters
A plotter is a specialized output device designed to produce high-quality
graphics in a variety of colors. Plotters are used for creating large hardcopy
items, such as maps, architectural drawings, and 3-D illustrations items
typically too large for regular printers.

C. Microfilm

It is an extremely high speed, low cost process, which records computer

generated information directly from the computer tape or cartridge to a
miniaturized microfilm media. The microfilm product is in fiche or roll format,
which can be duplicated rapidly and inexpensively. This process can produce
data in microfilm form at a highly significant speed from that of a paper printer.

 Soft Copy Output Devices

A. Visual Displays (Monitors)
Monitors display softcopy output. Monitors run under the control of a graphics
display adapter card plugged into an expansion slot on the system board. The
adapter allows information to leave the computer and appear on the monitor.

The Monitor can be:-

 Cathode-Ray Tubes (CRTs)

 The cathode-ray tube (CRT) is a vacuum tube used as a display screen in a
computer or video display terminal.
 CRTs are the most common softcopy output devices used with desktop
computers;
 The CRT's screen display is made up of small picture elements called
pixels. A pixel is the smallest unit on the screen that can be turned on or
off or made different shades.
 Flat-Panel Displays
 Compared to CRTs, flat-panel displays are much thinner, weigh less, and
consume less power.
 Their biggest limitations are:
 Cost an LCD (Liquid-crystal display) for a desktop microcomputer
costs 2-3 times as much as an equivalent CRT monitor;
 Images are not always as good as CRT images; and
 Flat-panel images cannot be clearly viewed from an angle.
 Flat-panel displays consist of two plates of glass separated by a
substance that may be activated in particular ways.
The bus system
Interconnecting Components in a Computer and Information Movement in a
Computer System.
We have seen that there are different components of a computer and each

Chapter One Page 24

performs a specific function. But to perform a given task in synchronized form
there should be some mechanism of communication. For this reason there is an
electronic circuit which produces communication path between the different
components of a computer system along which data are transferred, that is
Bus.
The bus, which communicates the different parts of the CPU, is called Internal
Bus. And the bus, which communicates the CPU with memory and peripheral
devices, is called External Bus. The size of the bus determines the speed of
efficiency of the computer.

Address Bus: - is a unidirectional bus over which digital information is

transferred to identify either a particular memory location or particular I/O
address.

Data Bus: - a bus system which interconnects the CPU, memory and all the
peripheral Input / Output devices of a computer system for the purpose of
exchanging data.

Control Bus: - a bus used to select and enable an area of main storage and
transmit signals required to regulate the computer operation. It carries control
signals that allow the CPU to control the transfer of information along the bus.
For example, the CPU must be able to indicate whether information is to be
transferred from memory or to memory; it must be able to signal when to start
the transfer and so on.

It is important to realize that a computer system may have a number of

separate bus systems so that information can be transferred between more
than one pair of components at the same time. For example, it is common to
have one bus for communicating between memory and the CPU at high speeds.
This bus is called a CPU-memory bus. In addition, this bus would be connected
to a second I/O bus via a bus adapter, as illustrated in the figure shown below.
This second bus would be used for the slower I/O devices.

Chapter One Page 25

This arrangement allows the processor more efficient access to memory, as the
CPU-memory bus can operate at very high speeds. These high speeds are only
possible, if the physical bus length is quite short. Thus, by providing a second
I/O bus to accommodate the various I/O devices that may be connected to the
computer, the length of the CPU-memory bus can be kept shorter than it would
be if the I/O devices were to be directly attached to a single system bus. On the
other hand, to keep the cost of a computer system low, a single bus running at
a slower speed, may be used to connect all devices to the CPU.

In order to attach any device to a computer, it must be connected to the

computer’s bus system. This means that we need a unit that connects the
device to the bus. The terms device controller and device interface are used to
refer to such a unit. So, for example, a disk controller would be used to connect
a disk drive to the system bus and the term I/O controller refers to the
controller for any I/O device to be connected to the bus system. A computer
system will have some standard interfaces such as a serial interface, which
can be used with a number of different I/O devices. The serial interface, for
example, can be used to attach a printer, a mouse or a modem (device for
communications over a telephone line) to the computer. So, if you wish to
construct a new type of I/O device, you could use the standard laid down for
the serial interface (the RS-232 standard) and you could then attach your
device to the computer, using the serial interface.

Computer Software
The computer hardware is an electronic device which has the potential of
performing the task of solving a problem. However one has to give precise
instructions to the hardware in order to solve problem.
The finite set of instructions (steps) that the computer follow to perform a given
job is called a program. Any program to be executed first it should reside /
loaded/ in the memory.

Software:- is a collection of programs and routines that support the operations

of performing a task using a computer. Software also includes documentations,
rules and operational procedures. Software makes the interface between the
user and the electronic components of the computer.

USER

Software
Hardware

Computer software is classified into two

1. System software
2. Application software
System Software

Chapter One Page 26

  Constitutes those programs which facilitate the work of the computer
hardware.
 It organizes and manages the machine’s resources, handles the
input/output devices.
 It controls the hardware by performing functions that users shouldn’t have
to or are unable to handle.
 System programs make complex hardware more user friendly.
 It acts as intermediate between the user and the hardware.
 It enables the computer understand programming languages i.e. it serves as
means of communication between user and a computer.

The important categories of system software are:

A. Operating system
B. Language software
A. Operating system
Operating system coordinates the activity between the user and the computer.
An operating system has three major functions.
i. Controlling operations (control program)
 Coordinates, or supervises the activity of the computer system.
 Decides where programs and data should be stored in the computer
memory.
 Handles communications among the computer components, applications
software and the user.
 Controls the saving and retrieving of files to and from disks in the disk
drive.
 It performs all its controlling tasks without the involvement or awareness
of the user.
ii. Input/output Management
 The I/O manager coordinates the computers communication with
outside world, flow of data to the display screen and other output devices
(printers/ plotters) and from the key board or other input devices.
 Handles the flow of data to and from the disk drives (file management).
 Handles the process of preparing a disk for use, the copying, renaming,
erasing task of a file.
iii. Command Processing ( command Interpreter)
 It interprets the commands or what you enter using the keyboard or
other input devices.
 If you write an internal command it carries out the function of that
command if it is external command or other executable file it searches for
the corresponding file in the default (current disk) or the user specified
disk, loads the file into memory and transfers control to that program.
Once this program is terminated, control returns to command and the
program for that command or file is discarded from memory.
 Types of Operating Systems
Operating systems can be classified by:

Chapter One Page 27

  The number of programs they can handle at a time and
 The number of users they serve at once at one or different stations (i.e.
terminals or micro-computers connected to a central computer).
i. Single tasking operating systems
 With single tasking operating systems: only one program can be run on a
computer at a time.
 In order to run another program, one must remove the first program
loaded in the computers main memory and load the other one(i.e. it can’t
handle two or more programs at a time)
 These types of operating systems are single user or can serve only one
user at a time.

ii. Multi user operating system

 It supports a number of work stations connected to a central system.

 A number of users can use the resources of one high capacity computer
by the help of terminals.

iii. Real Time Operating System

 A real time is a system that is capable of processing data so quickly that

the results are available to influence the activity currently taking place.
 Its primary characteristics is that it responds to an event within a well
defined time.
 Example: - Air plane seat reservations and computer controlled plant.
Application Software
 Is software that is designed to perform tasks for the specific area or areas.
But for use in more than one installation.
 Are usually called application packages as they may include a number of
programs along with operating instruction, documentation and so forth.
 Depending on their function or task they are categorized in to the following.
1. Word Processors/ Word processing
- is a computerized typewriter which permits the electronic creation,
editing, formatting, filing and printing text.
- Is the most common application of microcomputers.
- Until recently, word processing could be done only dedicated word
processors. A dedicated word processor is a computer that denies its
users the opportunity to execute any other program.
Example: WordStar, WordPerfect, Microsoft word
2. Spreadsheet
- is an electronic worksheet display on the VDU.
- Until recently, financial analysis and other mathematical calculation
were done by entering numbers on pages of an accountants ruled ledger
pad.

Chapter One Page 28

 - You can quickly create a model of a situation on a spreadsheet by
entering labels, numbers & formulas.
- Using the programs built-in function you can perform complicated
calculations such as net percent value, internal rates of return, and
monthly payments on a loan.
Example: Lotus 1-2-3, Microsoft Excel, Quatropro
3. Database management system.
- Allow you to store information on a computer, retrieve it when you need
it and update it when necessary.
- You can do this with index cards, but database management programs
do them more quickly and easily.
- Example: You can store large mailing list, inventory record or billing and
collect information in lists stored in files and manipulate this
information, one file at a time with database management program.

Data Communications and Computer Networking

Basics of Data Communication
Data communication: is the process of sharing ideas, information and messages with
others in a particular time and place.
- It is exchange of data between two or more parties.
- It includes :
o Writing and talking
o Nonverbal communication (such as facial expressions, body language or gestures)
o Visual communication (the use of images of pictures such as painting,
photography, video or film)
o Electronic Communication
o Such as telephone calls, electronic mail, cable television, satellite broadcasts.
Data Transmission
The need of information has increased from time to time. This leads to the need of
sharing of information among different agents (individual), which may be at different
places or locations. Data communication is the exchange of information between two
agents. For exchange of information, the information should be transmitted from one
point to another through a transmission media called Channel.
Information is transmitted in a form of packets. The information is divided into packets
and one packet is transmitted at a time. When a packet of information is transmitted the
sender must be sure that the receiver receives the information and the receiver must check

Chapter One Page 29

that it receives correct information. The information is transmitted successfully the
receiver must send an acknowledgment to the sender.

Data Communication Component

The following are the basic components for working of a communication system.

1. Transmitter
2. Receiver
3. Medium
4. Message
5. Protocol
The transmitter sends the message and the receiver receives the message. The medium is
the channel over which the message is sent and the protocol is the set of rules that guides
how the data is transmitted from encoding to decoding. The message of course is central
to all the components. The message is the data that is being communicated.

Mode of transmission
The transmission medium may be physical (it connects the transmitter and receivers
through wire) or logical (There are different mode of transmission)
 Simplex transmission:
In this transmission, signals are transmitted in only one direction: One station is
transmitter and the other is receiver.
 Half-duplex transmission

Chapter One Page 30

In this transmission signals are transmitted in both directions, both stations may transmit,
but only one at a time.
 Full-duplex transmission
In this transmission signals transmitted in both directions, both stations may transmit
simultaneously. The medium carries signals in both directions at the same time.

Computer Networks
It is a collection of computers and peripheral devices connected by communication links
that allow the network components to work together.
Importance of Networking
1. Resource sharing ( To share hardware such as the server To share computer
CPU and hard disk)
2. To share databases
3. To share application programs
4. To undertake parallel processing
5. High reliability by having alternative sources of supply.
6. Money saving
7. Increase system performance.
8. Powerful communication medium among widely separated people.
Hardware requirements of a computer network
1. Computers
- A minimum of two computers is required to establish a computer network.
2. Network Interface Card/Network Adapter Card
- It is an expansion card that physically connects a computer to the network.
- Each computer in the network must have a network card..
3. Cables
- Cables are used to physically connect the computers on the network
- Types of cables
i. Co-axial cables
ii. Twisted Pair Cables
iii. Fiber Optics
4. Switches

Chapter One Page 31

A network switch is a computer networking device that connects devices together on a
computer network by using packet switching to receive, process, and forward data to the
destination device. A network switch is a multiport network bridge that uses hardware
addresses to process and forward data at the data link layer
Types of Networks
Based on geographical span of coverage, computer networks are broadly classified into
three major categories.
1. Local Area Network (LAN)
 Computers are connected close together to each other with in the same ‘local’ area (
ex. building, office, school ,Lab …)
 computers are connected directly on-premises -usually through wiring and
sometimes with infrared signals (similar to your TV remote control) or low-powered
radio signals
 It is the basic building block of any computer network.
 It is confined in a limited geographical area.
Characteristics of LAN:
1. Physically limited
2. High bandwidth
3. Inexpensive cable media (Co-axial or twisted pair)
4. Used for data and hardware sharing
2. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
 Covers large geographic areas
 Uses Fiber Optics cables
For example: Colleges, Universities, banks etc.
3. Wide Area Networks (WAN)
 Communication is established through telephone lines, microwave links and satellites
etc.
 It has no geographical limit
 It is made up of a number of interconnected LANs. E.g. The internet
 The computers are attached spread apart geographically such as a state, the country,
or the world
 Computers in a network are situated in a wider geographical area.
 It may contain a number of local area network

Chapter One Page 32

 uses external communication facilities such as phone lines, cable, television lines, or
satellite transmission to carry data over longer distance
Based on the architecture, networks are divided into two broad categories:
1. Peer-to-peer Networks
2. Server –based Networks
The type of network you choose to implement depends on
i. Size of the organization
ii. Level of security required
iii. Level of administrative support available
iv. Amount of network traffic
v. Needs of the networks use
vi. Network budget
1. Peer-to-peer Networks
In the peer-to-peer configuration, only two computers are directly connected by
cable and one computer can directly access the resources located in the other
computer.
 No dedicated server
 Every computer acts as both a client and a server
 Good for 10 or few users
 Less security
 User at each computer determines what data on that computer is shared on the network.,
also called work groups
 all computers on the network belong to users and are equal as far as the network is
concerned
 Computers simply connect with each other in a workgroup to share files, printers and
Internet access.
 This is most commonly found in home configurations and is only practical for workgroups
of a dozen or less computers
2. Server-Based
 In the workgroup configuration, more than two computers are connected but the maximum
number of computers is not greater than ten.
 In server based, one computer can directly access the resources located in other computer
provided that the other computer gives permission to use the resources.
 There is usually a Server Machine to which all of the computers log on

Chapter One Page 33

  This server can provide various services, including
– centrally routed Internet Access,
– mail (including e-mail),
– file sharing and printer access,
– ensuring security across the network.
 Supports large number of users
 Needs dedicated server (acts only as a server, but not as a client)
 Security is an issue
 Size is limited by a server and network hardware
 Requires at least one professional administrator.

Network Topology
• Topology: specifies the geometric arrangement of the network. Common topologies
are: bus, ring, star, mesh
• The physical topology of a network refers to the layout of cables, computers and
other peripherals.
• Logical topology is the method used to pass the information between the computers
Standard Topologies
1. Bus Topology
• All workstations are connected directly to the main backbone that carries the data.
• Consists of devices connected to a common, shared cable.

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 • Traffic generated by any computer will travel across the backbone and be
received by all workstations
• This works well in a small network of 2-5 computers
• As the number of computers increases so will the network traffic and this can
greatly decrease the performance and available bandwidth of your network
• Is used for a Local Area Network
• Is the simplest
• Messages are detected by all nodes and are accepted by the nodes to which they
are addressed.
• Relies on collision detection or token passing to regulate traffic.
• If one node fails, the rest of the network can continue to function normally.

Advantages of Bus Topology

- Easy to implement
- Low cost
Disadvantages of Bus Topology
- Limited cable length and workstation
- Difficult to isolate network fault.
- Cable fault affects all workstations
2. Star Topology
• One of the most common network topologies found in most offices and home
networks
• Becomes very popular in contrast to the bus type (which we just spoke about),
because of the cost and the ease of troubleshooting.
 Cable segments from each computer (node) are connected to a centralized
component called a hub.
Hub - is a device that processes and switches the messages from one incoming line to
another.
- Signals are transmitted from the sending computer through the hub to all
computers on the network.
- Failure of one computer doesn’t affect the network

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 - Failure of the hub affects the network
- Cabling cost is high

Advantage of Star Topology

- Easy to add new workstations
- Centralized control
- Centralized network
- Easy to modify
- if one computer on the star topology fails, then only the failed computer is unable
to send or receive data
Disadvantages of Star Topology
- Hubs are expensive
- Each computer is connected to a central hub or switch, if this device fails, the
entire network fails!
3. Ring Topology
• Computers are connected on a single circle of cable.
• Unlike the bus topology, there are no terminated ends.
• signals travel around the loop in one direction and pass through each computer
 Logically, a ring topology is a circular arrangement of computers where the signals from
one node travel around the ring in clockwise direction .Because the signals pass through
each computer, the failure of one computer or a break in a cable could bring the entire
network failure

4. Mesh Topology
• Each computer is connected to every other computer by a separate cable.

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 • Provides redundant paths through the new work l

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Brief Introduction to Internet
BASIC INTERNET TERMS
Web page: The World Wide Web consists of files, called pages which contain information and
links to resources throughout the Internet. A web page is an electronic document written in
a computer language called HTML (Hypertext Markup Language)

Web Site: A web site is a set of related (linked through hypertext links) web pages, published by
an organization or individual.

Home page: when you browse the World Wide Web, you will often see the term ‘home page”. A
home page is the starting point or a doorway to the web site.

Browser: A browser (short for web browser) is a computer program that accesses web pages and
displays them on the computer screen. It is the basic software that is needed to find,
retrieve, view, and send information over the Internet.
Hypertext: Hypertext refers to the text that connects to other documents. These texts are known
as hypertext link, hyperlink, hotlink or simply links. A hyperlink is used to “jump” to
another part of the same page or to load a different web page.

Internet service provider (ISP): An Internet Service Provider (ISP) is an organization that
provides the required software, which is used to connect to the Internet.

Web server:A server is a computer equipped with server software, which provides a specific
kind of service to client software running on other computers. A web server is a computer
that answers requests from user’s computers.

Download and upload: Download refers to the activity of moving or copying a document,
program or other data from the Internet or other interconnected computer to one’s own
computer. Upload is just the opposite of download. In case the user moves or copies a
document, program or other data from his/her computer to the Internet
Online and offline: The term online is commonly referred to as ‘connected to the World wide
web via Internet’. When you connect to the Internet, you are online or live. Offline is just
the opposite of being online. It refers to the actions performed when the user is not
connected, via telecommunications, to another computer or a network like the Internet

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