Full C++

C++
Introduction
C++ Tutorial
C++ tutorial provides basic and advanced concepts of C++. Our C++ tutorial is designed
for beginners and professionals.
C++ is an object-oriented programming language. It is an extension to C programming.
Our C++ tutorial includes all topics of C++ such as first example, control statements,
objects and classes, inheritance, constructor, destructor, this, static, polymorphism,
abstraction, abstract class, interface, namespace, encapsulation, arrays, strings, exception
handling, File IO, etc.
C++ Program with Online C++ Compiler

In this tutorial, all C++ programs are given with C++ compiler so that you can easily
change the C++ program code.
File: main.cpp
1. #include <iostream>
2. using namespace std;
3. int main() {
4. cout << "Hello C++ Programming";
5. return 0;
6. }
What is C++
C++ is a general purpose, case-sensitive, free-form programming language that supports
object-oriented, procedural and generic programming.
C++ is a middle-level language, as it encapsulates both high and low level language
features.
Object-Oriented Programming (OOPs)

C++ supports the object-oriented programming, the four major pillar of object oriented
programming used in C++ are:
1. Inheritance
2. Polymorphism
3. Encapsulation
4. Abstraction
Standard Libraries
Standard C++ programming is divided into three important parts:
o The core library includes the data types, variables and literals, etc.
o The standard library includes the set of functions manipulating strings, files, etc.
o The Standard Template Library (STL) includes the set of methods manipulating a
data structure.
Usage of C++
By the help of C++ programming language, we can develop different types of secured and
robust applications:
o Window application
o Client-Server application
o Device drivers
o Embedded firmware etc

C vs C++
No. C C++
1) C follows the procedural style C++ is multi-paradigm. It supports

programming. both procedural and object oriented.
2) Data is less secured in C. In C++, you can use modifiers for class
members to make it inaccessible for
outside users.
3) C follows the top-down C++ follows the bottom-up approach.

approach.
4) C does not support function C++ supports function overloading.

overloading.
5) In C, you can't use functions in In C++, you can use functions in

structure. structure.
6) C does not support reference C++ supports reference variables.

variables.
7) In C, scanf() and printf() are C++ mainly uses stream cin and

mainly used for input/output. cout to perform input and output
operations.
8) Operator overloading is not Operator overloading is possible in C++.

possible in C.
9) C programs are divided C++ programs are divided

into procedures and modules into functions and classes.
10 C does not provide the feature of C++ supports the feature of namespace.
) namespace.
11 Exception handling is not easy in C. C++ provides exception handling using

) It has to perform using other Try and Catch block.
functions.
C++ history
History of C++ language is interesting to know. Here we are going to discuss brief history
of C++ language.
C++ programming language was developed in 1980 by Bjarne Stroustrup at bell

laboratories of AT&T (American Telephone & Telegraph), located in U.S.A.
Bjarne Stroustrup is known as the founder of C++ language.
It was develop for adding a feature of OOP (Object Oriented Programming) in C without
significantly changing the C component.
C++ programming is "relative" (called a superset) of C, it means any valid C program is

also a valid C++ program.
Let's see the programming languages that were developed before C++ language.
Language Year Developed By
Algol 196 International Group

0
BCPL 196 Martin Richard

7
B 197 Ken Thompson

0
Traditional 197 Dennis Ritchie

C 2
K&RC 197 Kernighan & Dennis Ritchie

8
C++ 198 Bjarne Stroustrup

0
C++ Features
C++ is object oriented programming language. It provides a lot of features that are given
below.
1. Simple
2. Machine Independent or Portable
3. Mid-level programming language
4. Structured programming language
5. Rich Library
6. Memory Management
7. Fast Speed
8. Pointers
9. Recursion
10. Extensible
11. Object Oriented
12. Compiler based
1) Simple
C++ is a simple language in the sense that it provides structured approach (to break the
problem into parts), rich set of library functions, data types etc.
2) Machine Independent or Portable

Unlike assembly language, c programs can be executed in many machines with little bit or
no change. But it is not platform-independent.
3) Mid-level programming language

C++ is also used to do low level programming. It is used to develop system applications
such as kernel, driver etc. It also supports the feature of high level language. That is why it
is known as mid-level language.
4) Structured programming language

C++ is a structured programming language in the sense that we can break the program into
parts using functions. So, it is easy to understand and modify.
5) Rich Library
C++ provides a lot of inbuilt functions that makes the development fast.
6) Memory Management
It supports the feature of dynamic memory allocation. In C++ language, we can free the
allocated memory at any time by calling the free() function.
7) Speed
The compilation and execution time of C++ language is fast.
8) Pointer
C++ provides the feature of pointers. We can directly interact with the memory by using the
pointers. We can use pointers for memory, structures, functions, array etc.
9) Recursion
In C++, we can call the function within the function. It provides code reusability for every
function.
10) Extensible
C++ language is extensible because it can easily adopt new features.
11) Object Oriented

C++ is object oriented programming language. OOPs makes development and maintenance
easier where as in Procedure-oriented programming language it is not easy to manage if
code grows as project size grows.
12) Compiler based

C++ is a compiler based programming language, it means without compilation no C++
program can be executed. First we need to compile our program using compiler and then
we can execute our program.
C++ Program
Before starting the abcd of C++ language, you need to learn how to write, compile and run
the first C++ program.
To write the first C++ program, open the C++ console and write the following code:
1. #include <iostream.h>
2. #include<conio.h>
3. void main() {
4. clrscr();
5. cout << "Welcome to C++ Programming.";
6. getch();
7. }
#include<iostream.h> includes the standard input output library functions. It

provides cin and cout methods for reading from input and writing to output respectively.
#include includes the console input output library functions. The getch() function is

defined in conio.h file.
void main() The main() function is the entry point of every program in C++

language. The void keyword specifies that it returns no value.
cout << "Welcome to C++ Programming." is used to print the data "Welcome to
C++ Programming." on the console.
getch() The getch() function asks for a single character. Until you press any key, it
blocks the screen.
How to compile and run the C++ program

There are 2 ways to compile and run the C++ program, by menu and by shortcut.
By menu
Now click on the compile menu then compile sub menu to compile the c++ program.
Then click on the run menu then run sub menu to run the c++ program.
By shortcut
Or, press ctrl+f9 keys compile and run the program directly.
You will see the following output on user screen.

You can view the use
C++ Program
Before starting the abcd of C++ language, you need to learn how to write, compile and run
the first C++ program.
To write the first C++ program, open the C++ console and write the following code:
1. #include <iostream.h>
2. #include<conio.h>
3. void main() {
4. clrscr();
5. cout << "Welcome to C++ Programming.";
6. getch();
7. }
#include<iostream.h> includes the standard input output library functions. It

provides cin and cout methods for reading from input and writing to output respectively.
#include includes the console input output library functions. The getch() function is

defined in conio.h file.
void main() The main() function is the entry point of every program in C++

language. The void keyword specifies that it returns no value.
cout << "Welcome to C++ Programming." is used to print the data "Welcome to

C++ Programming." on the console.
getch() The getch() function asks for a single character. Until you press any key, it
blocks the screen.
How to compile and run the C++ program
There are 2 ways to compile and run the C++ program, by menu and by shortcut.
By menu
Now click on the compile menu then compile sub menu to compile the c++ program.
Then click on the run menu then run sub menu to run the c++ program.
By shortcut
Or, press ctrl+f9 keys compile and run the program directly.
You will see the following output on user screen.

You can view the user screen any time by pressing the alt+f5 keys.
Now press Esc to return to the turbo c++ console.
r screen any time by pressing the alt+f5 keys.
Now press Esc to return to the turbo c++ console.
C++ Basic Input/Output

C++ I/O operation is using the stream concept. Stream is the sequence of bytes or flow of
data. It makes the performance fast.
If bytes flow from main memory to device like printer, display screen, or a network
connection, etc, this is called as output operation.
If bytes flow from device like printer, display screen, or a network connection, etc to main
memory, this is called as input operation.
I/O Library Header Files

Let us see the common header files used in C++ programming are:
Header File Function and Description
<iostream It is used to define the cout, cin and cerr objects, which correspond to

> standard output stream, standard input stream and standard error
stream, respectively.
<iomanip> It is used to declare services useful for performing formatted I/O, such
as setprecision and setw.
<fstream> It is used to declare services for user-controlled file processing.
Standard output stream (cout)

The cout is a predefined object of ostream class. It is connected with the standard output
device, which is usually a display screen. The cout is used in conjunction with stream
insertion operator (<<) to display the output on a console
Let's see the simple example of standard output stream (cout):
3. int main( ) {
4. char ary[] = "Welcome to C++ tutorial";
5. cout << "Value of ary is: " << ary << endl;
6. }
Output:
Value of ary is: Welcome to C++ tutorial
Standard input stream (cin)

The cin is a predefined object of istream class. It is connected with the standard input
device, which is usually a keyboard. The cin is used in conjunction with stream extraction
operator (>>) to read the input from a console.
Let's see the simple example of standard input stream (cin):
3. int main( ) {
4. int age;
5. cout << "Enter your age: ";
6. cin >> age;
7. cout << "Your age is: " << age << endl;
8. }
Output:
Enter your age: 22
Your age is: 22
Standard end line (endl)

The endl is a predefined object of ostream class. It is used to insert a new line characters
and flushes the stream.
Let's see the simple example of standard end line (endl):
3. int main( ) {
4. cout << "C++ Tutorial";
5. cout << " Javatpoint"<<endl;
6. cout << "End of line"<<endl;
7. }
Output:
C++ Tutorial Javatpoint

End of line
C++ Variable
A variable is a name of memory location. It is used to store data. Its value can be changed
and it can be reused many times.
It is a way to represent memory location through symbol so that it can be easily identified.
Let's see the syntax to declare a variable:
1. type variable_list;
The example of declaring variable is given below:
1. int x;
2. float y;
3. char z;
Here, x, y, z are variables and int, float, char are data types.
We can also provide values while declaring the variables as given below:
1. int x=5,b=10; //declaring 2 variable of integer type
2. float f=30.8;
3. char c='A';
Rules for defining variables

A variable can have alphabets, digits and underscore.
A variable name can start with alphabet and underscore only. It can't start with digit.
No white space is allowed within variable name.
A variable name must not be any reserved word or keyword e.g. char, float etc.
Valid variable names:
1. int a;
2. int _ab;
3. int a30;
Invalid variable names:
int 4; int x y; int double;
C++ Data Types

A data type specifies the type of data that a variable can store such as integer, floating,
character etc.
There are 4 types of data types in C++ language.
Types Data Types
Basic Data Type int, char, float, double, etc
Derived Data Type array, pointer, etc
Enumeration Data Type enum
User Defined Data Type structure
Basic Data Types

The basic data types are integer-based and floating-point based. C++ language supports
both signed and unsigned literals.
The memory size of basic data types may change according to 32 or 64 bit operating
system.
Let's see the basic data types. It size is given according to 32 bit OS.
Data Types Memory Size Range
char 1 byte -128 to 127
signed char 1 byte -128 to 127
unsigned char 1 byte 0 to 127
short 2 byte -32,768 to 32,767
signed short 2 byte -32,768 to 32,767
unsigned short 2 byte 0 to 32,767
int 2 byte -32,768 to 32,767
signed int 2 byte -32,768 to 32,767
unsigned int 2 byte 0 to 32,767
short int 2 byte -32,768 to 32,767
signed short int 2 byte -32,768 to 32,767
unsigned short int 2 byte 0 to 32,767
long int 4 byte
signed long int 4 byte
unsigned long int 4 byte
float 4 byte
double 8 byte
long double 10 byte

C++ Keywords
A keyword is a reserved word. You cannot use it as a variable name, constant name etc. A
list of 32 Keywords in C++ Language which are also available in C language are
given below.
auto break case char const continue default do
double else enum exter float for goto if

n
int long registe return short signed sizeof static

r
struct switch typedef union unsigne void volatile while

d
A list of 30 Keywords in C++ Language which are not available in C language are
given below.
asm dynamic_cas namespace reinterpret_cast bool

t
explicit new static_cast false catch
operato template friend private class

r
this inline public throw const_cast
delete mutable protected true try
typeid typename using virtual wchar_t

C++ Operators
An operator is simply a symbol that is used to perform operations. There can be many types
of operations like arithmetic, logical, bitwise etc.
There are following types of operators to perform different types of operations in C

language.
o Arithmetic Operators
o Relational Operators
o Logical Operators
o Bitwise Operators
o Assignment Operator
o Unary operator
o Ternary or Conditional Operator
o Misc Operator
Precedence of Operators in C++
The precedence of operator species that which operator will be evaluated first and
next. The associativity specifies the operators direction to be evaluated, it may be left to
right or right to left.
Let's understand the precedence by the example given below:
int data=5+10*10;
The "data" variable will contain 105 because * (multiplicative operator) is evaluated before
+ (additive operator).
The precedence and associativity of C++ operators is given below:
Category Operator Associativity
Postfix () [] -> . ++ - - Left to right
Unary + - ! ~ ++ - - (type)* & sizeof Right to left
Multiplicativ */% Left to right

e
Additive +- Right to left
Shift << >> Left to right
Relational < <= > >= Left to right
Equality == !=/td> Right to left
Bitwise AND & Left to right
Bitwise XOR ^ Left to right
Bitwise OR | Right to left
Logical AND && Left to right

Logical OR || Left to right
Conditional ?: Right to left
Assignment = += -= *= /= %=>>= <<= &= ^= |= Right to left
Comma , Left to right
C++
CONTROL STATEMENT
C++ if-else
In C++ programming, if statement is used to test the condition. There are various types of
if statements in C++.
o if statement
o if-else statement
o nested if statement
o if-else-if ladder
C++ IF Statement
The C++ if statement tests the condition. It is executed if condition is true.
1. if(condition){
2. //code to be executed
3. }
C++ If Example
3.
4. int main () {
5. int num = 10;
6. if (num % 2 == 0)
7. {
8. cout<<"It is even number";
9. }
10. return 0;
11. }
Output:/p>
It is even number
C++ IF-else Statement

The C++ if-else statement also tests the condition. It executes if block if condition is true
otherwise else block is executed.
1. if(condition){
2. //code if condition is true
3. }else{
4. //code if condition is false
5. }
C++ If-else Example

3. int main () {
4. int num = 11;
5. if (num % 2 == 0)
6. {
7. cout<<"It is even number";
8. }
9. else
10. {
11. cout<<"It is odd number";
12. }
13. return 0;
14. }
Output:
It is odd number
C++ If-else Example: with input from user

3. int main () {
4. int num;
5. cout<<"Enter a Number: ";
6. cin>>num;
7. if (num % 2 == 0)
8. {
9. cout<<"It is even number"<<endl;
10. }
11. else
12. {
13. cout<<"It is odd number"<<endl;
14. }
15. return 0;
16. }
Output:
Enter a number:11
It is odd number
Output:
Enter a number:12
It is even number
C++ IF-else-if ladder Statement

The C++ if-else-if ladder statement executes one condition from multiple statements.
1. if(condition1){
2. //code to be executed if condition1 is true
3. }else if(condition2){
5. }
6. else if(condition3){
8. }
9. ...
10. else{
11. //code to be executed if all the conditions are false
12. }
C++ If else-if Example

3. int main () {
4. int num;
5. cout<<"Enter a number to check grade:";
6. cin>>num;
7. if (num <0 || num >100)
8. {
9. cout<<"wrong number";
10. }
11. else if(num >= 0 && num < 50){
12. cout<<"Fail";
13. }
14. else if (num >= 50 && num < 60)
15. {
16. cout<<"D Grade";
17. }
18. else if (num >= 60 && num < 70)
19. {
20. cout<<"C Grade";
21. }
22. else if (num >= 70 && num < 80)
23. {
24. cout<<"B Grade";
25. }
26. else if (num >= 80 && num < 90)
27. {
28. cout<<"A Grade";
29. }
30. else if (num >= 90 && num <= 100)
31. {
32. cout<<"A+ Grade";
33. }
34. }
Output:
Enter a number to check grade:66

C Grade
Output:
Enter a number to check grade:-2

wrong number
C++ switch
The C++ switch statement executes one statement from multiple conditions. It is like if-
else-if ladder statement in C++.
1. switch(expression){
2. case value1:
3. //code to be executed;
4. break;
5. case value2:
6. //code to be executed;
7. break;
8. ......
9.
10. default:
11. //code to be executed if all cases are not matched;
12. break;
13. }
C++ Switch Example

3. int main () {
4. int num;
5. cout<<"Enter a number to check grade:";
6. cin>>num;
7. switch (num)
8. {
9. case 10: cout<<"It is 10"; break;
12. default: cout<<"Not 10, 20 or 30"; break;
13. }
14. }
Output:
Enter a number:
10
It is 10
Output:
Enter a number:
55
Not 10, 20 or 30
C++ For Loop

The C++ for loop is used to iterate a part of the program several times. If the number of
iteration is fixed, it is recommended to use for loop than while or do-while loops.
The C++ for loop is same as C/C#. We can initialize variable, check condition and
increment/decrement value.
1. for(initialization; condition; incr/decr){
3. }
C++ For Loop Example

3. int main() {
4. for(int i=1;i<=10;i++){
5. cout<<i <<"\n";
6. }
7. }
Output:
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
C++ Nested For Loop

In C++, we can use for loop inside another for loop, it is known as nested for loop. The
inner loop is executed fully when outer loop is executed one time. So if outer loop and inner
loop are executed 4 times, inner loop will be executed 4 times for each outer loop i.e. total
16 times.
C++ Nested For Loop Example

Let's see a simple example of nested for loop in C++.
3.
4. int main () {
5. for(int i=1;i<=3;i++){
6. for(int j=1;j<=3;j++){
7. cout<<i<<" "<<j<<"\n";
8. }
9. }
10. }
Output:
1 1
1 2
1 3
2 1
2 2
2 3
3 1
3 2
3 3
C++ Infinite For Loop

If we use double semicolon in for loop, it will be executed infinite times. Let's see a simple
example of infinite for loop in C++.
3.
4. int main () {
5. for (; ;)
6. {
7. cout<<"Infinitive For Loop";
8. }
9. }
Output:
Infinitive For Loop

Infinitive For Loop
Infinitive For Loop
Infinitive For Loop
Infinitive For Loop
ctrl+c
C++ While loop

In C++, while loop is used to iterate a part of the program several times. If the number of
iteration is not fixed, it is recommended to use while loop than for loop.
1. while(condition){
3. }
Flowchart:
C++ While Loop Example

Let's see a simple example of while loop to print table of 1.
3. int main() {
4. int i=1;
5. while(i<=10)
6. {
7. cout<<i <<"\n";
8. i++;
9. }
10. }
Output:
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
C++ Nested While Loop Example

In C++, we can use while loop inside another while loop, it is known as nested while loop.
The nested while loop is executed fully when outer loop is executed once.
Let's see a simple example of nested while loop in C++ programming language.
3. int main () {
4. int i=1;
5. while(i<=3)
6. {
7. int j = 1;
8. while (j <= 3)
9. {
10. cout<<i<<" "<<j<<"\n";
11. j++;
12. }
13. i++;
14. }
15. }
Output:
1 1
1 2
1 3
2 1
2 2
2 3
3 1
3 2
3 3
C++ Infinitive While Loop Example:

We can also create infinite while loop by passing true as the test condition.
3. int main () {
4. while(true)
5. {
6. cout<<"Infinitive While Loop";
7. }
8. }
Output:
Infinitive While Loop
ctrl+c
C++ Do-While Loop

The C++ do-while loop is used to iterate a part of the program several times. If the number
of iteration is not fixed and you must have to execute the loop at least once, it is
recommended to use do-while loop.
The C++ do-while loop is executed at least once because condition is checked after loop
body.
1. do{
3. }while(condition);
Flowchart:
C++ do-while Loop Example

Let's see a simple example of C++ do-while loop to print the table of 1.
3. int main() {
4. int i = 1;
5. do{
6. cout<<i<<"\n";
7. i++;
8. } while (i <= 10) ;
9. }
Output:
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
C++ Nested do-while Loop

In C++, if you use do-while loop inside another do-while loop, it is known as nested do-
while loop. The nested do-while loop is executed fully for each outer do-while loop.
Let's see a simple example of nested do-while loop in C++.
3. int main() {
4. int i = 1;
5. do{
6. int j = 1;
7. do{
8. cout<<i<<"\n";
9. j++;
10. } while (j <= 3) ;
11. i++;
12. } while (i <= 3) ;
13. }
Output:
1 1
1 2
1 3
2 1
2 2
2 3
3 1
3 2
3 3
C++ Infinitive do-while Loop

In C++, if you pass true in the do-while loop, it will be infinitive do-while loop.
1. do{
3. }while(true);
C++ Infinitive do-while Loop Example

3. int main() {
4. do{
5. cout<<"Infinitive do-while Loop";
6. } while(true);
7. }
Output:
Infinitive do-while Loop

ctrl+c
C++ Break Statement

The C++ break is used to break loop or switch statement. It breaks the current flow of the
program at the given condition. In case of inner loop, it breaks only inner loop.
1. jump-statement;
2. break;
Flowchart:
C++ Break Statement Example

Let's see a simple example of C++ break statement which is used inside the loop.
3. int main() {
4. for (int i = 1; i <= 10; i++)
5. {
6. if (i == 5)
7. {
8. break;
9. }
10. cout<<i<<"\n";
11. }
12. }
Output:
1
2
3
4
C++ Break Statement with Inner Loop

The C++ break statement breaks inner loop only if you use break statement inside the inner
loop.
Let's see the example code:
3. int main()
4. {
5. for(int i=1;i<=3;i++){
6. for(int j=1;j<=3;j++){
7. if(i==2&&j==2){
8. break;
9. }
10. cout<<i<<" "<<j<<"\n";
11. }
12. }
13. }
Output:
1 1
1 2
1 3
2 1
3 1
3 2
3 3
C++ Continue Statement

The C++ continue statement is used to continue loop. It continues the current flow of the
program and skips the remaining code at specified condition. In case of inner loop, it
continues only inner loop.
1. jump-statement;
2. continue;
C++ Continue Statement Example

3. int main()
4. {
5. for(int i=1;i<=10;i++){
6. if(i==5){
7. continue;
8. }
9. cout<<i<<"\n";
10. }
11. }
Output:
1
2
3
4
6
7
8
9
10
C++ Continue Statement with Inner Loop

C++ Continue Statement continues inner loop only if you use continue statement inside the
inner loop.
3. int main()
4. {
5. for(int i=1;i<=3;i++){
6. for(int j=1;j<=3;j++){
7. if(i==2&&j==2){
8. continue;
9. }
10. cout<<i<<" "<<j<<"\n";
11. }
12. }
13. }
Output:
1 1
1 2
1 3
2 1
2 3
3 1
3 2
3 3
C++ Goto Statement

The C++ goto statement is also known as jump statement. It is used to transfer control to
the other part of the program. It unconditionally jumps to the specified label.
It can be used to transfer control from deeply nested loop or switch case label.
C++ Goto Statement Example

Let's see the simple example of goto statement in C++.
3. int main()
4. {
5. ineligible:
6. cout<<"You are not eligible to vote!\n";
7. cout<<"Enter your age:\n";
8. int age;
9. cin>>age;
10. if (age < 18){
11. goto ineligible;
12. }
13. else
14. {
15. cout<<"You are eligible to vote!";
16. }
17. }
Output:
You are not eligible to vote!

Enter your age:
16
Enter your age:
7
Enter your age:
22
You are eligible to vote!
C++ Comments
The C++ comments are statements that are not executed by the compiler. The comments
in C++ programming can be used to provide explanation of the code, variable, method or
class. By the help of comments, you can hide the program code also.
There are two types of comments in C++.
o Single Line comment
o Multi Line comment
C++ Single Line Comment

C++ Multi Line Comment
The C++ multi line comment is used to comment multiple lines of code. It is surrounded by
slash and asterisk (/∗ ..... ∗/). Let's see an example of multi line comment in C++.
1. #include <ostream>
3. int main()
4. {
5. /* declare and
6. print variable in C++. */
7. int x = 35;
8. cout<<x<<"\n"; //this is single line coment
9. }
Output:
35
C++
FUNCTIONS
C++ Functions
The function in C++ language is also known as procedure or subroutine in other
programming languages.
To perform any task, we can create function. A function can be called many times. It
provides modularity and code reusability.
Advantage of functions in C
There are many advantages of functions.
1) Code Reusability
By creating functions in C++, you can call it many times. So we don't need to write the
same code again and again.
2) Code optimization
It makes the code optimized, we don't need to write much code.
Suppose, you have to check 3 numbers (531, 883 and 781) whether it is prime number
or not. Without using function, you need to write the prime number logic 3 times. So,
there is repetition of code.
But if you use functions, you need to write the logic only once and you can reuse it
several times.
Types of Functions
There are two types of functions in C programming:
1. Library Functions: are the functions which are declared in the C++ header files
such as ceil(x), cos(x), exp(x), etc.
2. User-defined functions: are the functions which are created by the C++

programmer, so that he/she can use it many times. It reduces complexity of a big
program and optimizes the code.
Declaration of a function
The syntax of creating function in C++ language is given below:
1. return_type function_name(data_type parameter...)
2. {
4. }
C++ Function Example
Let's see the simple example of C++ function.
3. void func() {
4. static int i=0; //static variable
5. int j=0; //local variable
6. i++;
7. j++;
8. cout<<"i=" << i<<" and j=" <<j<<endl;
9. }
10. int main()
11. {
12. func();
13. func();
14. func();
15. }
Output:
i= 1 and j= 1
i= 2 and j= 1
i= 3 and j= 1
Call by value and call by reference in C++

There are two ways to pass value or data to function in C language: call by value and
call by reference. Original value is not modified in call by value but it is modified in call
by reference.
Let's understand call by value and call by reference in C++ language one by one.
Call by value in C++

In call by value, original value is not modified.
In call by value, value being passed to the function is locally stored by the function
parameter in stack memory location. If you change the value of function parameter, it
is changed for the current function only. It will not change the value of variable inside
the caller method such as main().
Let's try to understand the concept of call by value in C++ language by the example
given below:
3. void change(int data);
4. int main()
5. {
6. int data = 3;
7. change(data);
8. cout << "Value of the data is: " << data<< endl;
9. return 0;
10. }
11. void change(int data)
12. {
13. data = 5;
14. }
Output:
Value of the data is: 3
Call by reference in C++

In call by reference, original value is modified because we pass reference (address).
Here, address of the value is passed in the function, so actual and formal arguments
share the same address space. Hence, value changed inside the function, is reflected
inside as well as outside the function.
Note: To understand the call by reference, you must have the basic knowledge of
pointers.
Let's try to understand the concept of call by reference in C++ language by the
example given below:
1. #include<iostream>
3. void swap(int *x, int *y)
4. {
5. int swap;
6. swap=*x;
7. *x=*y;
8. *y=swap;
9. }
10. int main()
11. {
12. int x=500, y=100;
13. swap(&x, &y); // passing value to function
14. cout<<"Value of x is: "<<x<<endl;
15. cout<<"Value of y is: "<<y<<endl;
16. return 0;
17. }
Output:
Value of x is: 100

Value of y is: 500
Difference between call by value and call by

reference in C++
No Call by value Call by reference

.
1 A copy of value is passed to the An address of value is passed to the
function function
2 Changes made inside the function is not Changes made inside the function is
reflected on other functions reflected outside the function also
3 Actual and formal arguments will be Actual and formal arguments will be
created in different memory location created in same memory location
C++ Recursion
When function is called within the same function, it is known as recursion in C++. The
function which calls the same function, is known as recursive function.
A function that calls itself, and doesn't perform any task after function call, is known as
tail recursion. In tail recursion, we generally call the same function with return
statement.
Let's see a simple example of recursion.
1. recursionfunction(){
2. recursionfunction(); //calling self function
3. }
C++ Recursion Example

Let's see an example to print factorial number using recursion in C++ language.
1. #include<iostream>
3. int main()
4. {
5. int factorial(int);
6. int fact,value;
7. cout<<"Enter any number: ";
8. cin>>value;
9. fact=factorial(value);
10. cout<<"Factorial of a number is: "<<fact<<endl;
11. return 0;
12. }
13. int factorial(int n)
14. {
15. if(n<0)
16. return(-1); /*Wrong value*/
17. if(n==0)
18. return(1); /*Terminating condition*/
19. else
20. {
21. return(n*factorial(n-1));
22. }
23. }
Output:
Enter any number: 5

Factorial of a number is: 120
C++ Storage Classes

Storage class is used to define the lifetime and visibility of a variable and/or function
within a C++ program.
Lifetime refers to the period during which the variable remains active and visibility
refers to the module of a program in which the variable is accessible.
There are five types of storage classes, which can be used in a C++ program
1. Automatic
2. Register
3. Static
4. External
5. Mutable
Storage Class Keyword Lifetime Visibility Initial Value
Automatic auto Function Block Local Garbage
Register register Function Block Local Garbage
Mutable mutable Class Local Garbage
External extern Whole Program Global Zero
Static static Whole Program Local Zero
Automatic Storage Class

It is the default storage class for all local variables. The auto keyword is applied to all
local variables automatically.
1. {
2. auto int y;
3. float y = 3.45;
4. }
The above example defines two variables with a same storage class, auto can only be
used within functions.
Register Storage Class

The register variable allocates memory in register than RAM. Its size is same of register
size. It has a faster access than other variables.
It is recommended to use register variable only for quick access such as in counter.
Note: We can't get the address of register variable.
1. register int counter=0;
Static Storage Class

The static variable is initialized only once and exists till the end of a program. It retains
its value between multiple functions call.
The static variable has the default value 0 which is provided by compiler.
3. void func() {
4. static int i=0; //static variable
5. int j=0; //local variable
6. i++;
7. j++;
8. cout<<"i=" << i<<" and j=" <<j<<endl;
9. }
10. int main()
11. {
12. func();
13. func();
14. func();
15. }
Output:
i= 1 and j= 1
i= 2 and j= 1
i= 3 and j= 1
External Storage Class

The extern variable is visible to all the programs. It is used if two or more files are
sharing same variable or function.
1. extern int counter=0;
C++
ARRAYS
C++ Arrays
Like other programming languages, array in C++ is a group of similar types of elements
that have contiguous memory location.
In C++ std::array is a container that encapsulates fixed size arrays. In C++, array index
starts from 0. We can store only fixed set of elements in C++ array.
Advantages of C++ Array
o Code Optimization (less code)
o Random Access
o Easy to traverse data
o Easy to manipulate data
o Easy to sort data etc.
Disadvantages of C++ Array

o Fixed size
C++ Array Types

There are 2 types of arrays in C++ programming:
1. Single Dimensional Array
2.
3. Multidimensional Array
C++ Single Dimensional Array

Let's see a simple example of C++ array, where we are going to create, initialize and
traverse array.
3. int main()
4. {
5. int arr[5]={10, 0, 20, 0, 30}; //creating and initializing array
6. //traversing array
7. for (int i = 0; i < 5; i++)
8. {
9. cout<<arr[i]<<"\n";
10. }
11. }
Output:/p>
10
0
20
0
30
C++ Array Example: Traversal using foreach loop

We can also traverse the array elements using foreach loop. It returns array element one by
one.
3. int main()
4. {
5. int arr[5]={10, 0, 20, 0, 30}; //creating and initializing array
6. //traversing array
7. for (int i: arr)
8. {
9. cout<<i<<"\n";
10. }
C++ Passing Array to Function

In C++, to reuse the array logic, we can create function. To pass array to function in C++,
we need to provide only array name.
1. functionname(arrayname); //passing array to function
C++ Passing Array to Function Example: print array
elements
Let's see an example of C++ function which prints the array elements.
3. void printArray(int arr[5]);
4. int main()
5. {
6. int arr1[5] = { 10, 20, 30, 40, 50 };
7. int arr2[5] = { 5, 15, 25, 35, 45 };
8. printArray(arr1); //passing array to function
9. printArray(arr2);
10. }
11. void printArray(int arr[5])
12. {
13. cout << "Printing array elements:"<< endl;
14. for (int i = 0; i < 5; i++)
15. {
16. cout<<arr[i]<<"\n";
17. }
18. }
Output:
Printing array elements:

10
20
30
40
50
Printing array elements:
5
15
25
35
45
C++ Passing Array to Function Example: Print

minimum number
Let's see an example of C++ array which prints minimum number in an array using
function.
3. void printMin(int arr[5]);
4. int main()
5. {
6. int arr1[5] = { 30, 10, 20, 40, 50 };
7. int arr2[5] = { 5, 15, 25, 35, 45 };
8. printMin(arr1);//passing array to function
9. printMin(arr2);
10. }
11. void printMin(int arr[5])
12. {
13. int min = arr[0];
14. for (int i = 0; i > 5; i++)
15. {
16. if (min > arr[i])
17. {
18. min = arr[i];
19. }
20. }
21. cout<< "Minimum element is: "<< min <<"\n";
22. }
Output:
Minimum element is: 10

Minimum element is: 5
C++ Passing Array to Function Example: Print
maximum number
Let's see an example of C++ array which prints maximum number in an array using
function.
3. void printMax(int arr[5]);
4. int main()
5. {
6. int arr1[5] = { 25, 10, 54, 15, 40 };
7. int arr2[5] = { 12, 23, 44, 67, 54 };
8. printMax(arr1); //Passing array to function
9. printMax(arr2);
10. }
11. void printMax(int arr[5])
12. {
13. int max = arr[0];
14. for (int i = 0; i < 5; i++)
15. {
16. if (max < arr[i])
17. {
18. max = arr[i];
19. }
20. }
21. cout<< "Maximum element is: "<< max <<"\n";
22. }
Output:
Maximum element is: 54

Maximum element is: 67
C++ Multidimensional Arrays

The multidimensional array is also known as rectangular arrays in C++. It can be two
dimensional or three dimensional. The data is stored in tabular form (row ∗ column) which is
also known as matrix.
C++ Multidimensional Array Example
Let's see a simple example of multidimensional array in C++ which declares, initializes and
traverse two dimensional arrays.
3. int main()
4. {
5. int test[3][3]; //declaration of 2D array
6. test[0][0]=5; //initialization
7. test[0][1]=10;
8. test[1][1]=15;
9. test[1][2]=20;
10. test[2][0]=30;
11. test[2][2]=10;
12. //traversal
13. for(int i = 0; i < 3; ++i)
14. {
15. for(int j = 0; j < 3; ++j)
16. {
17. cout<< test[i][j]<<" ";
18. }
19. cout<<"\n"; //new line at each row
20. }
21. return 0;
22. }
Output:
5 10 0
0 15 20
30 0 10
C++ Multidimensional Array Example: Declaration and

initialization at same time
Let's see a simple example of multidimensional array which initializes array at the time of
declaration.
3. int main()
4. {
5. int test[3][3] =
6. {
7. {2, 5, 5},
8. {4, 0, 3},
9. {9, 1, 8} }; //declaration and initialization
10. //traversal
11. for(int i = 0; i < 3; ++i)
12. {
13. for(int j = 0; j < 3; ++j)
14. {
15. cout<< test[i][j]<<" ";
16. }
17. cout<<"\n"; //new line at each row
18. }
19. return 0;
20. }
Output:"
2 5 5
4 0 3
9 1 8
C++
POINTERS
C++ Pointers
The pointer in C++ language is a variable, it is also known as locator or indicator
that points to an address of a value.
Advantage of pointer
1) Pointer reduces the code and improves the performance, it is used to retrieving
strings, trees etc. and used with arrays, structures and functions.
2) We can return multiple values from function using pointer.
3) It makes you able to access any memory location in the computer's memory.
Usage of pointer
There are many usage of pointers in C++ language.
1) Dynamic memory allocation
In c language, we can dynamically allocate memory using malloc() and calloc()

functions where pointer is used.
2) Arrays, Functions and Structures
Pointers in c language are widely used in arrays, functions and structures. It

reduces the code and improves the performance.
Symbols used in pointer

Symbol Name Description
& (ampersand Address operator Determine the address of a

sign) variable.
∗ (asterisk sign) Indirection Access the value of an address.

operator
Declaring a pointer
The pointer in C++ language can be declared using ∗ (asterisk symbol).
1. int ∗ a; //pointer to int
2. char ∗ c; //pointer to char
Pointer Example
Let's see the simple example of using pointers printing the address and value.
3. int main()
4. {
5. int number=30;
6. int ∗ p;
7. p=&number;//stores the address of number variable
8. cout<<"Address of number variable is:"<<&number<<endl;
9. cout<<"Address of p variable is:"<<p<<endl;
10. cout<<"Value of p variable is:"<<*p<<endl;
11. return 0;
12. }
Output
Address of number variable is:0x7ffccc8724c4
Address of p variable is:0x7ffccc8724c4
Value of p variable is:30
Pointer Program to swap 2 numbers without using

3rd variable
3. int main()
4. {
5. int a=20,b=10,∗p1=&a,∗p2=&b;
6. cout<<"Before swap: ∗p1="<<∗p1<<" ∗p2="<<∗p2<<endl;
7. ∗p1=∗p1+∗p2;
8. ∗p2=∗p1-∗p2;
9. ∗p1=∗p1-∗p2;
10. cout<<"After swap: ∗p1="<<∗p1<<" ∗p2="<<∗p2<<endl;
11. return 0;
12. }
Output
Before swap: ∗p1=20 ∗p2=10

After swap: ∗p1=10 ∗p2=20
C++
OOPS CONCEPTS
C++ OOPs Concepts
The major purpose of C++ programming is to introduce the concept of object
orientation to the C programming language.
Object Oriented Programming is a paradigm that provides many concepts such

as inheritance, data binding, polymorphism etc.
The programming paradigm where everything is represented as an object is known as

truly object-oriented programming language. Smalltalk is considered as the first truly
object-oriented programming language.
OOPs (Object Oriented Programming System)

Object means a real word entity such as pen, chair, table etc. Object-Oriented
Programming is a methodology or paradigm to design a program using classes and
objects. It simplifies the software development and maintenance by providing some
concepts:
o Object
o Class
o Inheritance
o Polymorphism
o Abstraction
o Encapsulation
Object
Any entity that has state and behavior is known as an object. For example: chair, pen,
table, keyboard, bike etc. It can be physical and logical.
Class
Collection of objects is called class. It is a logical entity.
Inheritance
When one object acquires all the properties and behaviours of parent
object i.e. known as inheritance. It provides code reusability. It is used to achieve
runtime polymorphism.
Polymorphism
When one task is performed by different ways i.e. known as polymorphism. For
example: to convince the customer differently, to draw something e.g. shape or
rectangle etc.
In C++, we use Function overloading and Function overriding to achieve polymorphism.
Abstraction
Hiding internal details and showing functionality is known as abstraction. For
example: phone call, we don't know the internal processing.
In C++, we use abstract class and interface to achieve abstraction.
Encapsulation
Binding (or wrapping) code and data together into a single unit is known as
encapsulation. For example: capsule, it is wrapped with different medicines.
Advantage of OOPs over Procedure-oriented
programming language
1. OOPs makes development and maintenance easier where as in Procedure-
oriented programming language it is not easy to manage if code grows as project
size grows.
2. OOPs provide data hiding whereas in Procedure-oriented programming language

a global data can be accessed from anywhere.
3. OOPs provide ability to simulate real-world event much more effectively. We can
provide the solution of real word problem if we are using the Object-Oriented
Programming language.
C++ Object and Class

Since C++ is an object-oriented language, program is designed using objects and classes in C+
+.
C++ Object
In C++, Object is a real world entity, for example, chair, car, pen, mobile, laptop etc.
In other words, object is an entity that has state and behavior. Here, state means data and
behavior means functionality.
Object is a runtime entity, it is created at runtime.
Object is an instance of a class. All the members of the class can be accessed through object.
Let's see an example to create object of student class using s1 as the reference variable.
1. Student s1; //creating an object of Student
In this example, Student is the type and s1 is the reference variable that refers to the instance of
Student class.
C++ Class
In C++, object is a group of similar objects. It is a template from which objects are created. It
can have fields, methods, constructors etc.
Let's see an example of C++ class that has three fields only.
1. class Student
2. {
3. public:
4. int id; //field or data member
5. float salary; //field or data member
6. String name;//field or data member
7. }
C++ Object and Class Example

Let's see an example of class that has two fields: id and name. It creates instance of the class,
initializes the object and prints the object value.
3. class Student {
4. public:
5. int id;//data member (also instance variable)
6. string name;//data member(also instance variable)
7. };
8. int main() {
10. s1.id = 201;
11. s1.name = "Sonoo Jaiswal";
12. cout<<s1.id<<endl;
13. cout<<s1.name<<endl;
14. return 0;
15. }
Output:
201
Sonoo Jaiswal
C++ Class Example: Initialize and Display data through
method
Let's see another example of C++ class where we are initializing and displaying object through
method.
3. class Student {
4. public:
7. void insert(int i, string n)
8. {
9. id = i;
10. name = n;
11. }
12. void display()
13. {
14. cout<<id<<" "<<name<<endl;
15. }
16. };
17. int main(void) {
20. s1.insert(201, "Sonoo");
21. s2.insert(202, "Nakul");
22. s1.display();
23. s2.display();
24. return 0;
25. }
Output:
201 Sonoo
202 Nakul
C++ Class Example: Store and Display Employee
Information
Let's see another example of C++ class where we are storing and displaying employee
information using method.
3. class Employee {
4. public:
7. float salary;
8. void insert(int i, string n, float s)
9. {
10. id = i;
11. name = n;
12. salary = s;
13. }
14. void display()
15. {
16. cout<<id<<" "<<name<<" "<<salary<<endl;
17. }
18. };
20. Employee e1; //creating an object of Employee
22. e1.insert(201, "Sonoo",990000);
23. e2.insert(202, "Nakul", 29000);
24. e1.display();
25. e2.display();
26. return 0;
27. }
Output:
201 Sonoo 990000

202 Nakul 29000
C++ Constructor
In C++, constructor is a special method which is invoked automatically at the time of object
creation. It is used to initialize the data members of new object generally. The constructor in C+
+ has the same name as class or structure.
There can be two types of constructors in C++.
o Default constructor
o Parameterized constructor
C++ Default Constructor

A constructor which has no argument is known as default constructor. It is invoked at the time of
creating object.
Let's see the simple example of C++ default Constructor.
3. class Employee
4. {
5. public:
6. Employee()
7. {
8. cout<<"Default Constructor Invoked"<<endl;
9. }
10. };
11. int main(void)
12. {
14. Employee e2;
15. return 0;
16. }
Output:
Default Constructor Invoked

Default Constructor Invoked
C++ Parameterized Constructor
A constructor which has parameters is called parameterized constructor. It is used to provide
different values to distinct objects.
Let's see the simple example of C++ Parameterized Constructor.
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
class Employee {
public:
int id;//data member (also instance variable)
string name;//data member(also instance variable)
float salary;
Employee(int i, string n, float s)
{
id = i;
name = n;
salary = s;
}
void display()
{
cout<<id<<" "<<name<<" "<<salary<<endl;
}
};
int main(void) {
Employee e1 =Employee(101, "Sonoo", 890000); //creating an object of
Employee
Employee e2=Employee(102, "Nakul", 59000);
e1.display();
e2.display();
return 0;
}
Output:
101 Sonoo 890000

102 Nakul 59000
C++ Destructor
A destructor works opposite to constructor; it destructs the objects of classes. It can be defined
only once in a class. Like constructors, it is invoked automatically.
A destructor is defined like constructor. It must have same name as class. But it is prefixed with
a tilde sign (~).
Note: C++ destructor cannot have parameters. Moreover, modifiers can't be applied on
destructors.
C++ Constructor and Destructor Example.

#include <iostream>
class Employee
{
public:
Employee()
{
cout<<"Constructor Invoked"<<endl;
}
~Employee()
{
cout<<"Destructor Invoked"<<endl;
}
};
int main(void)
{
Employee e1; //creating an object of Employee
Employee e2; //creating an object of Employee
return 0;
}
Output:
Constructor Invoked
Constructor Invoked
Destructor Invoked
Destructor Invoked
C++ this Pointer
In C++ programming, this is a keyword that refers to the current instance of the class. There
can be 3 main usage of this keyword in C++.
o It can be used to pass current object as a parameter to another method.
o It can be used to refer current class instance variable.
o It can be used to declare indexers.
C++ this Pointer Example

Let's see the example of this keyword in C++ that refers to the fields of current class.
#include <iostream>
class Employee {
public:
int id; //data member (also instance variable)
string name; //data member(also instance variable)
float salary;
Employee(int id, string name, float salary)
{
this->id = id;
this->name = name;
this->salary = salary;
}
void display()
{
cout<<id<<" "<<name<<" "<<salary<<endl;
}
};
int main(void) {
Employee e1 =Employee(101, "Sonoo", 890000); //creating an object of Employee
Employee e2=Employee(102, "Nakul", 59000); //creating an object of Employee
e1.display();
e2.display();
return 0;
}
Output: 101 Sonoo 890000
102 Nakul 59000
C++ static
In C++, static is a keyword or modifier that belongs to the type not instance. So instance is not
required to access the static members. In C++, static can be field, method, constructor, class,
properties, operator and event.
Advantage of C++ static keyword

Memory efficient: Now we don't need to create instance for accessing the static members, so it
saves memory. Moreover, it belongs to the type, so it will not get memory each time when
instance is created.
C++ Static Field

A field which is declared as static is called static field. Unlike instance field which gets memory
each time whenever you create object, there is only one copy of static field created in the
memory. It is shared to all the objects.
It is used to refer the common property of all objects such as rateOfInterest in case of Account,
companyName in case of Employee etc.
C++ static field example

Let's see the simple example of static field in C++.
3. class Account {
4. public:
5. int accno; //data member (also instance variable)
6. string name; //data member(also instance variable)
7. static float rateOfInterest;
8. Account(int accno, string name)
9. {
10. this->accno = accno;
11. this->name = name;
12. }
13. void display()
14. {
15. cout<<accno<< "<<name<< " "<<rateOfInterest<<endl;
16. }
17. };
18. float Account::rateOfInterest=6.5;
20. Account a1 =Account(201, "Sanjay"); //creating an object of Employee
21. Account a2=Account(202, "Nakul"); //creating an object of Employee
22. a1.display();
23. a2.display();
24. return 0;
25. }
Output:
201 Sanjay 6.5

202 Nakul 6.5
C++ Structs
In C++, classes and structs are blueprints that are used to create instance of a class. Structs are
used for lightweight objects such as Rectangle, color, Point etc.
Unlike class, structs in C++ are value type than reference type. It is useful if you have data that
is not intended to be modified after creation of struct.
C++ Struct Example

Let's see a simple example of struct Rectangle which has two data members width and height.
3. struct Rectangle
4. {
5. int width, height;
6.
7. };
8. int main(void) {
9. struct Rectangle rec;
10. rec.width=8;
11. rec.height=5;
12. cout<<"Area of Rectangle is: "<<(rec.width * rec.height)<<endl;
13. return 0;
14. }
Output:
Area of Rectangle is: 40

C++ Struct Example: Using Constructor and Method
Let's see another example of struct where we are using constructor to initialize data and method
to calculate area of rectangle.
3. struct Rectangle
4. {
5. int width, height;
6. Rectangle(int w, int h)
7. {
8. width = w;
9. height = h;
10. }
11. void areaOfRectangle() {
12. cout<<"Area of Rectangle is: "<<(width*height); }
13. };
15. struct Rectangle rec=Rectangle(4,6);
16. rec.areaOfRectangle();
17. return 0;
18. }
Output:
Area of Rectangle is: 24
C++ Enumeration
Enum in C++ is a data type that contains fixed set of constants.
It can be used for days of the week (SUNDAY, MONDAY, TUESDAY, WEDNESDAY, THURSDAY,
FRIDAY and SATURDAY) , directions (NORTH, SOUTH, EAST and WEST) etc. The C++ enum
constants are static and final implicitly.
C++ Enums can be thought of as classes that have fixed set of constants.
Points to remember for C++ Enum
o enum improves type safety
o enum can be easily used in switch
o enum can be traversed
o enum can have fields, constructors and methods
o enum may implement many interfaces but cannot extend any class because it internally
extends Enum class
C++ Enumeration Example

Let's see the simple example of enum data type used in C++ program.
3. enum week { Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday, Saturday, Sunday };
4. int main()
5. {
6. week day;
7. day = Friday;
8. cout << "Day: " << day+1<<endl;
9. return 0;
10. }
Output:
Day: 5
C++ friend function

If a function is defined as a friend function in C++ then the protected and private data of a class
can be accessed using the function.
By using the keyword friend compiler knows the given function is a friend function.
For accessing the data, the declaration of a friend function should be done inside the body of a
class starting with the keyword friend.
Declaration of friend function in C++
1. class class_name
2. {
3. friend data_type function_name(argument/s);
4. };
C++ friend function Example

Let's see the simple example of C++ friend function used to print the length of a box.
3. class Box
4. {
5. private:
6. int length;
7. public:
8. Box(): length(0) { }
9. friend int printLength(Box); //friend function
10. };
11. int printLength(Box b)
12. {
13. b.length += 10;
14. return b.length;
15. }
16. int main()
17. {
18. Box b;
19. cout<<"Length of box: "<< printLength(b)<<endl;
20. return 0;
21. }
Output:
Length of box: 10
C++
INHERTANCE
C++ Inheritance
In C++, inheritance is a process in which one object acquires all the properties and
behaviors of its parent object automatically. In such way, you can reuse, extend or modify
the attributes and behaviors which are defined in other class.
In C++, the class which inherits the members of another class is called derived class and
the class whose members are inherited is called base class. The derived class is the
specialized class for the base class.
Advantage of C++ Inheritance

Code reusability: Now you can reuse the members of your parent class. So, there is no
need to define the member again. So less code is required in the class.
C++ Single Level Inheritance Example: Inheriting Fields

When one class inherits another class, it is known as single level inheritance. Let's see the
example of single level inheritance which inherits the fields only.
3. class Account {
4. public:
5. float salary = 60000;
6. };
7. class Programmer: public Account {
8. public:
9. float bonus = 5000;
10. };
12. Programmer p1;
13. cout<<"Salary: "<<p1.salary<<endl;
14. cout<<"Bonus: "<<p1.bonus<<endl;
15. return 0;
16. }
Output:
Salary: 60000
Bonus: 5000
In the above example, Employee is the base class and Programmer is the derived class.
C++ Single Level Inheritance Example: Inheriting

Methods
Let's see another example of inheritance in C++ which inherits methods only.
3. class Animal {
4. public:
5. void eat() {
6. cout<<"Eating..."<<endl;
7. }
8. };
9. class Dog: public Animal
10. {
11. public:
12. void bark(){
13. cout<<"Barking...";
14. }
15. };
17. Dog d1;
18. d1.eat();
19. d1.bark();
20. return 0;
21. }
Output:
Eating...
Barking...
C++ Multi Level Inheritance Example
When one class inherits another class which is further inherited by another class, it is known
as multi level inheritance in C++. Inheritance is transitive so the last derived class acquires
all the members of all its base classes.
3. class Animal {
4. public:
5. void eat() {
6. cout<<"Eating..."<<endl;
7. }
8. };
10. {
11. public:
12. void bark(){
13. cout<<"Barking..."<<endl;
14. }
15. };
16. class BabyDog: public Dog
17. {
18. public:
19. void weep() {
20. cout<<"Weeping...";
21. }
22. };
24. BabyDog d1;
25. d1.eat();
26. d1.bark();
27. d1.weep();
28. return 0;
29. }
30. Output:
Eating...Barking? Weeping?
C++ Aggregation (HAS-A Relationship)
In C++, aggregation is a process in which one class defines another class as any entity
reference. It is another way to reuse the class. It is a form of association that represents
HAS-A relationship.
C++ Aggregation Example

Let's see an example of aggregation where Employee class has the reference of Address
class as data member. In such way, it can reuse the members of Address class.
3. class Address {
4. public:
5. string addressLine, city, state;
6. Address(string addressLine, string city, string state)
7. {
8. this->addressLine = addressLine;
9. this->city = city;
10. this->state = state;
11. }
12. };
13. class Employee
14. {
15. private:
16. Address* address; //Employee HAS-A Address
17. public:
18. int id;
19. string name;
20. Employee(int id, string name, Address* address)
21. {
22. this->id = id;
23. this->name = name;
24. this->address = address;
25. }
26. void display()
27. {
28. cout<<id <<" "<<name<< " "<<
29. address->addressLine<< " "<< address->city<< " "<<address-
>state<<endl;
30. }
31. };
33. Address a1= Address("C-146, Sec-15","Noida","UP");
34. Employee e1 = Employee(101,"Nakul",&a1);
35. e1.display();
36. return 0;
37. }
Output:
101 Nakul C-146, Sec-15 Noida UP

C++
POLYMORPHISM
C++ Polymorphism
The term "Polymorphism" is the combination of "poly" + "morphs" which means
many forms. It is a greek word. In object-oriented programming, we use 3 main
concepts: inheritance, encapsulation and polymorphism.
There are two types of polymorphism in C++:
o Compile time polymorphism: It is achieved by function overloading and

operator overloading which is also known as static binding or early binding.
o Runtime polymorphism: It is achieved by method overriding which is also

known as dynamic binding or late binding.
C++ Runtime Polymorphism Example

Let's see a simple example of runtime polymorphism in C++.
3. class Animal {
4. public:
5. void eat(){
6. cout<<"Eating...";
7. }
8. };
10. {
11. public:
12. void eat()
13. {
14. cout<<"Eating bread...";
15. }
16. };
18. Dog d = Dog();
19. d.eat();
20. return 0;
21. }
Output:
Eating bread...
C++ Runtime Polymorphism Example: By using

two derived class
Let's see another example of runtime polymorphism in C++ where we are having
two derived classes.
3. class Shape {
4. public:
5. virtual void draw(){
6. cout<<"drawing..."<<endl;
7. }
8. };
9. class Rectangle: public Shape
10. {
11. public:
12. void draw()
13. {
14. cout<<"drawing rectangle..."<<endl;
15. }
16. };
17. class Circle: public Shape
18. {
19. public:
20. void draw()
21. {
22. cout<<"drawing circle..."<<endl;
23. }
24. };
26. Shape *s;
27. Shape sh;
28. Rectangle rec;
29. Circle cir;
30. s=&sh;
31. s->draw();
32. s=&rec;
33. s->draw();
34. s=○
35. s->draw();
36. }
Output:
drawing...
drawing rectangle...
drawing circle...
Runtime Polymorphism with Data
Members
Runtime Polymorphism can be achieved by data members in C++. Let's see an
example where we are accessing the field by reference variable which refers to the
instance of derived class.
3. class Animal {
4. public:
5. string color = "Black";
6. };
8. {
9. public:
10. string color = "Grey";
11. };
13. Animal d= Dog();
14. cout<<d.color;
15. }
Output:
Black
C++ Overloading (Function and Operator)
If we create two or more members having same name but different in number or
type of parameter, it is known as C++ overloading. In C++, we can overload:
o methods,
o constructors, and
o indexed properties
It is because these members have parameters only.
Types of overloading in C++ are:
o Function overloading
o Operators overloading
C++ Function Overloading

Having two or more function with same name but different in parameters, is known
as function overloading in C++.
The advantage of Function overloading is that it increases the readability of the

program because you don't need to use different names for same action.
C++ Function Overloading Example

Let's see the simple example of function overloading where we are changing
number of arguments of add() method.
3. class Cal {
4. public:
5. static int add(int a,int b){
6. return a + b;
7. }
8. static int add(int a, int b, int c)
9. {
10. return a + b + c;
11. }
12. };
14. Cal C;
15. cout<<C.add(10, 20)<<endl;
16. cout<<C.add(12, 20, 23);
17. return 0;
18. }
Output:
30
55
C++ Operators Overloading

Operator overloading is used to overload or redefine most of the operators available
in C++. It is used to perform operation on user define data type.
The advantage of Operators overloading is to perform different operations on the

same operand.
C++ Operators Overloading Example

Let's see the simple example of operator overloading in C++. In this example, void
operator ++ () operator function is defined (inside Test class).
3. class Test
4. {
5. private:
6. int num;
7. public:
8. Test(): num(8){}
9. void operator ++()
10. {
11. num = num+2;
12. }
13. void Print() {
14. cout<<"The Count is: "<<num;
15. }
16. };
17. int main()
18. {
19. Test tt;
20. ++tt; // calling of a function "void operator ++()"
21. tt.Print();
22. return 0;
23. }
Output:
The Count is: 10

C++ Function Overriding
If derived class defines same function as defined in its base class, it is known as
function overriding in C++. It is used to achieve runtime polymorphism. It enables
you to provide specific implementation of the function which is already provided by
its base class.
C++ Function Overriding Example

3. class Animal {
4. public:
5. void eat(){
6. cout<<"Eating...";
7. }
8. };
10. {
11. public:
12. void eat()
13. {
14. cout<<"Eating bread...";
15. }
16. };
18. Dog d = Dog();
19. d.eat();
20. return 0;
21. }
Output:
Eating bread...
C++ virtual function

C++ virtual function is a member function in base class that you redefine in a
derived class. It is declare using the virtual keyword.
It is used to tell the compiler to perform dynamic linkage or late binding on the

function.
Late binding or Dynamic linkage

In late binding function call is resolved during runtime. Therefore compiler
determines the type of object at runtime, and then binds the function call.
C++ virtual function Example

Let's see the simple example of C++ virtual function used to invoked the derived
class in a program.
3. class A
4. {
5. public:
6. virtual void display()
7. {
8. cout << "Base class is invoked"<<endl;
9. }
10. };
11. class B:public A
12. {
13. public:
14. void display()
15. {
16. cout << "Derived Class is invoked"<<endl;
17. }
18. };
19. int main()
20. {
21. A* a; //pointer of base class
22. B b; //object of derived class
23. a = &b;
24. a->display(); //Late Binding occurs
25. }
Output:
Derived Class is invoked

C++
ABSTRACTION
Interfaces in C++ (Abstract Classes)
Abstract classes are the way to achieve abstraction in C++. Abstraction in C++ is the
process to hide the internal details and showing functionality only. Abstraction can be
achieved by two ways:
1. Abstract class
2. Interface
Abstract class and interface both can have abstract methods which are necessary for
abstraction.
C++ Abstract class

In C++ class is made abstract by declaring at least one of its functions as
<>strong>pure virtual function. A pure virtual function is specified by placing "= 0" in
its declaration. Its implementation must be provided by derived classes.
Let's see an example of abstract class in C++ which has one abstract method draw().
Its implementation is provided by derived classes: Rectangle and Circle. Both classes
have different implementation.
3. class Shape
4. {
5. public:
6. virtual void draw()=0;
7. };
8. class Rectangle : Shape
9. {
10. public:
11. void draw()
12. {
13. cout < <"drawing rectangle..." < <endl;
14. }
15. };
16. class Circle : Shape
17. {
18. public:
19. void draw()
20. {
21. cout <<"drawing circle..." < <endl;
22. }
23. };
24. int main( ) {
25. Rectangle rec;
26. Circle cir;
27. rec.draw();
28. cir.draw();
29. return 0;
30. }
Output:
drawing rectangle...
drawing circle...
Data Abstraction in C++
In C++ program if we implement class with private and public members then it is an
example of data abstraction.
Let's see the simple example of data abstraction.
3. class Sum
4. {
5. private: int x, y, z;
6. public:
7. void add()
8. {
9. cout<<"Enter two numbers: ";
10. cin>>x>>y;
11. z= x+y;
12. cout<<"Sum of two number is: "<<z<<endl;
13. }
14. };
15. int main()
16. {
17. Sum sm;
18. sm.add();
19. return 0;
20. }
Output:
Enter two numbers:

3
6
Sum of two number is: 9
C++
Namespaces
C++ Namespaces
Namespaces in C++ are used to organize too many classes so that it can be easy to handle
the application.
For accessing the class of a namespace, we need to use namespacename::classname. We

can use using keyword so that we don't have to use complete name all the time.
In C++, global namespace is the root namespace. The global::std will always refer to the
namespace "std" of C++ Framework.
C++ namespace Example

Let's see the simple example of namespace which include variable and functions.
3. namespace First {
4. void sayHello() {
5. cout<<"Hello First Namespace"<<endl;
6. }
7. }
8. namespace Second {
9. void sayHello() {
10. cout<<"Hello Second Namespace"<<endl;
11. }
12. }
13. int main()
14. {
15. First::sayHello();
16. Second::sayHello();
17. return 0;
18. }
Output:
Hello First Namespace

Hello Second Namespace
C++ namespace example: by using keyword
Let's see another example of namespace where we are using "using" keyword so that we
don't have to use complete name for accessing a namespace program.
3. namespace First{
4. void sayHello(){
5. cout << "Hello First Namespace" << endl;
6. }
7. }
8. namespace Second{
9. void sayHello(){
10. cout << "Hello Second Namespace" << endl;
11. }
12. }
13. using namespace First;
14. int main () {
15. sayHello();
16. return 0;
17. }
Output:
Hello First Namespace

C++
Strings
C++ Strings
In C++, string is an object of std::string class that represents sequence of characters.
We can perform many operations on strings such as concatenation, comparison,
conversion etc.
C++ String Example

Let's see the simple example of C++ string.
3. int main( ) {
4. string s1 = "Hello";
5. char ch[] = { 'C', '+', '+'};
6. string s2 = string(ch);
7. cout<<s1<<endl;
8. cout<<s2<<endl;
9. }
Output:
Hello
C++
C++ String Compare Example

Let's see the simple example of string comparison using strcmp() function.
2. #include <cstring>
4. int main ()
5. {
6. char key[] = "mango";
7. char buffer[50];
8. do {
9. cout<<"What is my favourite fruit? ";
10. cin>>buffer;
11. } while (strcmp (key,buffer) != 0);
12. cout<<"Answer is correct!!"<<endl;
13. return 0;
14. }
Output:
What is my favourite fruit? apple

What is my favourite fruit? banana
What is my favourite fruit? mango
Answer is correct!!
C++ String Concat Example

Let's see the simple example of string concatenation using strcat() function.
4. int main()
5. {
6. char key[25], buffer[25];
7. cout << "Enter the key string: ";
8. cin.getline(key, 25);
9. cout << "Enter the buffer string: ";
10. cin.getline(buffer, 25);
11. strcat(key, buffer);
12. cout << "Key = " << key << endl;
13. cout << "Buffer = " << buffer<<endl;
14. return 0;
15. }
Output:
Enter the key string: Welcome to

Enter the buffer string: C++ Programming.
Key = Welcome to C++ Programming.
Buffer = C++ Programming.
C++ String Copy Example

Let's see the simple example of copy the string using strcpy() function.
4. int main()
5. {
6. char key[25], buffer[25];
7. cout << "Enter the key string: ";
8. cin.getline(key, 25);
9. strcpy(buffer, key);
10. cout << "Key = "<< key << endl;
11. cout << "Buffer = "<< buffer<<endl;
12. return 0;
13. }
Output:
Enter the key string: C++ Tutorial

Key = C++ Tutorial
Buffer = C++ Tutorial
C++ String Length Example
Let's see the simple example of finding the string length using strlen() function.
4. int main()
5. {
6. char ary[] = "Welcome to C++ Programming";
7. cout << "Length of String = " << strlen(ary)<<endl;
8. return 0;
9. }
Output:
Length of String = 26
C++
Exception Handling
C++ Exception Handling
Exception Handling in C++ is a process to handle runtime errors. We perform exception
handling so the normal flow of the application can be maintained even after runtime errors.
In C++, exception is an event or object which is thrown at runtime. All exceptions are
derived from std::exception class. It is a runtime error which can be handled. If we don't
handle the exception, it prints exception message and terminates the program.
Advantage
It maintains the normal flow of the application. In such case, rest of the code is executed
even after exception.
C++ Exception Classes

In C++ standard exceptions are defined in <exception> class that we can use inside our
programs. The arrangement of parent-child class hierarchy is shown below:
All the exception classes in C++ are derived from std::exception class. Let's see the list of
C++ common exception classes.
Exception Description
std::exception It is an exception and parent class of all standard C++ exceptions.
std::logic_failure It is an exception that can be detected by reading a code.
std::runtime_error It is an exception that cannot be detected by reading a code.
std::bad_exception It is used to handle the unexpected exceptions in a c++ program.
std::bad_cast This exception is generally be thrown by dynamic_cast.
std::bad_typeid This exception is generally be thrown by typeid.
std::bad_alloc This exception is generally be thrown by new.
C++ Exception Handling Keywords

In C++, we use 3 keywords to perform exception handling:
o try
o catch, and
o throw
Moreover, we can create user-defined exception which we will learn in next chapters.
C++ try/catch
In C++ programming, exception handling is performed using try/catch statement. The C+
+ try block is used to place the code that may occur exception. The catch block is used to
handle the exception.
C++ example without try/catch

3. float division(int x, int y) {
4. return (x/y);
5. }
6. int main () {
7. int i = 50;
8. int j = 0;
9. float k = 0;
10. k = division(i, j);
11. cout << k << endl;
12. return 0;
13. }
Output:
Floating point exception (core dumped)

C++ try/catch example
3. float division(int x, int y) {
4. if( y == 0 ) {
5. throw "Attempted to divide by zero!";
6. }
7. return (x/y);
8. }
9. int main () {
10. int i = 25;
11. int j = 0;
12. float k = 0;
13. try {
14. k = division(i, j);
15. cout << k << endl;
16. }catch (const char* e) {
17. cerr << e << endl;
18. }
19. return 0;
20. }
Output:
Attempted to divide by zero!

C++ User-Defined Exceptions
The new exception can be defined by overriding and inheriting exception class
functionality.
C++ user-defined exception example

Let's see the simple example of user-defined exception in which std::exception class is
used to define the exception.
2. #include <exception>
4. class MyException : public exception{
5. public:
6. const char * what() const throw()
7. {
8. return "Attempted to divide by zero!\n";
9. }
10. };
11. int main()
12. {
13. try
14. {
15. int x, y;
16. cout << "Enter the two numbers : \n";
17. cin >> x >> y;
18. if (y == 0)
19. {
20. MyException z;
21. throw z;
22. }
23. else
24. {
25. cout << "x / y = " << x/y << endl;
26. }
27. }
28. catch(exception& e)
29. {
30. cout << e.what();
31. }
32. }
Output:
Enter the two numbers :

10
2
x / y = 5
Output:
Enter the two numbers :

10
0
Attempted to divide by zero!
-->
Note: In above example what() is a public method provided by the exception class. It is
used to return the cause of an exception.
C++
Files and Streams
C++ Files and Streams
In C++ programming we are using the iostream standard library, it
provides cin and coutmethods for reading from input and writing to output
respectively.
To read and write from a file we are using the standard C++ library called fstream. Let
us see the data types define in fstream library is:
Data Description
Type
fstream It is used to create files, write information to files, and read

information from files.
ifstream It is used to read information from files.
ofstream It is used to create files and write information to the files.
C++ FileStream example: writing to a file

Let's see the simple example of writing to a text file testout.txt using C++ FileStream
programming.
2. #include <fstream>
4. int main () {
5. ofstream filestream("testout.txt");
6. if (filestream.is_open())
7. {
8. filestream << "Welcome to javaTpoint.\n";
9. filestream << "C++ Tutorial.\n";
10. filestream.close();
11. }
12. else cout <<"File opening is fail.";
13. return 0;
14. }
Output:
The content of a text file testout.txt is set with the data:

Welcome to javaTpoint.
C++ Tutorial.
C++ FileStream example: reading from a file

Let's see the simple example of reading from a text file testout.txt using C++
FileStream programming.
4. int main () {
5. string srg;
6. ifstream filestream("testout.txt");
7. if (filestream.is_open())
8. {
9. while ( getline (filestream,srg) )
10. {
11. cout << srg <<endl;
12. }
13. filestream.close();
14. }
15. else {
16. cout << "File opening is fail."<<endl;
17. }
18. return 0;
19. }
Note: Before running the code a text file named as "testout.txt" is need to be created
and the content of a text file is given below:
C++ Tutorial.
Output:
C++ Tutorial
C++ Read and Write Example

Let's see the simple example of writing the data to a text file testout.txt and then
reading the data from the file using C++ FileStream programming.
4. int main () {
5. char input[75];
6. ofstream os;
7. os.open("testout.txt");
8. cout <<"Writing to a text file:" << endl;
9. cout << "Please Enter your name: ";
10. cin.getline(input, 100);
11. os << input << endl;
12. cout << "Please Enter your age: ";
13. cin >> input;
14. cin.ignore();
15. os << input << endl;
16. os.close();
17. ifstream is;
18. string line;
19. is.open("testout.txt");
20. cout << "Reading from a text file:" << endl;
21. while (getline (is,line))
22. {
23. cout << line << endl;
24. }
25. is.close();
26. return 0;
27. }
Output:
Writing to a text file: Please Enter your name: Nakul Jain

Please Enter your age: 22
Reading from a text file: Nakul Jain
22

Full C++

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Full C++

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Full C++

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

What are the different data types used for file streams in C++?

What are the different data types used for file streams in C++?

What are the steps to write data to a file in C++?

What are the steps to write data to a file in C++?

C++

C++ is an object-oriented programming language. It is an extension to C programming.

C++ Program with Online C++ Compiler

Object-Oriented Programming (OOPs)

o Embedded firmware etc

1) C follows the procedural style C++ is multi-paradigm. It supports

3) C follows the top-down C++ follows the bottom-up approach.

4) C does not support function C++ supports function overloading.

5) In C, you can't use functions in In C++, you can use functions in

6) C does not support reference C++ supports reference variables.

7) In C, scanf() and printf() are C++ mainly uses stream cin and

8) Operator overloading is not Operator overloading is possible in C++.

9) C programs are divided C++ programs are divided

11 Exception handling is not easy in C. C++ provides exception handling using

C++ programming language was developed in 1980 by Bjarne Stroustrup at bell

Bjarne Stroustrup is known as the founder of C++ language.

C++ programming is "relative" (called a superset) of C, it means any valid C program is

Language Year Developed By

Algol 196 International Group

BCPL 196 Martin Richard

B 197 Ken Thompson

Traditional 197 Dennis Ritchie

K&RC 197 Kernighan & Dennis Ritchie

C++ 198 Bjarne Stroustrup

2. Machine Independent or Portable

3. Mid-level programming language

4. Structured programming language

11. Object Oriented

12. Compiler based

2) Machine Independent or Portable

3) Mid-level programming language

4) Structured programming language

11) Object Oriented

12) Compiler based

#include<iostream.h> includes the standard input output library functions. It

#include includes the console input output library functions. The getch() function is

void main() The main() function is the entry point of every program in C++

How to compile and run the C++ program

Or, press ctrl+f9 keys compile and run the program directly.

You will see the following output on user screen.

#include<iostream.h> includes the standard input output library functions. It

#include includes the console input output library functions. The getch() function is

void main() The main() function is the entry point of every program in C++

cout << "Welcome to C++ Programming." is used to print the data "Welcome to

Or, press ctrl+f9 keys compile and run the program directly.

You will see the following output on user screen.

Now press Esc to return to the turbo c++ console.

r screen any time by pressing the alt+f5 keys.

Now press Esc to return to the turbo c++ console.

C++ Basic Input/Output

I/O Library Header Files

Header File Function and Description

<iostream It is used to define the cout, cin and cerr objects, which correspond to

Standard output stream (cout)

Let's see the simple example of standard output stream (cout):

Value of ary is: Welcome to C++ tutorial