EE 401 -Module VI

Cellular telephone - Basic concepts, frequency reuse, interference cell

splitting, sectoring, cell system layout, cell processing.
Bluetooth, Zig-Bee, GPS, Wi-Fi, Wi-Max based communication

Jerry Kuriakose Module 6 EE401 SCMS 1

Cellular concepts
• Cellular telephone offers full-duplex transmissions and operates much
the same way as the standard wireline telephone service provided to
homes and businesses by local telephone companies.
• Mobile telephone is a one-to-one system that permits two-way
simultaneous transmissions and, for privacy, each cellular telephone
is assigned a unique telephone number. Coded transmissions from
base stations activate only the intended receiver. With mobile
telephone, a person can virtually call anyone with a telephone
number, whether it be through a cellular or a wireline service.

Jerry Kuriakose Module 6 EE401 SCMS 2

Cellular concepts
• Cellular telephone systems replaced mobile systems serving large
areas (cells) operating with a single base station and a single high-
power transmitter with many smaller areas (cells), each with its own
base station and low-power transmitter. Each base station is allocated
a fraction of the total channels available to the system, and adjacent
cells are assigned different groups of channels to minimize
interference between cells.
• When demand for service increases in a given area, the number of
base stations can be increased, providing an increase in mobile unit
capacity without increasing the radio-frequency spectrum.

Jerry Kuriakose Module 6 EE401 SCMS 3

Cellular concepts
• With the cellular concept, each area is further divided into hexagonal-
shaped cells that fit together to form a honeycomb pattern. The hexagon
shape was chosen because it provides the most effective transmission by
approximating a circular pattern while eliminating gaps inherently present
between adjacent circles. A cell is defined by its physical size and, more
importantly, by the size of its population and traffic patterns. The number
of cells per system and the size of the cells are not specifically defined by
the FCC and has been left to the providers to establish in accordance with
anticipated traffic patterns.
• Each geographical area is allocated a fixed number of cellular voice
channels. The physical size of a cell varies, depending on user density and
calling patterns. For example, large cells (called macrocells) typically have a
radius between 1 mile and 15 miles with base station transmit powers
between 1 W and 6 W. The smallest cells (called microcells) typically have a
radius of 1500 feet or less with base station transmit powers between 0.1
W and 1 W.

Jerry Kuriakose Module 6 EE401 SCMS 4

Cellular concepts
• Microcells are used most often in high-density areas such as found in
large cities and inside buildings. By virtue of their low effective
working radius, microcells exhibit milder propagation impairments,
such as reflections and signal delays.
• Macrocells may overlay clusters of microcells with slow-moving
mobile units using the microcells and faster-moving units using the
macrocells. The mobile unit is able to identify itself as either fast or
slow moving, thus allowing it to do fewer cell transfers and location
updates.
• Cell transfer algorithms can be modified to allow for the small
distances between a mobile unit and the microcellular base station it
is communicating with.

Jerry Kuriakose Module 6 EE401 SCMS 5

Cellular concepts

Jerry Kuriakose Module 6 EE401 SCMS 6

Cellular concepts
• Occasionally, cellular radio signals are too weak to provide reliable
communications indoors. This is especially true in well-shielded areas or
areas with high levels of interference. In these circumstances, very small
cells, called picocells, are used. Indoor picocells can use the same
frequencies as regular cells in the same areas if the surrounding
infrastructure is conducive, such as in underground malls.
• When designing a system using hexagonal-shaped cells, base station
transmitters can be located in the center of a cell (center-excited cell), or on
three of the cells’ six vertices (edge- or corner-excited cells).
• Omnidirectional antennas are normally used in center-excited cells, and
sectored directional antennas are used in edge- and corner-excited cells
(omnidirectional antennas radiate and receive signals equally well in all
directions).

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Cellular concepts

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FREQUENCY REUSE
• Frequency reuse is the process in which
the same set of frequencies (channels)
can be allocated to more than one cell,
provided the cells are separated by
sufficient distance. Reducing each cell’s
coverage area invites frequency reuse.
Cells using the same set of radio channels
can avoid mutual interference, provided
they are properly separated.
Each cell base station is allocated a group of channel frequencies that are
different from those of neighboring cells, and base station antennas are
chosen to achieve a desired coverage pattern within its cell.

Jerry Kuriakose Module 6 EE401 SCMS 9

FREQUENCY REUSE
• However, as long as a coverage area is limited to within a cell’s
boundaries, the same group of channel frequencies may be used in
different cells without interfering with each other, provided the two
cells are sufficient distance from one another.
• The figure shows a geographic cellular radio coverage area containing
three groups of cells called clusters. Each cluster has seven cells in it,
and all cells are assigned the same number of full-duplex cellular
telephone channels. Cells with the same letter use the same set of
channel frequencies. As the figure shows, the same sets of
frequencies are used in all three clusters, which essentially increases
the number of usable cellular channels available threefold.
• The letters A, B, C, D, E, F, and G denote the seven sets of frequencies.

Jerry Kuriakose Module 6 EE401 SCMS 10

FREQUENCY REUSE
• Each service area is divided into clusters and allocated a group of
channels, which is divided among N cells in a unique and disjoint
channel grouping where all cells have the same number of channels
• but do not necessarily cover the same size area. Thus, the total
number of cellular channels available in a cluster can be expressed
mathematically as
• F = GN
where F number of full-duplex cellular channels available in a cluster
G number of channels in a cell
N number of cells in a cluster

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FREQUENCY REUSE
• The cells that collectively use the complete set of available channel
frequencies make up the cluster. When a cluster is duplicated m times
within a given service area, the total number of full-duplex channels
can be expressed mathematically as
• C = mGN
• where C total channel capacity in a given area
• m number of clusters in a given area
• G number of channels in a cell
• N number of cells in a cluster (or C = mF)

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FREQUENCY REUSE
•
Determine the number of channels per cluster and the total channel capacity for a cellular
telephone
area comprised of 10 clusters with seven cells in each cluster and 10 channels in each cell.
Solution Substituting into Equation 1, the total number of full-duplex channels is
F (10)(7)
70 channels per cluster
Substituting into Equation 3, the total channel capacity is
C (10)(7)(10)
700 channels total
From Example 1, it can be seen that through frequency reuse, 70 channels (frequencies), reused
in 10
clusters, produce 700 usable channels within a single cellular telephone area

Jerry Kuriakose Module 6 EE401 SCMS 13

FREQUENCY REUSE
• The number of users is called the frequency reuse factor (FRF). The
frequency reuse factor is defined mathematically as
• FRF = N/C
• where FRF frequency reuse factor (unitless)
• N total number of full-duplex channels in an area
• C total number of full-duplex channels in a cell

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FREQUENCY REUSE
• Cells use a hexagonal shape, which provides exactly six equidistant
neighboring cells, and the lines joining the centers of any cell with its
neighboring cell are separated by multiples of 60. Therefore, a limited
number of cluster sizes and cell layouts is possible.
• To connect cells without gaps in between (tessellate), the geometry of
a hexagon is such that the number of cells per cluster can have only
values that satisfy the equation

• where N number of cells per cluster

• i and j nonnegative integer values

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FREQUENCY REUSE

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FREQUENCY REUSE

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Interference
• The two major kinds of interferences produced within a cellular
telephone system are cochannel interference and adjacent-channel
interference.
• Co-channel Interference
• When frequency reuse is implemented, several cells within a given
coverage area use the same set of frequencies. Two cells using the
same set of frequencies are called co-channel cells, and the
interference between them is called co-channel interference.
• Increasing the transmit power in one cell increases the likelihood of
that cell’s transmissions interfering with another cell’s transmission.
To reduce co-channel interference, a certain minimum distance must
separate co-channels

Jerry Kuriakose Module 6 EE401 SCMS 18

Interference

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Interference
• The base station in cell A of cluster 1 is transmitting on frequency f1, and at
the same time, the base station in cell A of cluster 2 is transmitting on the
same frequency. Although the two cells are in different clusters, they both
use the A-group of frequencies. The mobile unit in cluster 2 is receiving the
same frequency from two different base stations. Although the mobile unit
is under the control of the base station in cluster 2, the signal from cluster
1 is received at a lower power level as co-channel interference.
• Interference between cells is proportional not to the distance between the
two cells but rather to the ratio of the distance to the cell’s radius. Since a
cell’s radius is proportional to transmit power, more radio channels can be
added to a system by either (1) decreasing the transmit power per cell, (2)
making cells smaller, or (3) filling vacated coverage areas with new cells

Jerry Kuriakose Module 6 EE401 SCMS 20

Adjacent-Channel Interference
• Adjacent-channel interference occurs when transmissions from
adjacent channels (channels next to one another in the frequency
domain) interfere with each other. Adjacent-channel interference
results from imperfect filters in receivers that allow nearby
frequencies to enter the receiver. Adjacent-channel interference is
most prevalent when an adjacent channel is transmitting very close to
a mobile unit’s receiver at the same time the mobile unit is trying to
receive transmissions from the base station on an adjacent frequency.
This is called the near-far effect and is most prevalent when a mobile
unit is receiving a weak signal from the base station.

Jerry Kuriakose Module 6 EE401 SCMS 21

Adjacent-Channel Interference

Jerry Kuriakose Module 6 EE401 SCMS 22

Adjacent-Channel Interference
• Using precise filtering and making careful channel assignments can
minimize adjacent channel interference in receivers. Maintaining a
reasonable frequency separation between channels in a given cell can
also reduce adjacent-channel interference. However, if the reuse
factor is small, the separation between adjacent channels may not be
sufficient to maintain an adequate adjacent-channel interference
level

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Cell Splitting
• Cell splitting is when the area of a cell, or independent component
coverage areas of a cellular system, is further divided, thus creating
more cell areas. The purpose of cell splitting is to increase the
channel capacity and improve the availability and reliability of a
cellular telephone network. The point when a cell reaches maximum
capacity occurs when the number of subscribers wishing to place a
call at any given time equals the number of channels in the cell. This
is called the maximum traffic load of the cell. Splitting cell areas
creates new cells, providing an increase in the degree of frequency
reuse, thus increasing the channel capacity of a cellular network.
• Cell splitting provides for orderly growth in a cellular system

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Cell Splitting
• The major drawback of cell splitting is that it results in more base station
transfers (handoffs) per call and a higher processing load per subscriber. It
has been proven that a reduction of a cell radius by a factor of 4 produces a
10-fold increase in the handoff rate per subscriber.
• Cell splitting is the resizing or redistribution of cell areas. In essence, cell
splitting is the process of subdividing highly congested cells into smaller
cells each with their own base station and set of channel frequencies. With
cell splitting, a large number of low-power transmitters take over an area
previously served by a single, higher-powered transmitter.
• If a new call is initiated in an area where all the channels are in use, a
condition called blocking occurs. A high occurrence of blocking indicates
that a system is overloaded.

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Cell Splitting

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Cell Splitting
• Cells are initially set up to cover relatively large areas, and then the
cells are divided into smaller areas when the need arises.
• The area of a circle is proportional to its radius squared. Therefore, if
the radius of a cell is divided in half, four times as many smaller cells
could be created to provide service to the same coverage area. If each
new cell has the same number of channels as the original cell, the
capacity is also increased by a factor of 4. Cell splitting allows a
system’s capacity to increase by replacing large cells with several
smaller cells while not disturbing the channel allocation scheme
required to prevent interference between cells.

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Sectoring
• In a cellular telephone system, co-channel interference can be
decreased by replacing a single omnidirectional antenna with several
directional antennas, each radiating within a smaller area. These
smaller areas are called sectors, and decreasing co-channel
interference while increasing capacity by using directional antennas is
called sectoring. The degree in which co-channel interference is
reduced is dependent on the amount of sectoring used. A cell is
normally partitioned either into three 120° or six 60° sectors.
• In the three-sector configuration, three antennas would be placed in
each 120° sector—one transmit antenna and two receive antennas.
Placing two receive antennas (one above the other) is called space
diversity.

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Sectoring

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Sectoring
• Space diversity improves reception by effectively providing a larger
target for signals radiated from mobile units. The separation between
the two receive antennas depends on the height of the antennas
above the ground. This height is generally taken to be the height of
the tower holding the antenna.
• When sectoring is used, the channels utilized in a particular sector are
broken down into sectored groups that are used only within a
particular sector. With seven-cell reuse and 120° sectors, the number
of interfering cells in the closest tier is reduced from six to two.
• Sectoring improves the signal-to-interference ratio, thus increasing
the system’s capacity.

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CELLULAR SYSTEM
TOPOLOGY
•

Jerry Kuriakose Module 6 EE401 SCMS 31

CELLULAR SYSTEM TOPOLOGY
• The radio network is defined by a set of radio-frequency transceivers
located within each of the cells. The locations of these radio-
frequency transceivers are called base stations. A base station serves
as central control for all users within that cell.
• Mobile units (such as automobiles and pedestrians) communicate
directly with the base stations, and the base stations communicate
directly with a Mobile Telephone Switching Office (MTSO).
• An MTSO controls channel assignment, call processing, call setup, and
call termination, which includes signaling, switching, supervision, and
allocating radio-frequency channels. The MTSO provides a centralized
administration and maintenance point for the entire network and
interfaces with the public telephone network over wireline voice
trunks and data links

Jerry Kuriakose Module 6 EE401 SCMS 32

CELLULAR SYSTEM TOPOLOGY
• Base stations are distributed over the area of system coverage and are
managed and controlled by an on-site computerized cell-site controller that
handles all cell-site control and switching functions. Base stations
communicate not only directly with mobile units through the airways using
control channels but also directly with the MTSO over dedicated data
control links.
• The base station consists of a low-power radio transceiver, power
amplifiers, a control unit (computer), and other hardware, depending on
the system configuration.
• The function of the base station is to provide an interface between mobile
telephone sets and the MTSO. Base stations communicate with the MTSO
over dedicated data links, both metallic and nonmetallic facilities, and with
mobile units over the airwaves using control channels. The MTSO provides
a centralized administration and maintenance point for the entire network,
and it interfaces with the PSTN over wireline voice trunks to honor services
from conventional wireline telephone subscribers.

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Roaming & Handoffs
• Roaming is when a mobile unit moves from one cell to another—
possibly from one company’s service area into another company’s
service area (requiring roaming agreements).As a mobile unit (car or
pedestrian) moves away from the base station transceiver it is
communicating with, the signal strength begins to decrease. The
output power of the mobile unit is controlled by the base station
through the transmission of up/down commands, which depends on
the signal strength the base station is currently receiving from the
mobile unit.
• When the signal strength drops below a predetermined threshold
level, the electronic switching center locates the cell in the
honeycomb pattern that is receiving the strongest signal from the
particular mobile unit and then transfers the mobile unit to the base
station in the new cell.
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Roaming & Handoffs
• One of the most important features of a cellular system is its ability to
transfer calls that are already in progress from one cell-site controller
to another as the mobile unit moves from cell to cell within the
cellular network.
• The base station transfer includes converting the call to an available
channel within the new cell’s allocated frequency subset. The transfer
of a mobile unit from one base station’s control to another base
station’s control is called a handoff (or handover)
• Handoffs should be performed as infrequently as possible and ben
completely transparent (seamless) to the subscriber (i.e., the
subscribers cannot perceive that their facility has been switched)

Jerry Kuriakose Module 6 EE401 SCMS 35

Roaming & Handoffs
• A connection that is momentarily broken during the cell-to-cell transfer is
called a hard handoff. A hard handoff is a break-before- make process.
With a hard handoff, the mobile unit breaks its connection with one base
station before establishing voice communications with a new base station.
Hard handoffs generally occur when a mobile unit is passed between
disjointed systems with different frequency assignments, air interface
characteristics, or technologies.
• A flawless handoff (i.e., no perceivable interruption of service) is called a
soft handoff and normally takes approximately 200 ms, which is
imperceptible to voice telephone users, although the delay may be
disruptive when transmitting data. With a soft handoff, a mobile unit
establishes contact with a new base station before giving up its current
radio channel by transmitting coded speech signals to two base stations
simultaneously. Both base stations send their received signals to the MTSO,
which estimates the quality of the two signals and determines when the
transfer should occur

Jerry Kuriakose Module 6 EE401 SCMS 36

Roaming & Handoffs
• The computers use handoff decision algorithms based on variations in
signal strength and signal quality.
• When a call is in progress, the switching center monitors the received
signal strength of each user channel.
• Handoffs can be initiated when the signal strength (or signal-to-
interference ratio), measured by either the base station or the mobile
unit’s receiver, falls below a predetermined threshold level .
• During a handoff, information about the user stored in the first base station
is transferred to the new base station. A condition called blocking occurs
when the signal level drops below a usable level and there are no usable
channels available in the target cell to switch to. To help avoid blocking or
loss of a call during a handoff, the system employs a load-balancing scheme
that frees channels for handoffs and sets handoff priorities.

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Roaming & Handoffs
• The handoff process involves four basic steps:
• 1. Initiation. Either the mobile unit or the network determines the
need for a handoff and initiates the necessary network procedures.
• 2. Resource reservation. Appropriate network procedures reserve the
resources needed to support the handoff (i.e., a voice and a control
channel).
• 3. Execution. The actual transfer of control from one base station to
another base station takes place.
• 4. Completion. Unnecessary network resources are relinquished and
made available to other mobile units.

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CELLULAR TELEPHONE NETWORK COMPONENTS
• There are six essential components of a cellular telephone system:
• (1) an electronic switching center,
• (2) a cell-site controller,
• (3) radio transceivers,
• (4) system interconnections,
• (5) mobile telephone units, and
• (6) a common communications protocol

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CELLULAR TELEPHONE NETWORK COMPONENTS
• Electronic Switching Centers
• The electronic switching center is a digital telephone exchange located
in the MTSO that is the heart of a cellular telephone system. The
electronic switch performs two essential functions:
• (1) It controls switching between the public wireline telephone
network and the cell-site base stations for wireline-to-mobile, mobile-
to-wireline, and mobile-to-mobile calls, and
• (2) it processes data received from the cell-site controllers concerning
mobile unit status, diagnostic
• data, and bill-compiling information

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CELLULAR TELEPHONE NETWORK COMPONENTS
• Cell-Site Controllers
• Each cell contains one cell-site controller (sometimes called base
station controller) that operates under the direction of the switching
center (MTSO). Cell-site controllers manage each of the radio
channels at each site, supervises calls, turns the radio transmitter and
receiver on and off, injects data onto the control and voice channels,
and performs diagnostic tests on the cell-site equipment

Jerry Kuriakose Module 6 EE401 SCMS 41

CELLULAR TELEPHONE NETWORK COMPONENTS
• Radio Transceivers
• Radio transceivers are also part of the base station subsystem. The radio
transceivers (combination transmitter/receiver) used with cellular
telephone system voice channels can be either narrowband FM for analog
systems or either PSK or QAM for digital systems with an effective audio-
frequency band comparable to a standard telephone circuit (approximately
300 Hz to 3000 Hz). The control channels use either FSK or PSK. The
maximum output power of a cellular transmitter depends on the type of
cellular system. Each cell base station typically contains one radio
transmitter and two radio receivers tuned to the same channel
(frequency). The radio receiver that detects the strongest signal is selected.
This arrangement is called receiver diversity. The radio transceivers in base
stations include the antennas (both transmit and receive). Modern cellular
base station antennas are more aesthetically appealing than most
antennas and can resemble anything from a window shutter to a palm tree
to an architectural feature on a building.

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CELLULAR TELEPHONE NETWORK COMPONENTS
• System Interconnects
• Four-wire leased lines are generally used to connect switching centers
to cell sites and to the public telephone network. There is one
dedicated four-wire trunk circuit for each of the cell’s voice channels.
There must also be at least one four-wire trunk circuit to connect
switching centers to each cell-site controller for transferring control
signals

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CELLULAR TELEPHONE NETWORK COMPONENTS
• Mobile and Portable Telephone Units
• Mobile and portable telephone units are essentially identical. Each mobile
telephone unit consists of a control unit, a multiple-frequency radio transceiver
(i.e., multiple channel), a logic unit, and a mobile antenna. The control unit
houses all the user interfaces, including a built-in handset. The transceiver uses a
frequency synthesizer to tune into any designated cellular system channel. The
logic unit interrupts subscriber actions and system commands while managing
the operation of the transceiver (including transmit power) and control units.
• Communications Protocol
• The last constituent of a cellular telephone system is the communications
protocol, which governs the way telephone calls are established and
disconnected. There are several layers of protocols used with cellular telephone
systems, and these protocols differ between cellular networks. The protocol
implemented depends on whether the voice and control channels are analog or
digital and what method subscribers use to access the network

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Call Processing
• Telephone calls over cellular networks require using two full-duplex radio-
frequency channels simultaneously, one called the user channel and one
called the control channel.
• The user channel is the actual voice channel where mobile users
communicate directly with other mobile and wireline subscribers through a
base station.
• The control channel is used for transferring control and diagnostic
information between mobile users and a central cellular telephone switch
through a base station.
• Base stations transmit on the forward control channel and forward voice
channel and receive on the reverse control channel and reverse voice
channel. Mobile units transmit on the reverse control channel and reverse
voice channel and receive on the forward control channel and forward
voice channel.

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Call Processing
• The mobile unit automatically tunes to the control channel with the
strongest receive signal strength and synchronizes to the control data
transmitted by the cell-site controller.
• The mobile unit interprets the data and continues monitoring the
control channel(s). The mobile unit automatically rescans periodically
to ensure that it is using the best control channel.

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Call Procedures
• Within a cellular telephone system, three types of calls can take place
involving mobile cellular telephones:
• (1) mobile (cellular)-to-wireline (PSTN),
• (2) mobile (cellular)-to-mobile (cellular), and
• (3) wireline (PSTN)-to-mobile (cellular).

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Mobile (cellular)-to-wireline (PSTN) call procedures
• 1. Calls from mobile telephones to wireline telephones can be initiated in
one of two ways:
• a. The mobile unit is equivalently taken off hook (usually by depressing a
talk button). After the mobile unit receives a dial tone, the subscriber
enters the wireline telephone number using either a standard Touch-Tone
keypad or with speed dialing. After the last digit is depressed, the number
is transmitted through a reverse control channel to the base station
controller along with the mobile unit’s unique identification number (which
is not the mobile unit’s telephone number).
• b. The mobile subscriber enters the wireline telephone number into the
unit’s memory using a standard Touch-Tone keypad. The subscriber then
depresses a send key, which transmits the called number as well as the
mobile unit’s identification number over a reverse control channel to the
base station switch.
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Mobile (cellular)-to-mobile (cellular) call procedures
• 2. If the mobile unit’s ID number is valid, the cell-site controller routes the
called number over a wireline trunk circuit to the MTSO.
• 3. The MTSO uses either standard call progress signals or the SS7 signaling
network to locate a switching path through the PSTN to the destination
party.
• 4. Using the cell-site controller, the MTSO assigns the mobile unit a
nonbusy user channel and instructs the mobile unit to tune to that
channel.
• 5. After the cell-site controller receives verification that the mobile unit has
tuned to the selected channel and it has been determined that the called
number is on hook, the mobile unit receives an audible call progress tone
(ring-back) while the wireline caller receives a standard ringing signal.
• 6. If a suitable switching path is available to the wireline telephone number,
the call is completed when the wireline party goes off hook (answers the
telephone).
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Mobile (cellular)-to-wireline (PSTN) call procedures
• 1. The originating mobile unit initiates the call in the same manner as it
would for a mobile-to-wireline call.
• 2. The cell-site controller receives the caller’s identification number and
the destination telephone number through a reverse control channel,
which are then forwarded to the MTSO.
• 3. The MTSO sends a page command to all cell-site controllers to locate the
destination party (which may be anywhere in or out of the service area).
• 4. Once the destination mobile unit is located, the destination cell-site
controller sends a page request through a control channel to the
destination party to determine if the unit is on or off hook.
• 5. After receiving a positive response to the page, idle user channels are
assigned to both mobile units.

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Mobile (cellular)-to-wireline (PSTN) call procedures
• 6. Call progress tones are applied in both directions (ring and ring-back).
• 7. When the system receives notice that the called party has answered the
telephone, the switches terminate the call progress tones, and the
conversation begins.
• 8. If a mobile subscriber wishes to initiate a call and all user channels are
busy, the switch sends a directed retry command, instructing the
subscriber’s unit to reattempt the call through a neighboring cell.
• 9. If the system cannot allocate user channels through a neighboring cell,
the switch transmits an intercept message to the calling mobile unit over
the control channel.
• 10. If the called party is off hook, the calling party receives a busy signal.
• 11. If the called number is invalid, the calling party receives a recorded
message announcing that the call cannot be processed.

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Wireline (PSTN)-to-mobile (cellular) call procedures
• 1. The wireline telephone goes off hook to complete the loop, receives a
dial tone, and then inputs the mobile unit’s telephone number.
• 2. The telephone number is transferred from the PSTN switch to the
cellular network switch (MTSO) that services the destination mobile
number.
• 3. The cellular network MTSO receives the incoming call from the PSTN,
translates the received digits, and locates the base station nearest the
mobile unit, which determines if the mobile unit is on or off hook (i.e.,
available).
• 4. If the mobile unit is available, a positive page response is sent over a
reverse control channel to the cell-site controller, which is forwarded to the
network switch (MTSO).
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Wireline (PSTN)-to-mobile (cellular) call procedures
• 5. The cell-site controller assigns an idle user channel to the mobile
unit and then instructs the mobile unit to tune to the selected
channel.
• 6. The mobile unit sends verification of channel tuning through the
cell-site controller.
• 7. The cell-site controller sends an audible call progress tone to the
subscriber’s mobile telephone, causing it to ring. At the same time, a
ring-back signal is sent back to the wireline calling party.
• 8. The mobile answers (goes off hook), the switch terminates the call
progress tones, and the conversation begins.

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Global Positioning System (GPS)
System uses a combination of ground stations, orbiting satellites &
special receivers to provide position information with accuracy to
better than 2m horizontally & 3m vertically.
GPS uses 18 satellites for complete operation
GPS uses the position of four satellites as calculated by the time with
respect to the user. The differenced in time of signal arrival at the user
for the signals from these 4 satellites is used first to determine the
distance between the user & the 4 satellites.
A subsequent set of calculations convert user position with respect to 4
satellites into position with respect to latitude & longitude

Jerry Kuriakose Module 6 EE401 SCMS 54

Global Positioning System (GPS)

Jerry Kuriakose Module 6 EE401 SCMS 55

Global Positioning System (GPS)

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Global Positioning System (GPS)

since the satellites broadcasts are not directed to a specific user

receiver, but are broadcast to all.

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Global Positioning System (GPS)
Control segment
Uses fixed location ground stations
Master control station monitors the signal from each satellite
Each station synchronizes the satellite clock to the GPS time from the
master station.
Correct all the errors and sends the message to satellites

Jerry Kuriakose Module 6 EE401 SCMS 58

Global Positioning System (GPS)
Space segment - GPS Satellites
Not geostationary
15250 km high
12 hours to orbit
Inclination of 55o
Each satellite uses 2 atomic clocks
Same signal send at 2 frequencies 1.57 & 1.22 GHz
Signal transmitted by the satellite contains a time stamp

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Global Positioning System (GPS)
User segment - GPS system
Act as a front end for signal reception

Multi channel GPS receivers

Must receive & decode 4 GPS satellites simultaneously
GPS Antennnas: uses high freq – so small antennas
GPS Antennas are usually low gain omnidirectional designs since they
should capture signals from widely spread and moving satellites

Jerry Kuriakose Module 6 EE401 SCMS 60

WiFi & WiMax
• Wi-Fi (wireless-fidelity), or IEEE-802.11 and
• WiMAX (Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access), or IEEE-
802.16.
• Both of these systems provide broadband wireless access to the
Internet and are an alternative to wired networks including DSL,
ethernet, cable modem technologies, and even mobile cell phones.
Wi-Fi and WiMAX are often referred to as the “last foot” and “last
mile” respectively, referring to their connection to the network

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WiFi
• Wi-Fi uses unlicensed portions of the microwave bands
(2.45–5.7 GHz), and the distances are generally limited to a
few hundred feet.

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 WiFi
• Wi-Fi uses carrier-sense-multiple access (CSMA). CSMA is an
enhancement to Aloha whereby the user (a) first listens to the
channel and, if it is unoccupied, transmits the packet;
• (b) if the channel is in use, waits according to some random time
function, then listens again to see if the channel is clear; and (c) if
clear, the packet is transmitted; otherwise, step (b) is repeated.

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WiMAX
• WiMAX is an alternative to fiber, cable, and even the cellular
phone system for broadband access. One major application is
backhaul.
• WiMAX often uses the existing cellular phone tower
infrastructure. It has line-of-sight and therefore has the
potential to work at distances of up to 30 miles. In rural areas,
individuals or business could receive WiMAX signals via rooftop
antennas, similar to the way terrestrial television is received, or
even directly on their computers via WiMAX cards. In fact, some
computer systems are being equipped with both Wi-Fi and
WiMAX cards.
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WiMAX

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WiMAX

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 Bluetooth
• Bluetooth utilizes the unlicensed ISM band at 2.4 GHz.
• A typical Bluetooth device has a range of about 10 meters. The
communication channel supports data and voice with a total
bandwidth of 1 Mbps.
• The Bluetooth specification defines two power levels: a low-power
level that covers a small personal area within a room and a high-
power level that can cover a medium range, such as an area within
a home.

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Characteristics of Bluetooth
• Fast frequency hopping to minimize interference
• Adaptive output power to minimize interference
• Short data packets to maximize capacity
• Fast acknowledgments allowing low coding overhead for links
• CVSD (continuous variable slope delta) modulation voice coding,
which can withstand high bit-error rates
• Flexible packet types that support a wide application range
• Transmission and reception interface tailored to minimize power
consumption

Jerry Kuriakose Module 6 EE401 SCMS 68

 Architecture of the Bluetooth System
• Bluetooth devices can interact with other Bluetooth devices in several
ways. In the simplest scheme, one of the devices acts as the master and
(up to) seven others as slaves and it is known as a piconet. A single
channel is shared among all devices in the piconet. Each of the active
slaves has an assigned 3-bit active member address. Many other slaves
can remain synchronized to the master though remaining inactive slaves,
referred to as parked nodes

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Bluetooth- Master Slave

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Zigbee
• ZigBee is a control technology that works by standardizing an
existing wireless networking powered by small batteries,
requiring low bandwidth and low latency and low energy
consumption for the long operational lifetimes of network
devices. Due to this low energy constraint, ZigBee reduces
energy consumption, while its less complicated implementation
maximizes interoperation between many devices at every layer
of wireless networking

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Zigbee
• It is ideal for low duty cycle applications where a channel is not
occupied by a single device for long period of time. A smart
house system is a good example of such applications.
• Also ZigBee has active and sleep mode, which allows a device
to enter idle mode. When it is in sleep mode, it disables
antenna and CPU to conserve energy. The low cost of the
ZigBee device is an incentive for large-scale deployment

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Zigbee
• ZigBee applications include:
• Home and office automation
• Industrial automation
• Medical monitoring
• Low-power sensors
• HVAC control
• Plus many other control and monitoring uses

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Jerry Kuriakose Module 6 EE401 SCMS 74