SALALE UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF NATURAL AND COMPUTATIONAL SCIENCE

DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS

PROJECT TITEL ON POLYNOMIAL RING

Prepared By ID NO

Abebech Mulugeta ...............................................NSR/1466/10

Advisor: Mr: Felek MAY, 2020

Fiech; ETHIOPIA.

Objectives

The main objectives of this project are

• To understand about the concept of ring.

• To understand the concept of sub-ring, ideal of ring and quotient ring.

• To understand about the concept of polynomial ring.

 • To understand about the concept of field, ideal, unique factorization domain of a
polynomial ring.

Introduction

With regarding this title it is better to start with basic concepts which are mentioned in the
contents.

In this project we will discuss about the concept of ring and polynomial ring. In fact that
polynomial ring is one class of a ring. In this project two main chapters are included.

condition. i) (R, +) is Abelian group. ii) (R,.) is a semi group. iii) is distributive over +. And A
subset S of a ring R is a sub ring of R if S is a ring with respect to the operations on R. And other
sub topics are ideal of a ring if (I, +,.) is an ideal of (R, +,.) if it satisfy the condition, I is a sub ring
of R for all a, b ∈ I and for all rR , ab , a−b ∈ I ,ra ∈ I .

The second chapter focuses on the concept of polynomial ring. Polynomial rings are
among the important class of rings. We may thinking of a polynomial as an expression of the

forma 0+ a1 x +… a n x n, where x is a symbol and a are elements of some ring R, possibly real

numbers is called the polynomial coefficients or as a function f(x)=a 0+ a1x+….a n x .

n

In general in this project it understands the concept of rings and polynomial rings in detail of
definitions with related examples and theorems, prepositions, with some basic properties.
Contents Page

Chapter 1…………………………………………………………… 1

Introduction to Ring………………………………………………. 1

1.1Sub Ring…………………………………………………….

1.2 Ideals of a ring…………………………………………

1.3 Quotient ring……………………………………

Chapter two………………………………………………….

Polynomial Rings……………………………………

2.1 Polynomial rings over fields …………………………

2.2 Ideals of Polynomial ring………………………….

2.3 Unique factorization domains…………………

2.4 Polynomial rings over UFDs…………………

 •

Chapter 1

Introduction to Ring

Definition1.1. A set R with two binary operation is said to be a ring, if R is a nonempty set and
are binary operation on R. if it’s satisfy the following condition,

• (R,*) is abelian group

• (R,∆ )is a semi group

• ∆ is distributive over*. I , e a∆ ( b∗c ) =( a ∆ b )∗c.

Note, A ring (R,¿ , ∆ ¿ is called

• commutative ring if ∆ is commutative

• Unity ring, if the semi group (R,∆ ¿ has identity element denoted by I.

• A division ring if every non zero element is a unit(multiplicative)

A ring with identity is a ring for which the multiplication operation has an identity element, that
is, there exists an element 1 ∈ R such that: b∗1 = 1∗b = b ∀ b ∈ R

The set of all m × m square matrices with real coefficients forms a ring ( N m(R), +, ·), which is
not commutative if m>1, because matrix multiplication is not commutative.
Example1.2

• (Q, +, ·), is a ring with the usual operations of addition and multiplication

(Z, +, ·), is a ring with the usual operations of addition and multiplication,

(R, +, ·) is a ring with the usual operations of addition and multiplication and

(C, +,.) is a ring with the usual operations of addition and multiplication are all rings.

• Let N be the set of 2×2 matrices with integer entries,

• (N, +), matrices addition is Abelian group.

• (N,.), matrices multiplication is associative, A(BC)=(AB)C

• Matrices multiplication is both left and right distributive over addition.

Note: The set N of 2×2 matrices over integers form a ring under matrices addition and
multiplication denoted by (N, +,.) is a noncommutative ring with unity.

• The set of R consisting of single element ‘0’ with two binary operations defined as (0, +,.)
is a ring.

0 + 0 = 0 and 0. 0 = 0

This ring is called null ring or zero rings.

1.1sub ring

Definition1.1.1. A subset S of a ring R is a sub ring of R if S is a ring with respect to the

operations on R.

Example1.1.2 Z is a sub ring Q, Q is a sub ring of R and R is a sub ring of C.

1.2 Ideal of a ring

Definition1.2.1 Let R be a ring. Let I be a nonempty subset of R.

• I is called a left ideal of R if for all a, b ∈ I and for all r ∈, R, ab, a − b ∈ I, ra ∈ I.

• I is called a right ideal of R if for all a, b ∈ I and for all r ∈, R ab, a − b ∈ I, ra ∈ I.

• I is called (two- sided) ideal of R if I is both a left and a right ideal of R.

From the definition of a left (or right) ideal, it follows that if I is a left (or right) ideal of R, then I
is a sub ring of R. Also, if R is a commutative ring, then every left ideal is also a right ideal and
every right ideal is a left ideal. Thus, for commutative rings every left or right ideal is an ideal.

Definition1.2.2(prime ideal): An ideal P of a ring R is called prime if for any two ideals A and B
of R, AB∈ P, implies that either A ⊆ P or B ⊆ P.

Example1.2.2 In the ring Z of integers, the ideal P = {3k | k ∈Z} is a prime ideal. For, ab∈ pif and
only if ab is divisible by 3 if and only if a is divisible by 3 or b is divisible by 3 (since 3 is prime) if
and only if a is a multiple of 3 or b is a multiple of 3 if and only if a ∈ P or b ∈ P. In Z, the ideal J =
{6k | k ∈ Z} is not a prime ideal since 3.2 =6 ∈ J , but 3∄ J and 2 ∄ J.

Definition1.2.3 (maximal ideal) let R be a ring and M be a ideal of R. Then M is called a maximal
ideal of R if M≠ R and there does not exist any ideal I of R such that M ⊂ I ⊂ R.

Example1.2.3 In the ring Z of integers, {0} is a prime ideal, but not a maximal ideal.

.
 • Quotient ring

Definition 1.3.1 If I is an ideal of a ring R then with the operations of addition and
multiplication defined above, R/I is a ring called the quotient ring of R by I.

Definition1.3.2 If R is a ring and I is an ideal of R, then the set of cossets form a ring (R/I, +, ·)
under the operation defined by

(I +r 1)+ (I +r 2) = I + (r 1+ r ) 2

And

(I +r 1)(I +r 2) = I + (r 1 r ).
2

This ring (R/I, +, ·) is called the quotient ring of R by I.

Example1.3.2. If I={0,2,4} is the ideal generated by 2 in Z 0, find the tables for the quotient ring
Z 0/I.

Solution. There are two cossets of Z 0 by I: namely, I={0,2,4} and I+1={1,3,5}. Hence Z 0/I = {I, I
+1}.

Table for the quotient ring of Z 0/I.

+ I I+1

I I I+1

I+1 I+1 I

. I I+1
 I I I

I+1 I I+1

Chapter 2

Polynomial Rings

Definition2.1 For any ring R, let R[x] denote the set of all infinite sequences (a 0 ,a 1 ,a 2,….
), where a 1

∈ R, i = 0 ,1,2, ...,and where there is a nonnegative integer n (dependent on (a 0 ,a 1 ,a2….¿

¿ such that

for all integers k ≥ n,a k=0 . The elements of R[x] are called polynomials over R of degree n.

We now define addition and multiplication on R[x] as follows:

(a 0 ,a 1 ) + (b 0 ,b ) = (a 0+b
,a 2…. 1 ,b 2…
0 ,a1+b
1,a
2+b
¿
2…¿

(a 0 ,a ) . (b 0 ,b
1 ,a 2,.. 1 ,b2 ,… ) = (c 0 , c ),1 ,c 2,…

Where c J = ∑ J 0 a For j = 0,1,2, …

ib j−i
I=¿¿

We verify that (R[x], +,.) is a ring. We do note that (0, 0...) is the additive identity of R[x] and that
the additive inverse of(a 0 ,a 1 ,….¿
¿ is. The ring R[x] is called a ring of polynomials or a polynomial

ring over R.

Notation:
 a=a x 0 Denote (a, 0, 0...)

ax=a x 1 Denote (0, a, 0...)

a x 2 Denote (0, 0, a...) . . .

Then

(a 0,a 1 , a 2,… … . an 0, ...) = (a 0 ,0,0 , ...) + (0,a 1,0, ...)+···+ (0, ..., 0, a n, 0, ...)

= a 0+¿¿ a 1 X +… … a n x n

The symbol x is called an indeterminate over R and the elementsa 0; a 1; a2……… a

n
of R is called the

coefficients ofa 0+a 1 X+ … …… a

nx n
.

Then the two polynomialsa 0+a 1 x+ ….. a . and b 0+b

nx n
1 X+ … ….b
mxm
are equal if and only if n = m anda i =b i, i = 1, 2,

..., n, is that the two sequences (a 0 ,a ¿ and (b 0 ,b 1 ,¿ 1 ,,,,,,,¿

¿ are equal if and only ifa i=b , i = 1,2,…(one
i,

must recall that an infinite sequences of elements of r is a function from the set of non-negative
integers in to R).

If R has an identity 1, then we can consider x an element of R[x]. We do this by identifying 1x

with x, i.e., (0, 1, 0 ...) is called x.

Thus, when R has an identity, ax = (a,0,0,...)(0,1,0,...) = (0, a,0,...) = (0 ,1, 0, ...)(a, 0, 0,...) = x a.

Definition2.2 Let R be a ring. If f(x)= a 0+a 1 X+ … .a

nx
n,a
n≠0
, is a polynomial in R[x], then n is called the

degree of f(x), written deg f(x), and a nis called the leading coefficient of f(x). If R has an identity
and a n= 1, then f(x) is called a monic polynomial.

The polynomials of degree 0 in R[x] are exactly those elements from R\ {0}. 0 ∈ R[x] has no
degree. We call the elements of R scalar or constant polynomials.
Theorem2.2 Let R[x] be a polynomial ring and f(x), g (x) be two nonzero polynomials in R[x].

• If, f(x)g(x)≠ 0 then deg f(x)g(x)≤ deg f(x) + deg g(x).

• If f(x)+g(x)≠ 0, then deg (f(x)+ g(x)) ≤ max {deg f(x), deg g(x)}.

2.1. Polynomial rings over fields

We now focus on polynomial rings over a field. One of the key properties of polynomials with
coefficients in a field is that we can divide them. The following is the division algorithm in these
rings.

Definition 2.1 Polynomial ring over a field

Let F be a field. Then a polynomial over F with the variable x is a polynomial of the form f(x)
= a0 + a1x + a2x2 +···+ an x n , where a0,a1,a2,... ,an ∈ F and n ≥ 0, where x0 is defined to be 1.
The polynomial ring over F is F[x] = {a0 + a1x +···+ an x n: a0, a1... an ∈ F, n ≥ 0}.

Definition2.1.1. Let F be a field. A non-constant polynomial f F[x] is irreducible if there does not
exist any g F[x] with 0 < deg g < deg f that divides f.

A non-constant polynomial that is not irreducible is called reducible. A non-constant divisor of a

polynomial is referred to as a factor.

Example2.1.1. By definition, any polynomial of degree 1 is irreducible in F[x]. The polynomial is

irreducible in Q[x] but not in C[x], where we have = (x + i) (x − i). On the other hand, is
reducible for any F, since =.

2.2 ideals of polynomial ring

Definition2.2.1 let R be an integral domain and I be an ideal of R, then I[x] be an ideal of R[x],
I[x] is the set of all polynomials of x over I.
Definition2.2.2. A subset I of a ring R is said to be an ideal if the following conditions are
satisfied:

• 0 ∈ I;

• x + y ∈ I for all x ∈ I and y ∈ I;

• ∈ I for all x ∈ I and y ∈ I;

• −x ∈ I for all x ∈ I; ∈ I and ∈ I for all x ∈ I and r ∈ R.

Example2.2.1 The set of all polynomials in Q[x] that contain as a factor is the principal ideal () =
{().p(x)/p(x) Q(x)} generated by in Q(x).

2.3. Unique factorization domains

Definition2.3.1. Let R is an integral domain. A non-unit and nonzero element p R is said to be an

irreducible element if for every a, b R with p = ab, either a or b is a unit.

Definition2.3.2. Two elements a and b of a nonzero commutative ring R with unity are said to
associates if with u. The property of being associate is an equivalence relation on an integral
domain R. The equivalence class of 0 is {0} and that of 1 is. The equivalence class of an
irreducible element consists of irreducible elements.

Examples2.3.1.

a. The irreducible elements of Z are ±p for prime numbers p. The elements p and −p are
associates.

b. The irreducible elements of F[x], for a field F, are the irreducible polynomials of F, since the
units of F[x] are the nonzero constant polynomials. Every nonzero polynomial has a unique
associate with leading coefficient equal to 1.
Example2.3.2. The ring Z is a unique factorization domain. Then, F[x] for a field F is a unique
factorization domain as well.

2.4 Polynomial rings over UFDs

Definition2.4.1.Let R is an integral domain. A polynomial is said to be primitive if the only

elements of R that divide all of the coefficients off are units.

Example2.4.1. The polynomial in Z[x] has content 5, and so it is not primitive. In fact, = 5g,
where, and g is primitive.