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The Foundation and Principles of Critical Thinking

Article  in  The American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences · October 2016

DOI: 10.12816/0037488

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Forum

The Foundation and Principles

of Critical Thinking
Muhammad Mumtaz Ali
Abstract

This article explains the currently dominant paradigm of critical

thinking, which is considered universally applicable, in terms of
applying various skills, techniques, standards, and procedures.
However, it also contends that emphasizing the technical aspects
does not make it critical thinking, for that depends mainly upon its
own metaphysics – a view that is never discussed. I contend that
the metaphysical premise is more important than the skills and
techniques, as it is intimately related to the technical dimensions
of critical thinking. I argue that without a true and realistic meta-
physical foundation, critical thinking cannot produce good results.

Introduction
The majority of scholars and authors on critical thinking agree that we need to
think critically and understand things intelligently and wisely through the ap-
plications of techniques and skills.1 However, this view is limited and overlooks
critical thinking’s fundamental metaphysical foundation and underlying integral
principles. As critical thinking differs from thinking, it follows a specific frame-
work and works within its own paradigm. I, therefore, contend that our present
understanding of it is problematic and lacks a few important aspects that make
thinking “critical” in real sense, such as any discussion of its framework, par-
adigm, and principles. Hence, I argue that we must begin by analyzing these
missing aspects, all of which must be true, realistic, authentic, and universal,
for this is the only way to develop a truly accurate view of critical thinking.

Muhammad Mumtaz Ali is a professor in the Department of Usuluddin and Comparative Re-
ligion, Kulliyyah of Islamic Revealed Knowledge and Human Sciences, Gombak Campus,
International Islamic University Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
 Ali: The Foundation and Principles of Critical Thinking 133

Given that this understanding requires true, authentic, and universal knowl-
edge, which speculative philosophy and rationalist metaphysics cannot pro-
vide,2 I analyze existing notions of critical thinking and their metaphysical
premises, as well as the framework, paradigm, and certain fundamental prin-
ciples that transform thinking into critical thinking.

Framework
Few people are able to think critically and understand things in that light. One
way to acquire this skill is to formulate an authentic foundation of a framework
and a paradigm of life and the world. Even though we work within the bound-
ary of some metaphysical framework and paradigm,3 I contend that each per-
son’s knowledge of these must be true and authentic. But how can we be sure
of this? For example, I believe that we largely think and act based upon non-
critical thinking, especially as regards the metaphysical foundation and prin-
ciples of critical thinking.4
We generally assume that the dominant metaphysical framework and
paradigm are realistic, and therefore do not view them from a critical view-
point. These are based on speculation, conjecture, imagination, and assump-
tion because relativism, which undergirds the Enlightenment, rejects the idea
of true, authentic, and universal knowledge. Therefore we cannot use such
knowledge to understand life and the world or to erect a structure of thinking
and critical thinking. To overcome this failure, we need to acquire accurate
knowledge by reexamining and reevaluating our existing perceptions of crit-
ical, analytical, and scientific thinking. The first step in this regard is to rec-
ognize that we currently do not really understand life, the world, and critical
thinking.5

The Metaphysical Foundation of Critical Thinking

If we are to develop any kind of critical thinking, correct knowledge about the
truth and reality of life and the world is a prerequisite, the actual foundation
and principles of critical thinking. Contemporary literature on critical thinking
shows that our knowledge in this regard is erroneous.6 In reality, it has ignored
this fundamental question,7 as have other branches of knowledge. For example,
although Socrates asked, “What ought one to do to make life a good life?” he
ignored the more fundamental questions of ethics: What is life? What is the
origin of life? Who gives and takes life? What is the purpose of life?
The existing literature on ethics does not contain these questions and their
answers.8 It seems they were not worthy of an answer, especially in the dis-
course on ethics; however, both ethics and rationality demand that we should
134 The American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 33:4

know them based upon a critical ethical inquiry. Whatever philosophical

thought exists today in terms of metaphysical issues was always answered
based upon reason and experience. Philosophers sought answers based upon
reason and sense perception, not realizing that our faculties can only supply
answers based upon conjecture and speculation. Thus, we need to look beyond
the current paradigm and admit that our cognitive faculties9 are unable to pro-
duce facts in the metaphysical domain.
To really understand our faculties, we need to see the truth and reality with
new lenses, to see familiar things in alternative ways. This effort demands that
we find a way to reexamine the existing paradigms and premises of thinking
and critical thinking, drop the false notions associated with them,10 and formu-
late a realistic understanding of critical thinking as regards truth and the reality
of this life and the world, along with all that is connected with it.
As this particular understanding is based upon certainty and authenticity,
we need genuine knowledge, defined as that which constitutes the genuine
foundation and characteristics of critical thinking. History is characterized by
two trends: (1) true, authentic, and universal knowledge and (2) conjecture
and speculation.11 The first one may be called critical thinking, and the second
one as merely thinking. In my view, all thought not guided by true, authentic,
and universal knowledge is uncertain and therefore inauthentic. In fact, this
is one of the fundamental obstacles to developing truth-based and reality ori-
ented thinking and critical thinking.12
The current dominant paradigm exists due to the lack of true and au-
thentic thinking and critical thinking.13 I posit that a deeper analysis of the
metaphysics reveals that current understanding also lacks any rational ar-
gument and historical and empirical evidence. To correct this error requires
the acquisition of true, authentic, and universal knowledge; however, the
so-called Enlightenment replaced such knowledge14 with thought and un-
derstanding based upon conjecture and speculation.15 As a result, we no longer
correctly understand such things as ethics, science, scientific thinking, crit-
ical thinking, analytical thinking, and creative thinking. For example, ethics
was confined to morals and science to the world of nature,16 both of which
undermine them as disciplines. One wonders why these rational and empir-
ical inquiries were confined to the study of these two specific areas or subject
matters. I argue that these methods of inquiry were not applied to metaphysical
and spiritual issues because true, authentic, and universal knowledge was
rejected.
Clearly, we need this rejected knowledge in order to understand this
world. Our dependence upon reason and sense perception continues to move
 Ali: The Foundation and Principles of Critical Thinking 135

us toward an uncertain understanding of the truth and reality of life and the
world because all of our discussions and debates are based upon an uncertain
foundation.

What Is Needed Today

Contemporary literature presents critical thinking as being no more than ap-
plying skills, techniques, procedures, and processes to examine and evaluate
whatever is in this world (e.g., fundamental principles of inductive and de-
ductive logic, reasoning, and methods of proof).17 Hence, we build our un-
derstanding of critical thinking and explaining its various aspects according
to this basic premise and elaborate its importance and characteristics (e.g., ex-
amination, analysis, sound argument, evidence, clarity, accuracy, precision,
relevance, depth, significance, logic, fairness, and well-reasoned conclusions).
We write and talk about it, yet we remain within and therefore do not criticize
this underlying premise. In fact, we have accepted it and never stray beyond
the accepted framework, even though the foundation and approach of the ex-
isting idea of critical thinking are neither holistic nor comprehensive.
Here, we need to understand the difference between thinking and critical
thinking. In most cases, we found that the discussion is on thinking, not critical
thinking. We fail to understand that critical thinking involves reexamina-
tion and reevaluation, whereas thinking is not necessarily based upon critical
examination and evaluation. Without the solid foundation and sound criteria
detailed above, “critical thinking” is actually no more than “thinking.” Most
textbooks do not clarify this issue.18

The Truth and Reality of True, Authentic,

and Universal Knowledge
While researching this article, I collected data from the Qur’an and determined
that it speaks of the existence and availability of this knowledge in terms of
revealed knowledge or revelation and presents a powerful ethical discourse
along with historical and empirical evidence. An analysis and examination of
its claims sheds light on one of its discourse’s internal facts: It asks people to
consider its ethical discourse, rational arguments, and the provided historical
and empirical evidence and then deduce whether it contains the true, authentic,
and universal knowledge or not.
Many people generally perceive the Qur’an as the source of religious
knowledge; however, its discourse does contain some important dimensions
136 The American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 33:4

that deserve our attention. First, it indisputably offers a model of critical think-
ing. For example, consider the following verses:
When they are told: “Do not spread mischief on Earth,” they ask: “Why? We
indeed are the ones who set things right.” They are surely the ones who make
mischief, but they do not realize it. When they are told: “Believe as others
believe,” they ask: “Shall we believe as the fools have believed?” Indeed, it
is they who are the fools, but they are not aware of it. (Q. 2:11-13)19

Second, we are told to speak about anything related to the metaphysical

world based upon accurate knowledge: “Does he have any knowledge of the
world beyond the ken of sense perception, and therefore, clearly sees [the
Truth]?” (Q. 53:33) and “Many indeed say misleading things without knowl-
edge, driven merely by their desires (Q. 6:119).”20 [Emphasis added]
Third, we need knowledge of the metaphysical world, which the Qur’an
claims to provide via clear signs. Rejecting these signs based on rationality,
historicity, and empiricism seems to be difficult, for they are supported by just
such evidence. Hence, the Qur’an asserts that the principle and method of crit-
ical thinking is to follow, as a prerequisite, the knowledge revealed by God,
the Creator. As the creation of God is not a human activity, as understood in
modern philosophy, God’s existence is by itself a truth and a reality.
God, the Ever-Living, the Self-Subsisting by Whom all subsist, there is no
Creator but He. Neither slumber seizes Him, nor sleep; to Him belongs all
that is in the heavens and all that is in the earth … He knows what lies before
them and what is hidden from them, whereas they cannot attain to anything
of His knowledge save what He wills them to attain, … He is All-High, All-
Glorious. (Q. 2:255)

In addition, “God is All-Powerful as well as All-Wise” (Q. 2:220) and

“God has full knowledge of everything” (Q. 2:231).
As the Creator of everything, God knows what His creatures need.
We said: “Get you down from here, all of you, and guidance [knowledge]
shall come to you from Me: then, whoever will follow My guidance need
have no fear, nor shall they grieve.” (Q. 2:38)
Surely We have brought them a Book which we expounded with knowledge
[true, authentic, and universal]; guidance and a mercy to those who believe
[understand and accept]. (Q. 7:52)21

Such verses seem to be enough to establish that this kind of knowledge exists.
Fourth, it asserts that speculation and conjecture cannot produce any con-
clusive knowledge, especially about the metaphysical world: “Most of them
 Ali: The Foundation and Principles of Critical Thinking 137

only follow conjecture; and surely conjecture can be no substitute for truth,
God is well aware of whatever they do” (Q. 10:36) and “While they have no
knowledge thereof. They only follow their conjecture, and verily, conjecture
is no substitute for the Truth” [(Q. 3:28).
Fifth, it evaluates and analyzes past nations and communities to present
a clear understanding about life’s journey and identifies the fundamental
principles of truth-based and reality oriented critical thinking22 by dis-
cussing their scientific, technological, and intellectual achievements based
upon a sound criteria of thinking critically. The Qur’an, which does not deny
the importance of material development, argues in favor of one’s spiritual
existence.

And remember how He made you heirs to [the tribe of] Ad and settled you
firmly on Earth, so that you [are able to] build for yourselves castles on its
plains and carve out mountains [to serve you] as dwellings: remember, then,
Allah’s blessings and do not act wickedly on Earth by spreading corruption.
(Q. 7:74)

Sixth, it points out that without identifying and applying the truth and re-
ality of life and the world, all of their achievements could not guarantee a life
of peace, happiness, prosperity, security, and quality. In fact, this failure en-
gendered chaos, crisis, corruption, and destruction.
Finally, the Qur’an presents a criterion of thinking and critical thinking,
the most important aspect of which is intimately related to the claim of the
availability of the knowledge described above. First, it challenges humanity:
“Among them are also the unlettered folk who do not know about the Books
but cherish baseless wishes and merely follow their conjectures” (Q. 2:79);
“Do you attribute to God something about which you have no knowledge?”
(Q. 2:81)23; and “But most people do not know the Truth, and have, therefore,
turned away from it” (Q. 21:25).
It also rejects all philosophical and ideological claims of relativism, prag-
matism, empiricism, rationalism, and scientism.24 In terms of the metaphysical
domain, it accepts the need and necessity of true, authentic, and universal
knowledge and that humanity has benefitted from it since its creation.
[O Muhammad,] We have revealed to you as We revealed to Noah and the
Prophets after him, and We revealed to Abraham, Ishmael, Isaac, Jacob
and the offspring of Jacob, and Jesus and Job, and Jonah, and Aaron and
Solomon, and We gave to David Psalms. ... Those who denied this Truth
and barred others from the way of Allah have indeed strayed far away.
(Q. 4:163, 168)
138 The American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 33:4

It also clarifies that all communities and nations have thought, studied, an-
alyzed, and understood life and the world in terms of either conjecture and
speculation or of true, authentic, and universal knowledge. It also proves that
August Comte’s (1798-1857) Law of the Three Stages of Human Development
is just a theory, for it has not been tested and verified based upon sound criteria
of critical and scientific thinking or supported by historical and empirical evi-
dence. The Qur’an repeatedly argues that it contains the latter type of knowl-
edge25 – God’s revelation throughout history, but in different forms and styles
– and invites all people to verify and test its claims.
All post-Enlightenment intellectual, scholarly, scientific, and technolog-
ical activities have been grounded upon conjecture and speculation. The
Qur’an has this to say about these so-called philosophical, ethical, scientific,
empirical, critical, and rational studies: “No one can inform you of the truth
save the All-Aware” (Q. 35:14); “Say: ‘None in the heavens and on Earth has
knowledge of the Unseen save God’” (Q. 27:65); “Is the knowledge of the
Unseen with him so that he sees?” (Q. 53:35); and “Or is it that they have ac-
cess to [the Truths in] the realm beyond sense-perception which they are writ-
ing down?” (Q. 52:41).
The Qur’an claims to present true, authentic, and universal knowledge.
Therefore, it asserts that conjecture and speculation cannot provide the correct
foundation for intellectual understanding and scientific confirmation of life
and the world.26

The Principles of Truth-Based and Reality Oriented

Critical Thinking
Before elaborating the principles of truth-based and reality oriented critical
thinking, it seems appropriate to offer a realistic and meaningful definition of
this concept. Here, it is necessary to understand two things: (1) critical thinking
transcends those cognitive skills or strategies that may increase the possibility
of solving some problems or issues and (2) that truth-based and reality oriented
critical thinking may be defined as an intellectual activity that helps evaluate,
analyze, conceptualize, and develop an accurate understanding of the issues of
vision and mission of life and society. It vigorously applies rational arguments
and historical and empirical evidence, as well as certain skills and techniques,
to evaluate statements, policies, or programs; helps replace the existing notion
of critical thinking; and explains the importance and significance of truth, re-
ality, and all other things of this world. As detailed above, the dominant notion
of critical thinking has been reduced to the level of mere skills and techniques
 Ali: The Foundation and Principles of Critical Thinking 139

and, as a result, has lost its true meaning, purpose, and characteristics: to help
improve our process of thinking and conditions of life.
In the light of the above discussion, we can outline some fundamental
principles of critical thinking by the following chart.
Chart 1. The Fundamental Principles of Critical Thinking

The need for ethical inquiry supported by historical and empirical evidence.

The existence of true, authentic, and universal knowledge (i.e., Islamic re-
vealed knowledge) based on a rational, historical, and empirical approach.

The acceptance of a true, authentic, and universal worldview.

The acceptance of an ethical, empirical, spiritual, moral, universal, and peo-

ple-oriented basis of life and the world, as well as of the rise and fall of
civilization.

The acceptance of ethical, spiritual, and moral values received from the
true, authentic, and universal knowledge combined with human resource
development.

The acceptance of the need of knowledge, education, discipline, scientific

and technological advancement, economic growth, political stability, po-
litical legitimacy, the proper management of resources both human and ma-
terial, and the application of skills, techniques, and procedures.

One characteristic of this type of critical thinking is helping people over-

come the internal logical inconsistencies in a given statement, idea, or policy
by providing truthful and realistic criterion. As we cannot develop a strong
foundation of thinking and critical thinking on our own, I argue that we need
to replace conjecture and speculation with true, authentic, and universal
knowledge, which always directs us, in a meaningful way, to the right con-
clusions. This type of knowledge creates truth-based and reality oriented
understanding and explains life, which was created by God, and its vision
and mission, which differ from those of the existing dominant materialistic
view.27
140 The American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 33:4

The Qur’an challenges critical thinkers as well as knowledgeable and

wise people. To establish this, it develops an ethical discourse and provides
historical and empirical evidence for it: “Do they not ponder about the
Qur’an? Had it been from any other than God, they would surely have found
in it much inconsistency” (Q. 4:82). Hence, I claim that the truth and reality
of life and the world have been made known to everybody. Those philoso-
phers who based their pronouncements upon reason and sense perception
alone failed to realize and recognize their own position and faculties. “He
has the keys to the realm that lies beyond the reach of human perception;
none knows them but He. And He knows what is on the land and in the sea”
(Q. 6:59).28 Clearly, the truth and reality of life and the world is that it is spir-
itual and moral, as opposed to just materialistic. And so all aspects of life and
society are spiritual and moral as well. If they are absent, we must subject
life and society to an in-depth critical examination and evaluation.
The characteristics of truth-based and reality oriented critical thinking,
in fact, differ from those of critical thinking, for the former are not limited to
examining and questioning the assumed sound and relevant assumptions,
presuppositions, or perceptions. In fact, the first type of critical thinking,
which is presented in the Qur’an, helps humanity fulfills its life’s purpose
and and achieve its own wellbeing. The Qur’an reveals that everyone is sub-
ject to the laws of nature and to God’s moral and social laws,29 which means
that humanity can achieve peace, security, prosperity, happiness, and devel-
opment via its total and voluntary submission to God.
Humanity’s declaration of maturity, self-sufficiency and liberation from
God’s guidance is the result of ignorance, speculation, and conjecture – a fact
that is also mentioned in the Qur’an.30 The failure of human faculties to solve
society’s complex problems is by itself empirical evidence.31 Thus, according
to truth-based and reality oriented critical thinking, humanity needs to become
aware of the implications of denying God’s existence and not submitting to
Him completely. If this type of critical thinking fails in this regard, it can no
longer be considered “critical,” meaning that it can no longer distinguish truth
from falsehood, reality from unreality, right from what is wrong as well as the
place of pluralism and plurality.
There are other points as well. First, this type of critical thinking rejects
dogmatic, speculative, and conjectural methods and therefore distinguishes the
materialistic approach to life from the spiritual and moral approach. Moreover,
it goes beyond observable reality and discloses the unobservable reality of spir-
itual existence and the need to apply a universal set of morals approved by true,
authentic, and universal knowledge.32
 Ali: The Foundation and Principles of Critical Thinking 141

Second, it criticizes humanity’s lower materialistic goals, highlights

the high and noble goals of human welfare and development based upon a
spiritual and moral foundation, and outlines the framework that guarantees
the humanity’s wellbeing. Modern society’s institutions and people think
and act in terms of material benefits only, which creates conflicts of interest,
raises negative feelings (e.g., greed, corruption, and exploitation), promotes
material competition, and reduces the sense of material cooperation and
sacrifice. On the other hand, truth-based and reality oriented critical think-
ing states that one cannot attain true wellbeing based upon speculation and
conjecture.
Third, it ascertains that from an ethical point of view, life is both spir-
itual and moral. The lack of such a foundation has made people so arrogant
that they prefer to produce more weapons33 than food and to engage in
evil and ignore virtue. Fourth, it highlights the unnecessary emphasis on
amusement and entertainment, which seems to indicate the lack of a sense
of life’s spiritual reality. The set of morals sanctioned by God are no longer
respected.34 This kind of critical thinking challenges modernity’s entire
worldview.
Fifth, it logically, rationally, and scientifically reveals the shallowness of
modernity’s materialistic and relativistic view of life in favor of the spiritual
and moral view of life. For example, it criticizes those who talk about banning
weapons of mass destruction only to produce and continue to sell them,35
those who produce commodities using unhealthy minerals, and the unending
competition for so-called technological advancement. It therefore promotes
the framework of ‘amr bi al-ma‘rūf wa nahī an al-munkar36 by diverting our
focus from ethical and scientific skills in order to elaborate and then help us
follow the straight path of development,37 prosperity, security, peace, and
happiness.

Conclusion
Clearly, the current structure of critical thinking, based upon conjecture and
speculation, needs to be replaced with truth-based and reality oriented critical
thinking, which uses the criteria of true, authentic, and universal knowledge to
distinguish truth from falsehood. Thus, the notions of the necessity of scientific
and technological advancement, economic growth and development, political
stability and globalization, as well as the development of information technol-
ogy need to be analyzed and criticized. But such an undertaking is impossible
due to the corruption, selfishness, and greed that now drive us and almost all
societies.38 What is needed today are integrated, spirituality oriented, and moral
142 The American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 33:4

human beings and societies that stand up against corruption, greed, exploitation,
and injustice. This requires a complete overhauling of our existing notions of
thinking and critical thinking.
I conclude that truth-based and reality oriented critical thinking will en-
lighten humanity about the problematic dimension of existing concepts of
thinking as well as critical and scientific thinking Statistics on drugs use, the
sale of weapons, and the rise in corruption and crime are sufficient empirical
proofs to argue the need for rethinking in these areas, as well as in our educa-
tional institutions, curricula, teachers, and all others need a new orientation
for their lives and professions.39 The truth-based and reality oriented critical
thinking presented in this article has to demolish the sense of supremacy that
pervades contemporary models, theories, concepts, methods, sciences, ide-
ologies, and so many -isms. Quite a few thinkers have commented that hu-
manity is currently on the brink of total destruction and suicide.40 Hence, the
perception and role of modern science have become questionable.41 Truth-
based and reality oriented critical thinking will play a constructive role in sav-
ing humanity from itself.

Endnotes

1. Authors discuss the skills and techniques of critical thinking, such as argument
recognition, analysis, and evaluation. See, for example, Debra Jackson and Paul
Newberry, Critical Thinking: A User’s Manual (Boston: Wadsworth, Cengage
Learning, 2012); Burton. F. Porter, The Voices of Reason: Fundamentals of Crit-
ical Thinking (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002); Lewis Vaughn, The
Power of Critical Thinking (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005); Larry
Wright, Critical Thinking: An Introduction to Analytical Reading and Reasoning
(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001).
2. For a better understanding of the term scientific, see Muhammad Mumtaz Ali
and Siddiq Ali Chishti, “The Contemporary Intellectual Crisis and Lack of Clear
Perception of Science and Scientific Thinking,” Revelation and Science 5 no. 2
(2015): 33-50.
3. On the issue of metaphysical framework, see Richard F. Kitchener (ed.), The
Worldview of Contemporary Physics: Does it Need a New Metaphysics? (Al-
bany: State University of New York Press, 1988).
4. The available literature on critical thinking shows that all authors discuss and
focus on the techniques and skills of critical thinking. See, for example, Edward
S. Inch et al., Critical Thinking and Communication: The Use of Reasoning in
Argument, 4th ed. (London: Allyn and Bacon, 2002); W. Edgar Moore et al., Cre-
ative and Critical Thinking (Boston: Houghton Miffin Company, 1985); Gerard
I. Nierenberg, The Art of Creative Thinking (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1986).
 Ali: The Foundation and Principles of Critical Thinking 143

5. I have argued elsewhere that our basic need is to have truthful and realistic idea
of life and the world, the negligence of which is tantamount to the absence of a
scientific approach. See Ali and Chishti, “The Contemporary Intellectual Crisis.”
6. Ibid.
7. We find no discussion of this subject in the available literature.
8. Muhammad Mumtaz Ali, “What is Ethical in Ethics: An Exploration into the
Universal Foundational Principles of Ethics,” Paper presented at the Interna-
tional Conference for American Academic Disciplines, Harvard University,
Boston, organized by the International Journal of Arts and Sciences, Central
Connecticut State University, May 28-30, 2010.
9. The Qur’anic verses about the power of our faculties do not support the ratio-
nalist and empiricist claim of the superiority of reason and sense perception. For
example: “And certainly We have created for Hell many of the jinn and human-
ity. They have hearts with which they fail to understand, eyes with which they
fail to see, and ears with which they fail to hear. They are like cattle – indeed,
even more astray. Such are utterly heedless” (Q. 7:179) and “Do not be like
those who say: ‘We hear,’ although they do not hearken. Indeed, the worst kind
of beasts in Allah’s sight are the people who are deaf and dumb and who do not
understand” (Q. 8:21-22).
10. For an alternative framework of critical thinking see, Muhammad Mumtaz Ali,
Islamic Critical Thinking (Kuala Lumpur: Pearson, Kuala Lumpur, 2011).
11. See Q. 10:66-67 and 53:28.
12. In the existing literature on critical thinking, subjects such as reliance on author-
ity, black-and-white thinking frame of reference, and others have been consid-
ered obstacles to critical thinking. See, for example, Vincent E. Barry, Invitation
to Critical Thinking (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1984), 3-4.
13. See Q. 13, 53:23-24, 11:24, and 39:9.
14. Rationalism, empiricism, relativism, scientism, pragmatism, and other modern
theories of knowledge have rejected the idea of true, authentic and universal
knowledge.
15. Q. 15, 4:157, and 6:119.
16. Ali, “What is Ethical in Ethics”; Ali, “The Contemporary Intellectual Crisis.”
17. Merrilee H. Salmon, Introduction to Logic and Critical Thinking, 6th ed. (Boston:
Wadsworth, Cengage Learning, 2013); Gregory Bassham et al., Critical Think-
ing: A Student’s Introduction, 5th ed. (New York: The McGraw Hill Companies,
2013); Alec Fisher, Critical Thinking: An Introduction, 2d ed. (Cambridge: Cam-
bridge University Press, 2011); Tracy Bowell and Gary Kemp, Critical Thinking:
A Concise Guide, 3d ed. (New York: Routledge, 2010).
18. We find repetition. See, for example, Salmon, Introduction; Bassham et al.,
Critical Thinking; Fisher, Critical Thinking; and Bowell and Kemp, Critical
Thinking.
19. Q. 31:21 and 2:171.
20. Q. 18:1-5 and 31:6.
 144 The American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 33:4

21. Q. 3:164-66, 11:1-2, and 16:64.

22. See, for details, chapters 2-5 of the Qur’an.
23. Q. 2:88, 121, and 146; 53:24-25 and 28-29.
24. William F. Lawhead, The Philosophical Journey: An Interactive Approach, 6th
ed. (New York: Mc Graw Hill Education, 2011), 167-307.
25. God asks people who speak about the unseen aspects of life: “Do you have any
clear authority for such claims? Bring your Book, if you are truthful” (Q. 37:156-
57). Also see Q. 7:52, 6:52, and 4:168.
26. Q. 4:157, 6:116 and 148, and 16:119.
27. Q. 27:6, 40:1-2, and 39:1-2.
28. Q. 31:34 and 23:92.
29. See Q. 2:27, 3:62-63, and 16:88.
30. Several Qur’anic verses refer to failure of human faculties if they are not used
properly, such as Q. 7:179, 22:46, and 6:25.
31. All governments and NGOs take the advice of experts but remain unable to
solve problems.
32. The Qur’an provides a set of morals, the rejection of which causes chaos and
crisis in life and society. See Q. 2:27, 83-86, 215, 177 and 7:142.
33. See the on-line reports of statistics on the production and sale of weapons.
34. Recently, President Barack and former Secretary of State Hillary Clinton ac-
cepted homosexuality and lesbianism. These are no longer considered sins or
crimes in the modern world.
35. America and the European Union champion arms control, yet every year they
sell the highest number of weapons.
36. Q. 3:104.
37. Q. 15:15-16; 1:6; 2:16, 82, and 225.
38. R. J. Baum, Doctors of Modernity: Darwin, Marx and Freud (Peru, IL: Sher-
wood Sugden, 1988).
39. For the needs of a new educational system and curriculum see, Harry R. Lewis,
Excellence without A Soul (New York: BBS Public Affairs, 2006).
40. See especially the concluding remarks of Samuel P. Huntington, The Clah of
Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order (New York: Simon and Schuster,
1996), 321.
41. For a different point of view on modern western education, see Muhammad
Mumtaz Ali, The History and Philosophy of Islamization of Knowledge (Kuala
Lumpur: IIUM Press, 2013) and Muhammad Mumtaz Ali, Issues in Islamization
of Human Knowledge (Kuala Lumpur: IIUM Press, 2014).

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