SYMBOLS USED

Basic quantities:

m mass kg
K bulk modulus of a medium N/m2
ρ; ρ 0 density of a medium kg/m3
γ ratio of specific heats
η viscosity (kinematic) N sec/m2
t time sec
T temperature K, °C
c speed of sound m/sec
F mechanical force N
f frequency /sec or Hz
f0 frequency at resonance /sec or Hz
ω angular frequency rad/sec
ω0 angular frequency at resonance rad/sec
λ wavelength m
k wave number rad/m

Measures:

l (length)

r (radius)
D (distance)

r radius (of object) m

D distance (between objects) m
l length (actual) m
la acoustically equivalent length m
x position (re reference pos.) m
y, z the same in 2nd and 3 rd dim. m
d thickness of boundary layer m
h wall thickness m
w width of flange m
A area m2
V volume m3

1
Pressure, motion and power:

p sound pressure Pa
p0 atmospheric pressure Pa
u particle velocity (in x direction) m/sec
v, w the same in y and z dir. resp.
S volume flow m3
U volume velocity m 3 /sec
P power W
I intensity W/m2

Impedance and related quantities:

j imaginary unit (√-1)

Re real part of a complex quantity

Im imaginary part of a complex quantity
Mod modulus, or amplitude, of a complex quantity
Arg argument, or phase, of a complex quantity

z specific acoustic impedance (of a medium) N sec/m3

R resistance (radiation, frictional; real part of Z)

C compliance (“acoustical capacitance”) m 5 /N
L inertance (“acoustical self-inductance”) kg/m4
X reactance (imaginary part of Z)
Y acoustic admittance (of an object) m 5 /N sec
Z acoustic impedance (of an object) N sec/m5
(or Za )
Zm mechanical impedance N sec/m

Q quality factor (at resonance)

Miscellaneous symbols:

≡ equal by definition
:: proportional to
… formula continues on next line
[] literature reference abbreviation (full references at end)

BASIC FORMULAS AND MAGNITUDES

M EDIA :

ρ = ρ0 (1 - T/273 – 0.37 r H2O + 0.54 r CO2)

2
 rH2O en rCO2: fractional pressure of water and CO2 vapour respectively
(at T in °C)

ρ 0 = 1.293 kg/m3 (dry air; T = 0 °C)

ρ ≈ 1.19 kg/m3 (air, T = 20 °C; RH = 50%)

ρ ≈ 998 kg/m3 (fresh water; T = 20 °C)

η ≈ 1.8 E-6 N sec/m 2 (dry air; T = 20 °C)

η ≈ 1.002 E-4 N sec/m 2 (water; T = 20 °C)

K = γ p0 ≈ 1.42 E3 N/m 2

c = √ (K/ρ) = √( γ p0 /ρ)

NB: c is independent of barometric pressure at constant T.

cT = c0 (1 + T/546 + 0.15 rH2O – 0.30 rCO2)

rH2O en rCO2: fractional pressure of water vapour and CO2 vapour

respectively (at T in °C)

c0 = 331.5 m/sec (dry air; T = 0 °C)

c ≈ 344 m/sec (air; T = 20 °C; RH = 50%)

c ≈ 1500 m/sec (fresh water; T = 20 °C)

ω 2π f 2π
k= = =
c c λ

c ck c 2π
f= = λ= =
λ 2π f k

U=uA

z= ρc

Thickness of viscous boundary layer:

η
d=
ρω

3
• Practical examples:

d ≈ 110 µm (air; 20 °C, 20 Hz) d ≈ 5 µm (air; 20 °C, 10 kHz)

d ≈ 30 µm (water; 20 °C, 20 Hz) d ≈ 1.3 µm (water; 20 °C, 10 kHz)

d ≈ 130 µm (water; 20 °C, 1 Hz)

IMPEDANCE AND ADMITTANCE

imaginary
axis

3j 4+j3
Z
X 2j

j
Phase
real axis

1 2 3 4
R

Z=R+jX Y = 1/Z

1
acoustic inertance: X = ω La acoustic compliance: X = −
ωC a
imaginary
axis

La
R
real axis

Ca

Occasionally, the particle velocity is expressed as ρcv/p , called “var per bar”; which is
a kind of dimensionless admittance:

4
 Far field: ρcv/p ≡ 1 var/bar

Near field: ρcv/p > 1 var/bar

PROPAGATION, REFLECTION AND TRANSMISSION

medium 1 medium 2
i (incident) t (transmitted)

r (reflected)

i
α

r t

• Normally incident plane sound wave:

z2 − z1 2
Pr
Reflected: =
z2 + z1 2
Pi

Pt 4 z1 z2
Transmitted: = (also 1 – reflected)
z2 + z1 2
Pi

• For other angles of incidence α:

2
Pr z 2 cosα i − z 1 cosα t
Reflected: = 2
Pi z 2 cosα i + z 1 cosα t

Pt 4 z 1 z 2 cos 2 α i
Transmitted: = 2 (also 1 – reflected)
Pi z 2 cosα i + z 1 cosα t

P = power; z = spec. acoustic impedance;

indices: 1 = first medium; 2 = second medium; i = incident; t = transmitted; r = reflected

• Practical example: air to water, normal incidence: z1 = 415; z2 = 1.5 E6

5
 Reflected 99.89 %; transmitted 0.11 % (!)

RADIATION SOURCES

• General: Z = R + jX R: resistance (viscous and/or radiation)

X: reactance (usually inertance)

p and I are functions of distance (D) with respect to the source and of the angle
(θ) with the source axis (if any).

• Mechanical impedance (i.e. the ratio of the force and the concomitant volume
velocity):

A
F u; p

Zm ≡ F/u = ρ c A Za ≡ p/uA

MONOPOLE

(pulsating sphere; approx. also a loudspeaker in a rigid, closed cabinet)

ρ c A (kr) 2 ρ c A kr
• Radiation impedance: Z= − j
1 + (kr) 1 + (kr) 2
2

ρ c A (kr) 2 ρ c A kr
R = X=
1 + (kr) 2 1 + (kr) 2

for kr <<1 Z . ρ c A (kr) 2 − j ρ cAkr

6
 R . ρ c A (kr) 2 X . ρ cAkr

r = source radius; A= source area (4 π r2 )

• Spatial radiation pattern at a distance D from source [M&I68]:

ρf
Modulus of sound pressure: p(D) = S
2D

Thus: omnidirectional; :: frequency; inversely :: distance.

2
f
I(D) = S ρc
2
Modulus of intensity:
2cD

Thus: omnidirectional; :: frequency2 ; inversely :: distance2 .

S = total outward flow

ρ ckr 2
p = U 0 sin ωt − kD
D

r2
u = U cos ωt − kD ˇ (near − field component)
D2 0
kr 2
− U sin ωt − kD (far − field component)
D 0

U 0 = volume velocity amplitude

ρ cv 1
• Particle velocity expressed in var/bar: = 1 − j
p kD

2
Mod: Mod = 1 +
1
i.e. kD

Arg = arctg
1
Arg: kD

• Practical example:

Monopole, r=10 cm, in air of 20 °C, at a frequency of 100 Hz:

Radiation impedance: R ≈1.73 X ≈ 9.44 (for kr<<1, i.e. f<<547 Hz)

|Z| = 9.59 ϕ = 80°

7
DIPOLE

ρ c A (kr) 4 ρ c A kr (kr) 2
• Radiation impedance: Z= − j 1+
12 6 2

ρ c A (kr) 4 ρ c A kr (kr) 2
R= X= 1+
12 6 2

• Spatial radiation pattern at a distance D from the source:

k2
Sound pressure: p = Sl ρc cosθ
4π D

Thus: figure-8 shaped (cos θ); :: frequency 2 ; inversely :: distance.

2
k2
I = Sl ρc cos 2 θ
2
Intensity:
4π D

Thus: figure 8 shaped (cos2 θ); :: frequency 4 ; inversely :: distance2 . S is the total
oscillating flow; l is the dipole length (2 * amplitude)

ρ ckr 3
p = − U 1 sin ωt − kD cos θ ˇ (near − field component)
2D2
ρ ck 2 r 3
− U 1 cos ωt − kD cos θ (far − field component)
2D

r3
u rad = U cos ωt − kD cos θ ˇ (near − field component)
D3 1
kr 3
− U sin ωt − kD cos θ ˇ (interm. − field component)
D2 1
k2 r3
− U cos ωt − kD cos θ (far − field component)
2D 1

8
 r3
u tan = U cos ωt − kD sin θ ˇ (near − field component)
2D3 1
kr 3
− U sin ωt − kD sin θ ˇ (interm.field component)
2D 2 1

• Practical example:

FLAT SOUND SOURCES

— CIRCULAR, RIGID DISC (“PISTON”) IN INFINITE BAFFLE

(approximately a loudspeaker mounted in a wall)

F
• Radiation impedance: Zm = = Rm + j Xm
u

J 1 (2kr)
R m = ρ cA 1 − or approx.: R m ≈ ρcA when kr >> 1
2kr
R m ≈ ρcA (kr) 2 /2 when kr << 1

ρ cA 2kr 3
2kr 5
2kr 7
Xm = − + . . . (series)
π kr 2 3 45 1575

or approx. Xm ≈ 2 ρcA/(πkr) when kr >> 1

Xm ≈ 8 ρcAkr/(3π)when kr << 1

• Spatial radiation pattern as a function of distance (D) and angle (θ):

kρ cr 2 2J 1 kr sinθ
Modulus of sound pressure: p(D) = u
2D kr sinθ

9
 2
k 2 ρ cr 4 2J 1 kr sinθ
I(D) = u 2
Modulus of intensity:
4D2 kr sinθ

J1 = Bessel function of the first kind and of the first order, often found in spatial
distribution functions of circular optical (lenses) or acoustical (loudspeakers0
elements.

From the shape of this function, the “beam width”, or the angle at which almost
all energy is radiated (the tiny side lobes omitted), can be derived:

α = arcsin(3.83/(kr)) = arcsin(3.83 c/(2 π f r))

(for kr < 3.83)

• Finite baffle [R53]: lowest frequency flow needs baffle radius of r ≈ 50/flow

• Practical example:

Loudspeaker in wall, r=10 cm, in air of 20 °C, at f = 100 Hz:

Radiation impedance: R ≈ .215 X ≈ .155 (for kr<<1, i.e. f<<547 Hz)

|Z| = 0.265 ϕ = 36°

Beam width of this loudspeaker:

at f < 2097 Hz ≈ uniform

at f = 2.5 kHz α = 57°

at f = 10 kHz α = 12°

— FREELY SUSPENDED DISC (i.e. without baffle)

(approximately an unmounted loudspeaker)

F
• Radiation impedance: Zm = = Rm + j Xm
u

10
 approx.: R m ≈ ρcA when kr > 3
R m ≈ 0.03 ρcA (kr) 4 when kr < 2

• Xm ??? #####

• Spatial radiation pattern as a function of distance (D) and angle (θ):

Sound pressure:

k 2J 1 kr sinθ
p(D) = F cosθ
4π D kr sinθ

Intensity:
2
2
1 k 2J 1 kr sinθ
I(D) = F 2 cos 2 θ
ρc 4π D kr sinθ

Practical examples:

####

TUBE END OR HOLE

• Length corrections for flanged and unflanged tubes [N69]:

Flanged: l a ≈ l + 0.85 r

Unflanged: l a ≈ l + 0.61 r

• Radiation impedance [R&F95]

ρω 2 ρr
Z rad . 0. 16 + 0. 6 j ω in case f < c/πr
c A

Practical example:

11
Transverse flute (Böhm type): radiation impedance from tube end at the fundamental
of the lowest tone (c1 ):

diameter 19 mm, i.e. r = 9.5 E-3; f = 260 Hz

R ≈ 1.18 E-4 i.e. very low, i.e. inefficient radiator. far better at 2 octaves
higher tone, which in addition may radiate from several
holes:
f = 1046 Hz R ≈ 1.91 E-3 (R :: f2, so 16 x as high)

HELMHOLTZ RESONATOR (lumped inertance and compliance)

frictional resistance
(at the walls)

radiation
(resistance)

acoustic acoustic
(L
inertance
a)
compliance
(Ca)

Body: acoustic compliance: Ca = V/(ρc2 ) ZC = 1/(jω Ca ) ZC = -j ρc2 /(ω V )

Neck:acoustic inertance: La = ρ l a /A La = m/A 2 ZL = jω La

— Z simplified: ZL = jω ρ l a /A

l a ≈ l + 0.61 r

— Z including visc. damping: Zneck = 8 π η l a /A2 + jω ρ l a /A

12
 1
Resonance: f res =
2π L a C a

NB viscous resistance is a minor factor; radiation is usually neglectable.

Practical example:

Loudspeaker enclosure, volume 0.05 m3 , bass reflex tube r= 3 cm, l = 15 cm:

la ≈ 17 cm La ≈ 71.5 Ca ≈ 3.6 * 10-7 fres ≈ 31 Hz

TUBE AS SOUND CONDUCTOR (TRANSMISSION LINE)

La

Ca

dx

• Acoustic inertance and compliance per unit length: (dx)

La = ρ 0 /A; Ca = A/(ρ 0 c2 )

La ρc
• Characteristic impedance: Z= =
Ca A

1
• Speed of sound in tube: c=
La C a

• Frictional resistance [M&I68]:

π dρ c
R= (kd v + (γ − 1)kd h )
2 A2

• Thickness of boundary layer: dv ≈ dh ≈ 0.23/√f cm.

• Practical example:

####

13
STANDING WAVES IN TUBES

Impedance as a function of position x:

− jρ c
Z= tg(kx + ψ)
A

• Open pipe: at both ends, Z=0, so ψ = 0

p
u

Resonance at k la = n π or f = n c/2l a (n = integer ≥ 1)

l a = l + d (.821–.13 (.42+ 2 w/d) –.54) [N69]

Fundamental with end correction: f0 = c/(2 la ) (n = integer ≥ 1)

The same, including friction: f1 = f0 (1 – .33E-3/(d √ (2 π f0 /c)

• Stopped pipe: closed end: Z -> ∞; open end: Z≈0. Thus: ψ = π/2

p
u

(2n − 1) c
Resonance at k la = (2 n -1) π/2 or f =
4 la

l ac = l + 0.5 d (.821–.13 (.42+ 2 w/d) –.54)

Fundamental with end correction: f0 = c/(4 lac )

The same, including friction: f1 = f0 (1 – .33E-3/(d √ (2 π f0 /c)

• Practical example:

Open organ pipe (labial, or “flue” pipe) of normal pitch (“8 foot register”); lowest
tone of the manual, C:
Fundamental f= 65.5 Hz. Wavelength λ = 344/65.5. Length la = λ/2 = 2.63 m.
Physical length slightly smaller, i.e. about 8 ft.

14
IMPEDANCE MATCHING

HORNS

Impedance convertors from a high-impedance source (tube, loudspeaker, human

voice) to the open air.

Exponential horn: shape A = A0 exp(mx)

Zin Zout ≈ 0

ρc
Z out cos(bl + θ) + j sin(bl)
ρc A2
Z in =
A1 ρc
jZout sin(bl) + cos(bl − θ)
A2

where b = √(k2 - m2 ) and θ = arctg(m/b)

An exp. horn has a lower cutoff frequency at f = mc/4

15
 Horn formula holds, strictly, from x=0 to ∞.
In practice, the end may be truncated at 45° (dotted line; [R53])

Conical horn:

x= 0 x1 x2

Impedance approximated by taking Zout = 0:

ρ c sin(kl) sin(kθ 1 )
Z in = j
A1 sin (k(l + θ ))
1

A conical horn resonates at sin (k(l+ θ))=0, or f = n c

2x 2
(n = integer ≥ 1)

Practical example: ####

LITERATURE

K88 Kalmijn, A.J. (1988) Hydrodynamic and acoustic field detection. In: Atema,
J, Fay, RR., Popper, AN., Tavolga, WN. Sensory biology of aquatic
animals. Springer, New York [etc.]
M&I68 Morse, P.M. and Ingard, K. U. (1968) Theoretical acoustics. Princeton Univ.
Press, Princeton NJ
N69 Nederveen, C.J. (1969) Acoustical aspects of woodwind instruments. Frits
Knuf, Amsterdam.
R1894 Rayleigh, Lord (1894) The theory of sound. Reprint Dover, New York.
R53 Richardson, E.G. (1953) Technical aspects of sound. Elsevier, Amsterdam.
R&F95 Rossing, T.D. & Fletcher, N.H. (1995) Principles of vibration and sound.
Springer Verlag, New York etc.
S71 Seto, W.W. (1971) Theory and problems of acoustics. Schaum’s outline
series, MascGraw Hill, New York etc.
T61 Trendelenburg, F. (1961) Einführung in die Akustik. Springer, Berlin etc

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