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Principles of Criminal Investigation

Criminal Investigation in Pakistan

Investigation is the backbone of every Criminal Justice system. Prosecution is responsible to prove guilt
of accused beyond reasonable doubt and accused is presumed to be innocent and cannot be convicted
in absence of trustworthy, confidence inspiring evidence. This high standard of proof can only be
achieved if evidence is properly collected, secured and documented at stage of investigation so that it
can later on be produced in court to prove charges against accused. Its importance can be estimated
from the fact that any evidence either not collected by investigating officer or not collected in
accordance with the prescribed law and rules can directly affect the result of litigation. Courts in any
Criminal Justice system are not involved in collecting evidence, its exclusive domain of investigating
officer. Functions of court are to draw inference from evidence and then conclude either an offence has
been committed or to give judgment that a particular person is not guilty.

A. General Definition
“It is process of collection and analysis of information and evidence to identify and prove the
guilt of an offender”

B. Definition by Scholars
i. "A lawful search for people and things to reconstruct the circumstances of an illegal act,
apprehend or determine the guilty party, and aid in the states prosecution of the offender"

ii. “The collection of information and evidence for identifying, apprehending, and convicting
suspected offenders”

C. Criminal Investigation in Pakistan (Background):

As the Indo- Pakistan Sub-continent was the colony of British Government so all of the prevailing
criminal investigation system has its roots in United Kingdom System of Police which they had
introduced in India as their colony. The name Criminal Investigation Department was first used for the
detective branch of the Metropolitan Police London in 1878, when it was reorganized for proper
recording and dissemination of information. It was the time when United India was under the colonial
occupation of English. But the suggestion for establishing criminal investigation department in the
provinces of the Indo-Pakistan Sub-continent came from the Police commission of 1902-3. In Punjab the
department was setup in 1905, with Sir Edward Lee French as its first Deputy Inspector General. In Sindh
criminal investigation department came in to being as a small branch under an Assistant Superintendent
of Police in 1911. There were various sources applied by these branches to investigate the crimes
including fingerprints, forensic laboratories, dog branches etc.
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D. Objectives of Criminal Investigation

The criminal investigation is aimed at achieving the following purposes:

• To identify the offender: The principle purpose of the investigator is to identify the person
who committed the crime
• Collection of Facts incidental to the Case: The investigation is required to collect all relevant
facts incidental to the case
• To sift the wheat from the chaff: This is to sort the valuable things and discard the irrelevant
ones
• To Preserve the Evidence: Evidence is preserved in order to prove the case
• To Draw Conclusions: Investigators draw conclusions from available facts
• To establish the Guilt in Court of Law: The entire exercise is rendered useless if the offender’s
guilt is not proved before the court of law

E. Principles of Crime Scene Investigation:

1. Establish the crime scene dimensions and identify potential safety and health hazards
 Locate the focal point and main area of disturbance
 Establish a sizeable parameter to cover all physical evidence, it can be a small room to several
kilometers in case of plan explosion etc.
 Identify Potential paths of perpetrator entry/exit
 Safety is of paramount importance during the initial approach to the scene. Weapons, bio-
hazards, chemical hazards and even international traps could be waiting for responders.
 If medical, fire or coroners will be on scene, they will need to be advised regarding evidentiary
issues as well.

2. Ensure Security of Crime Scene

 Locard's Principle of Exchange: Every person who enters or exits the scene will add or
subtract material from the crime scene, so it's crucial to quickly secure the area.
 Cordon off the area and document every one entering and exiting the area
 Establishment of standard entry/exit path
 Additional areas for consultation and evidence storage may also be established if necessary

3. Plan, communicate and coordinate

 Before collecting evidence, develop a theory regarding the type of offense that occurred.
 This will help investigators anticipate the evidence that could be present
 This may require gathering information from witnesses or persons of interest
 Based on this information, the crime scene team will develop an evidence-collection strategy
taking into consideration weather conditions, time of day and other factors.
 Additional forensic resources may also be requested to handle special situations.
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4. Conduct a primary survey/walkthrough

 An initial survey of the scene is then conducted to prioritize evidence collection
 During this walkthrough, the lead investigator will identify potentially valuable evidence, take
notes and capture initial photographs of the scene and the evidence.
 Every possible detail is documented like temperature, equipment, smell, position of evidence
etc
 To facilitate this process, crime scene specialists may create an evidence-free pathway leading
to the primary area of interest by conducting a thorough sweep for evidence in that area

5. Document and process the Scene

 With a plan in place the crime scene team conducts a thorough, coordinated investigation of the
scene collecting all probative evidence.
 This entails detailed documentation with digital and video cameras or, if available, a 3-D scanner
 For some situations, sketches and diagrams are also created.
 Follow proper procedure for collecting, packaging and preserving the evidence, especially if it is
of a biological nature.
 Biological evidence can be destroyed or damaged by weather conditions, individuals can temper
it etc.

6. Conduct a secondary survey/review

 To ensure that the scene has been thoroughly searched, a second survey of the area is
conducted as a quality control step
 To check any evidence collection missing as identified in first step
 To look for additional evidence if possible
 To certify all necessary evidence has been collected and crime scene may be opened to other
persons

7. Record and preserve evidence

 To make certain that all evidence is accounted for an inventory log is created
 The descriptions recorded into the log must match the photo of the evidence taken at the scene
and the description included in the crime scene report
 For instance, if a gun is collected, the serial number of the firearm in the evidence log must
match the serial number shown in the photo that was taken at the scene.
 This paper trail establishes the chain of custody that will follow the evidence throughout the
lifecycle of the case.

Principles of Crime Scene Investigation (Precise, based on terminologies)

 Locard's Principle of Exchange: Every person who enters or exits the scene will add or subtract material
from the crime scene, so it's crucial to quickly secure the area.
 Associative Evidence: Any evidence that can link a person to the scene is known as associative evidence.
This may include items such as fingerprints, blood and bodily fluids, weapons, hair, fibers, and the like.
This type of evidence answers the question, “Who did this?”
 Reconstructive evidence: It allows investigators to gain an understanding of the actions that took place
at the scene. A broken window, a blood spatter pattern, bullet paths and shoe prints can all reveal what
actually happened. This type of evidence answers the question, “How did it happen?”
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F. Principles of Criminal Investigation:

1. Objectivity: A condition of being free from bias which implies that the investigation process
should not be influenced by personal interests or inclinations of the investigator.
2. Independence: The investigator should be officially independent in conducting investigation
3. Neutrality: The investigator should be neutral by avoiding leanings towards any of the parties
to the case.
4. Relevance: Remain focused on the relevant facts only.
5. Professionalism: Reasonable degree of professionalism should be observed by the
investigating officers.
6. Competence: The investigating Officer should be well equipped with the requisite skills and
techniques of investigation.
7. Compliance with Law and Procedures: Non Compliance with Law and set Procedures may
cost the Investigation Prosecution losing its case in the Court of Law.
8. Timeliness: Non following of timeliness may render the case entirely irrelevant.
9. Record and Preservation of Evidence: Evidence should be properly preserved to establish
the case in the court.
10.Chain of Custody: It means documentation of evidence from time to time when it was taken
into possession describing time, place or condition, or brief description of item and name of
persons/witnesses in whose presence such articles were taken into possession to its production
in laboratory/agency or court.
11.Investigation Report: The investigation report should be stable, clear, concise and relevant.

G. Statutory Framework dealing Criminal Investigation in Pakistan

In Pakistan investigation of criminal offences under Pakistan Penal Code 1898 is conducted under:

1. Code of Criminal Procedure, 1898

2. Police Rules 1934
3. Police Order 2002
4. Special laws

Section 4(l) of Code of Criminal Procedure defines Investigation as following:-

“Investigation includes all the proceedings under this code for the collection of evidence
conducted by a police officer who is authorized by a Magistrate in this behalf”

A person cannot assume role of investigator. Investigation can only be done by a police officer or a
person authorized by a Magistrate.

In Pakistan two modes have been provided in Code of criminal procedure, 1898 to set the criminal law in
motion:
1. First Information report (FIR) lodged under section 154 of CrPC, 1898 (as shown in attached
picture, if police does not register an FIR on complainant’s request, complainant can reach
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SP complaints for registering it. After refusal from this end, next step would be to visit
Justice of Peace)
2. Complaint lodged under section 200 of CrPC, 1898

H. Steps of Investigation:
After lodging an FIR/complaint investigation generally consists of the following steps:

1. Proceeding to the spot

2. Ascertainment of the facts/circumstances of the case
3. Discovery and arrest of the suspected offender
4. Collection of evidence relating to the commission of offence which may consist of:
i. Examination of various persons (including the accused) and the reduction of
their statements into writing
ii. The search of place or seizure of things considered necessary for the
investigation and to be produced at the trial
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I. Procedure of Investigation in Pakistan:

Investigation of a non-cognizable offence
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Investigation of a cognizable offence

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J. Problems in Criminal Investigation in Pakistan & their suggested

Reforms:
1. One major problem in the country’s criminal investigation is the overwhelming dependence on
ocular evidence, less appreciation for the usage of electronic devices, and forensic evidences.

2. One can often see the procedure of police at crime scenes in Pakistan; they interrogate the
witnesses first and ignore the crime scene.

Suggested Reform (covers both the above points 1 & 2):

This is the scientific era. Therefore we should follow science without any delay and recruit only
professionals. Similarly, we should ignore unscientific and untrue fabricated stories, because
science believes in facts rather than cooked up stories.

3. The tendency among witnesses to retract statements in the courts. The perception that
witnesses are often ‘planted’ by the law-enforcing agencies in order to twist the facts, including
the police, also adds to the problem, as this way the witnesses are likely to change their
statements during cross-examination by defence lawyers

Suggested Reform:
Section 161 Cr. P. C. be amended in order to state the witness remarks along with his/her
signature, so one cannot deny his/her statement.

4. At present the ‘First Information Report’ (FIR) in any case is considered to be the complete case
file by the police as well as the judiciary. This is wrong. The FIR should be considered only as the
initial report. At present a whole case is built on the FIR and the changes made in it eventually
make the whole thing suspicious. And the courts also consider these FIRs as the basis of any case
and because of the faulty investigations the case ends up in a flawed decision,

Suggested Reform:
FIR should just be considered as an initial report. The outcome of the judgement should not be
based on it, rather on the whole investigation carried afterwards.

5. Normally, the police are assigned to carry out investigations in cases of crime. The police are
also required to submit challans against the accused, leaving it to the prosecutors to take on the
legal battle in courts.
Suggested Reform:
If the prosecutors work along with police officers during the course of investigation and the
submission of challan, they can advise the police officers better as to how to set up the case in a
way that the charges can be proved in the court.
What actually happens is that the prosecutors have no choice but to defend the cases prepared
without their knowledge and participation. “As a result, they have low conviction rates.
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6. Investigation is a technical subject to handle. Due to lack of knowledge and know-how, many
cases do not result in proper conviction. Therefore, it can no longer survive under current
policing branch.
Suggested Reforms:
i. According to former IG KP Police Nasir Durrani, “The top most priority of the
government should be to change ‘Police Culture’, completely revamp the police
investigation system and separate it from the police department, hire investigation
specialists who are abreast with the modern and scientific means and manners of crime
investigation and continue training more and more crime investigators in the country”.
ii. An investigator should be authorized to investigate the case on basis of his qualification,
experience and training. For major offences like murder, rape, forgery/fraud, electronic
crimes, kidnapping, investigator should have relevant expertise to investigate that
crime.
An investigator who have never conducted investigation in forgery should not be
allowed to investigate that offence instead of this he should be assigned task according
to his expertise, interest and knowledge.
iii. Due to rapid development of technology, investigators must be provided with training
and continuous development. Incentives should be given on basis of merit.

 School of Investigations in Punjab & Sindh:

GIZ, a German development agency, which provides services in the field of
international development cooperation initiated “Criminal Investigative
Services in Pakistan II Programme (CIS II)” in 2017-19.
Under this program, they established two schools of investigation (SoI) in police
training colleges in Punjab and Sindh at Sihala and Saeedabad respectively. The
SoI are premier institutes to educate and train police investigators in criminal
investigations.

 School of Investigation, KP:

It was established in 2014 and has enhanced the quality of investigation of the
police force. Justice System Support Program (JSSP), funded by UK’s Department
for International Development, provided investigation kits and other tools. This
School of Investigation in Peshawar keeps its force abreast with modern
investigation techniques, including terrorism investigations.

7. Investigation protocols are not implemented in letter and spirit. For example, an investigation of
a murder case should include more than just formality of injury statement, inquest report
(An inquest report is made primarily to look into the causes of unnatural death) and conducting
postmortem. The described investigation steps must be followed.
8. Lack of proper knowledge of prescribed procedures to conduct investigation. Investigation is a
failure in our country due to lack of knowledge, proper training and development of skills.
Common examples of lack of knowledge and skills that results in failure of investigation are:
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i. Lack of knowledge of different provisions of law especially when offence falls under
different jurisdictions e.g. provision of Anti-terrorism Act, or provisions of sec. 5(2) of
Prevention of Corruption Act 1947.
ii. Lack of knowledge as to offense falls under what jurisdiction and which agency shall
hold investigation.
iii. Lack of training to collect biological and other evidence at crime scene and due to
improper collection important evidence at crime scene is contaminated before it
reaches laboratory for analysis and consequently important evidence is either lost or
compromised at crime scene.

Suggested Reform (for both points 7 & 8):

Research Society of International Law (RSIL), private sector research and policy institution based
in Pakistan, in collaboration with the National Police Bureau (NPB) prepared a handbook for law
enforcement in Pakistan. It includes the FIR process, investigation protocols, trial procedures,
anti-terrorism laws and special laws relevant to the police, and has been made part of National
Police Bureau’s Curriculum in order to equip Law Enforcement Agencies (LEAs) with the said
protocols.

9. Delay which is unnecessary has fatal impact on fate of Criminal case. Delay on part of police in
sending corpse for postmortem examination, delay in recording statement of witness, delay in
holding identification parade, delay in sending parcels to laboratory for expert opinion are all
considered fatal to prosecution case and this delay is caused by negligence of police.

Suggested Reform:
Police should be given proper manpower alongwith other resources so that they can meet the
deadlines as mentioned in investigation protocols.

10. Considering 2017-18 budget, Punjab Police was allocated Rs. 203.3 million as costs of
investigation for 449,532 cases investigated in the same period, which comes to Rs. 452 per
investigation.

Suggested Reform:
According to a report prepared by former IGP KPK and Punjab Mr. Abbas Khan on directions of
Federal Ombudsman, “Each Police Station needs an additional amount of Rs. 7.00 lacs beyond
what the budget provides it to cater for the fuel, utilities, maintenance and investigation cost. It
is currently fully or partially generated ‘off the ground’ by the Police Station illegally (through
public etc)”.
The allocation for costs incurred on investigations must be rationalized and it must be ensured
that the money is provided to the investigation officers in advance so that they do not shift the
burden to the public

11. It happens that media causes exploitation of cases and this causes undue harrasment and biased
investigation. Similarly political pressure groups must not be allowed to approach the officials.
Illegal practices of holding panchayats, formulating opinions of investigation on basis of oath,
and deciding cases in police station must be stopped. It is duty of police to collect evidence
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without compromising its integrity and it is duty of court to determine guilt or innocence on
basis of evidence. An investigator is not party to Criminal case. He must be impartial.

Suggested Reform:
Investigation wing of police must be independent. There should be no interference at level of
investigation. Media should be briefed only when investigation has been completed. Political
parties should not dictate police officers, rather the police officers should be allowed to proceed
with investigation without being influenced.

12. It is often a common problem that investigators are involved in corrupt practices.

Suggested Reform:
Investigators who are properly trained and skilled in investigation if destroy evidence or temper
it and benefits any party, and if their involvement is proved, they must be punished exemplary
to have deterrent effects.
13. Shortage of laboratories:
Details attached in below Main Heading “ Situation of Forensic Investigations in Pakistan”

Suggested Reform:
There is a need to increase the capacity and number of the Forensic laboratories across the
country as current facility is insufficient keeping in mind the large number of cases coming from
big population of Pakistan

K. Situation of Forensic Investigations in Pakistan:

Punjab Forensic Science Agency (PFSA) has taken lead in forensic investigation and, established merely
more than a decade ago, being the only complete forensics setup in Pakistan is not sufficient to cover
the 200 million population so it is a cry-need to develop more forensic labs at provisional level with their
functional CSU (Crime Scene Units) via regional satellite station in every province. Proper training of law
enforcement agency prioritizing police force could prove a good strategy as first responders at the crime
scene is highly important. It could have done by designating a department in police to such personnel's
which are trained in this respect. Police must be provided with CSI (Crime Scene Investigation) vans
supplemented with modern day forensics technology like evidence collection kits, UV flashlights, laser
bullet trajectory devices, protective suits, latent print supplies, gunshot residue kits, blood stain
evidence kits along with presumptive blood detection kits, potable and remote area lights among other
equipment and supplies.

National Forensic Science Agency (NFSA):

The National Forensic Science Agency (NFSA) was established in 2002 having departments of forensic
DNA laboratory, crime scene Investigation, trace chemistry, questioned documents and digital forensics.
Its objective was to help establish other forensic science laboratories across the country and to provide
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teaching and training facilities throughout Pakistan. Subsequently, two provincial forensic science
institutes were established in Punjab and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KP).
National Forensic Science Agency (NFSA) has its own CSU working at Islamabad covering most of the city
and its nearby areas like Rawalpindi district and some part of Attock district.

Punjab Forensic Science Agency (PFSA):

In Punjab province, Punjab Forensic Science Agency (PFSA) Act was passed on October 2007 for the
establishment of the Forensic Science Agency which ultimately lead to the establishment of the Punjab
Forensic Science Agency in 2011 having fourteen departments under one roof, and it is the world’s 2 nd
largest Forensic laboratory. The departments include audio video analysis, computer forensic unit,
crime and death scene, DNA and serology, forensic photography, narcotics, toxicology, trace evidence,
polygraph, firearm and tool marks, latent fingerprints, pathology and questioned documents.
It employs approximately 1062 employees (scientific & non-scientific staff) and is a state-of-the-art, first
of its kind and ISO17025 certified forensic laboratory in Pakistan.
PFSA has nine satellite crime scene investigation centres in every division of Punjab i.e. Lahore,
Bahawalpur, Dera Ghazi Khan, Gujranwala, Multan, Sahiwal, Sargodha, Rawalpindi and Faisalabad
division, comprising professionally trained forensic scientist. Whenever there is an unfortunate event of
crime, CSU (Crime Scene Unit) approaches the area of crime scene and after processing the crime
scenes, retrieves the evidence materials transporting to their relevant laboratory housed in PFSA,
Lahore.
At present, NFSA and PFSA are providing many important investigation leads in various hideous crimes.
Though PFSA CSU is modernized and up-to date for effective processing of crime scene in case of any
unfortunate incidence, it is further suggested that satellite stations of CSU must be established at each
district of Punjab (36 districts in Punjab) for prompt and timely access at the scene.
Some Latest Developments/Initiatives by Punjab Forensic Science Agency (PFSA):
i. The Punjab Forensic Science Agency provided assistance to UNDP for the establishment of a
forensic lab at SWAT KPK.
ii. PFSA is also assisting in the establishment of a National Forensic Science Agency, Sindh
Forensic Science Agency and KPK Forensic Science Laboratory according to international
standards.
iii. Furthermore, PFSA has provided 6 months of extensive training to the staff of KPK,
Balochistan and National Forensic Science Laboratories.
iv. PFSA has also given training to the 8 scientists of the General Department of Forensic
Science and Criminology Head Quarters, Dubai Police in the field of Firearms and Toolmarks.
v. The advent of DNA data base recently at PFSA has proved a major breakthrough in solving
crimes through DNA profile comparison, not only exonerating the innocent, but also in
catching the real culprit. As it helps police and judiciary to solve crimes of heinous nature. It
is evident from the fact that it helped in solving the Lahore-Sialkot motorway rape case,
by giving the details of prime suspects within 12 hours. PFSA has stored 30,000 DNA
databases currently (till June, 2020).
vi. A Firearms Database has also been established at PFSA for keeping records of crimes and
criminals. 
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vii. PFSA has also an access to NADRA’s fingerprint database.

United Nations Office on Drugs & Crime (UNODC) in collaboration with Government of Norway:
They have handed over state-of-the-art Crime Scene Vehicles (CSVs) to Gujranwala Police on October 12, 2020, in
order to enhance their capacity in crime scene investigation.

KP Forensic Science Laboratory (FSL):

Khyber Pakhtunkhwa police has established Forensic Science Laboratory and Institute of Forensic
Science in Peshawar in December, 2017 to provide preliminary forensic facilities and to bridge the gap
between forensic awareness and criminal investigation practices, but it does not cover whole Khyber
Pakhtunkhwa province. It has a well-established DNA laboratory as well.
Moreover, a recently (2016) inaugurated FSL in the Swat district is also providing assistance in and
around the Malakand division of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa.

KP Forensic Science Agency Bill, 2020:

The provincial assembly in September, 2020, approved the Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa (K-P) Forensic Science
Agency Bill, 2020. As it looks forward to establish it on same grounds as Punjab Forensic Science Agency
(PFSA).

In Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, crime scene investigation process is usually handled by the local policemen.

Sindh Province:
In Sindh province of Pakistan, crime scene investigation units are not yet available and crime scene
processing is mostly done by the local policemen, however, significant efforts are being made by the
local government in this regard.
i. DNA and serology-based testing facility is available in Jamshoro, Sindh
ii. Karachi police have a forensic investigation wing for evidence processing
iii. Forensic Science Laboraory, in Karachi, has been established in August, 2019, at Karachi
University. This laboratory has started functioning and it is performing casework on DNA
and serology-based testing.
In Sindh province, Sindh Forensic Science Agency act was passed on August, 2017, but so far no
implementation has been done in this regard.
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Balochistan Province:
In the Balochistan province of Pakistan, the FSL in Quetta is performing casework mostly based on
traditional techniques. Despite the approved act (the Balochistan Forensic Science Agency Act of 2015)
for the establishment of the forensic laboratory in Baluchistan province, no progress has been made in
that regard.
In Feb, 2018, United Nations Office on Drug and Crime (UNODC) has provided two modern mobile CSU
to Balochistan for capacity building of crime scene investigation process in the province.
In Mar, 2019, Governor Balochistan Justice (R) AmanUllah Yasinzai stressed the formation of Forensic
Science Laboratory equipped with DNA testing at Balochistan University of Information Technology,
Engineering and Management Sciences (BUITEMS).
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Intelligence Operations

“An intelligence operation is the process by which governments, military groups, businesses, and
other organizations systematically collect and evaluate information for the purpose of discovering the
capabilities and intentions of their rivals”
With such information, or intelligence, an organization can both protect itself from its adversaries and
exploit its adversaries' weaknesses.

 Types of Intelligence information:

Depending on the type of organization involved, intelligence operations can result in many different
types of information.

1. Strategic or national intelligence

Strategic or national intelligence is information about foreign nations that is collected by
governmental intelligence agencies. Strategic intelligence commonly encompasses national
security, political, economic, and social trends in the target nation.

2. Military intelligence
Military intelligence is produced by specially trained military or civilian analysts and usually
includes the strengths, weapons technology, and estimated military capabilities of actual or
potential enemies.

3. Industrial intelligence
Industrial intelligence is information gathered by a business firm concerning its rivals in the
marketplace.

4. Political intelligence
Political intelligence, as practiced in the United States, is usually concerned with ascertaining the
campaign strategy of a political opponent. Political intelligence can also apply to the efforts of a
ruler to uncover conspiracies.

5. Counter Intelligence
Counterintelligence embraces the wide variety of activities undertaken to forestall an
adversary's intelligence efforts. This is accomplished by physically protecting one's own sensitive
information and by penetrating and disrupting hostile intelligence organizations.

Difference between Covert & Intelligence operations:

Covert operations are often undertaken by intelligence agencies, but these are distinct from
intelligence operations whose purpose is to gather information. Covert operations are activities aimed
at the disruption of another nation's political process: they can include the dissemination of
propaganda, the encouragement of dissidents, acts of sabotage, and even assassination.
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Steps of Intelligence Operations:

1. Collection
Whether conducted by a governmental agency or a business firm, intelligence operations follow the
same pattern. The first step in generating intelligence is always the collection of information. Overt
collection is the acquisition of non-secret "open source" material. To obtain highly sensitive information,
however, it is usually necessary to resort to clandestine, or secret, collection.
Sources of Clandestine (covert) collection:
Intelligence derived from clandestine collection generally falls into three categories: human
intelligence, signals intelligence, and photographic intelligence.
1. Human intelligence is simply information gathered by and from human agents. Espionage,
or spying, is one time-honored method of obtaining human intelligence. Whereas other
forms of clandestine collection often provide a greater volume of information, especially
data of a technical nature, human intelligence is essential for uncovering the thinking, as
opposed to the activity, of the adversary. An outstanding example of human intelligence
collection is the Soviet Rote Kapelle ("Red Orchestra") spy network that permeated German-
occupied Europe in the early days of World War II.
2. A second form of clandestine collection is known as signals intelligence — the interception
of electronic communications and other emissions. Signals are intercepted by a variety of
methods, including the tapping of telephone lines and the monitoring of radio
transmissions. Messages intercepted in this manner are often in code. Cryptology, the study
of making and breaking codes, has become a science in itself over the years. The "Berlin
Tunnel" (1955–56), which was essentially a massive wiretap undertaking, is a dramatic
example of signals intelligence collection.
3. Another, relatively new form of clandestine collection is photographic intelligence
conducted from aircraft. Reconnaissance aircraft can also utilize thermography and
advanced radars to reveal details indiscernible in visible light. Photo intelligence from
aircraft is especially valuable for monitoring the movement of military forces on the ground
and for spotting the construction of military facilities. The Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962 began
when American U-2 reconnaissance aircraft revealed the presence of offensive Soviet
missiles in Cuba.

2. Evaluation and Utilization

The collection of raw intelligence is not an end in itself. Raw intelligence must be combined with related
data, significant information must be identified, and extraneous material ("noise") deleted.
Computerized data storage systems aid greatly in bringing together the related pieces of information
that make up a complete intelligence picture. Human intuition and creativity play important roles in
developing the "informed guesses" that fill gaps in the picture. This process of digesting raw
intelligence, known as evaluation, yields a product that is usable by policymakers. It is up to the
policymaker to utilize the intelligence that he or she receives in a timely and responsible manner.
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Steps of Intelligence Operations (From another source)

Note: Just avoid the word “Police” in this flowchart

Examples (Optional)
One of the greatest intelligence achievements in history, the British "Ultra secret" of World War II,
clearly illustrates the relationships that exist among collection, evaluation, and utilization of intelligence.
The collection phase of "Ultra" consisted of intercepting coded German radio messages (which had been
encrypted by their Enigma machine) and passing them through a secret computer like device that
rendered them into clear German. The evaluation phase involved translating the messages and fitting
them together to build up patterns of German military activity. This intelligence was then transmitted
secretly to Allied officials and commanders for utilization on the battlefield. Similarly successful
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intelligence operations contributed to such major historical events as the English defeat of the Spanish
Armada in 1588, the 1917 Zimmermann Telegram incident during World War I, and the U.S. naval
victory at the Battle of Midway in 1942, during World War II.
Conversely, the Japanese surprise attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941 demonstrates the price of intelligence
failure — more specifically, the failure to evaluate fully and act upon abundant raw intelligence. Other
infamous intelligence failures include the unpreparedness of the Soviet Union to meet the German
invasion of 1941, the Bay of Pigs fiasco of 1961, and the 1972 Watergate break-in, which represented a
political intelligence operation gone badly awry. In part, the unhappy U.S. involvement in the Vietnam
War can be blamed on the failure to act on intelligence warnings against U.S. intervention.

Principles of Intelligence Operations:

1. Intelligence activities require centralized management
 Good intelligence is the result of the integration of many separate and specialized
collection, processing, and analytical resources.
2. Good evaluation and dissemination
 The intelligence officer enables effective use of intelligence throughout the command.
As the principal disseminator of intelligence, the intelligence officer ensures that the Full
implication of the intelligence understood. To do this, the intelligence officer must be a
full and continuous participant in the planning process.
3. Intelligence must be tailored and timely
 Intelligence must be tailored to the requirements of the user, provided in a useful
format, and received in time to affect the decision-making process.
 Delivery of the right intelligence-not simply data or information to the right place at the
right time must be the guiding principle of all dissemination efforts.
4. Utilization is the final step of the intelligence cycle
 Intelligence has no inherent value; its value is derived from its support of decision
making. The intelligence cycle is not complete until the intelligence that has been
developed is used to plan and/or execute operations.

Pakistan – Intelligence Coordination:

Recently Pakistan has constituted a new over-arching committee over all the intelligence agencies in
order to synergize their efforts, named “National Intelligence Coordination Committee”, in Nov, 2020.
It would just be like US Department of Homeland Security, as in the USA all the intelligence agencies
work under Homeland Security.

Main Intelligence Agencies in Pakistan:

1. Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI)
2. Military Intelligence (MI)
3. Intelligence Bureau (IB)
4. Federal Investigation Agency (FIA)
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5. Special Branch (Police)

6. Crime Investigation Agency (CIA) in Police
7. Counter Terrorism Department (CTD) in Police

Database Investigations
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