CHAPTER -2

GENERAL APPLICATIONS OF SOLAR CELL

Solar radiation is the source of all life on earth. Without it, we would not be

here today living on such a rich and diverse planet Most of the energy available

to use is radiated from sun. It is now widely recognised that utilising the sun's

natural energy can offer real alternatives to finite resources of fossil fuels or

endangering future generation by relaying on dangerous technologies such as

nuclear power

Solar energy has long been used for space heating utilizing passive solar

design and for water heating through the use of solar water panels but one of the

most exciting areas of development has come inform of photo voltaic cell which

can convert the sun's energy directly into electricity.

Lately more and more cost effective system have immersed with PVS now

powering whole houses inform of solar roofs, which are also linked to the existing

electricity grid. In case there is insufficient power during lower intensity of sun

light

Photo voltaic are now a proven technology which is inherently safe as

opposed to other dangerous electricity generating technology As a result they will

live no legally for our grand children to inherent other than a sustainable energy

technology.

Photo voltaic cells are not new In ISS constructed one of the first cell from

thin wafers of selenium which eventually come into widespread use in

photographic exposure meters.

 Nowadays most people are familiar with solar powered calculators and

watches & as development over the last couple of decades has brought prices

down.

PV systems presently supply electricity all over the world. It has proved to

he the most cost effective form of electricity generation in many remote locations

around the world where there is no mains electricity. Such example include

telecommunications, lighting for remote dwellings, water pumping & refrigeration

in developing countries. & a whole host of consumer products powered by the

sun.

The caravan, trucking & boating industries have also long used small PV

systems to charge their batteries sometimes in conjunction with small wind

turbines

Lately, more & more cost effective systems have emerged with PV's now

powering whole houses in the form of solar roofs

The first application of solar photo voltaic space satellite (Vanguard-1) Success

of solar cell to their terrestrial PV application.

There are three broad categories for terrestrial PV applications.

1. Industrial

2. Social

3. Domestic .. .
2.1 INDUSTRIAL APPLICATION

2.1.1 TELECOMMUNICATIONS :-

In recent years the power consumption of telecommunication equipments

has considerably reduced due to use of solid state devices Transmitter and relay

stations now consume 50 to 100 W & relay stations are often located in remote &

difficult to access areas like mountain tops.

PV system are both economical power system for them and several such

system are through out the world,

2.1.2 CATHODIC PROTECTION :-

Various Metallic structures like pipe lines, bridges etc are protected from

corrosion by cathodic protection.

In this technique a small direct current is impressed on the structure at

regular intervals to prevent electrochemical corrosion Small PV panels may be

used to provide this current very efficiently.

2.1.3 NAVIGATIONAL AIDS :-

In this technique, marine beacons and navigational lights operates by PV

generator which were earlier powered In batteries with several maintenance

problems.
2.1.4 REMOTE AIRCRAFT BECONS :-

It includes Remote radio & light becons near airports may be powered

economically by solar PV One of the earliest example of powering light becons

by PV peaks near media airports in Saudi Arbia.

2.1.5 ALARM SYSTEMS :-

PV system are be used to power railway signal, alarm system & Traffic

lines & railway telephone

2.1.6 AUTOMATIC METEOROLOGICAL STATIONS:-

For precise wheather forecasting it is necessary to collect the

meteorological data at a fixed time interval At several locations and their transmit

them to weather stations for analysis solor powered meteorological stations are

reliable, economical & relatively free of maintenance problems. A large network

for such stations help in predicting accurate wheather forecasting.

2.1.7 DEFENCE EQUIPMENT

Many defence equipment like mobile telephones, remote instrumentation

& remote radar. Water purifier, etc may be effectively powered by PV system

2.1.8 EMERGENCY EQUIPMENT

Battery charging on life boats & craft & bar providing essential services

alter earthquakes floods & other natural disasters may be

done efficiently by PV system.

2.2 SOCIAL APPLICATIONS

These includes providing electric power to remote village & islands

especially in developing countries by PV systems where large number of villages

remain unconnected to main grid. Electricity is necessary to improve health &

education levels & for local cottage industries. PV is best suited for rural

application & is environmentally benign. A small stand alone type solar PV power

system can be provide a rural house enough power for lightning, fans, TV. &

small refrigerator

PV powered water pumps are being installed to provide portable water

and low consumption irrigation purposes for growing high value crops Solar

powered water treatment plants are also in use for purifying water.

Another social application of PV is tit power refrigerators at community

health centres for keeping vaccines at low temperature for mass immunisation

programs to improve nival heath standard Special PV powered portable

refrigerators are available for transportation and storage of vaccines.

Yet another social application of PV is to provide electricity to TV for

schools & community centres for educational purposes.

2.3 DOMESTICS APPLICATIONS

A very large number of consumer items are now being powered by solar

PV. The power used by such apparatus is extremely small and the potential of

these application is very large some of these solar power products are pocket

calculators, solar lantern, watches, torches, garden lights, fans for houses &

battery charger for boats etc.

 CHAPTER - 3

SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAICS

Over the last 20 years or so the price of photo voltaics have fallen

dramatically and developments are constantly making them ever more efficient

and reliable Globally solar power is a fast growing market expanding at about

20% a year with increasing numbers of countries implementing ambitious solar

programs to try & stimulates the market further compared to other electricity

generating technologies, However Photo voltaics are still very expensive with a

unit pn/e of around 30-40 P/K wh, how-ever improvements in technology will

hopefully bring this cost down to around 11 P/KWh by 2005. Developments in the

thin film field are likely to provide- me next beak through Grid linked solar

buildings certainly offer the greatest potential in the UK and mas 1 well be the

power station of the future reducing the dependence on large centralized

generators.

3.1 DEFINITIONS

* The simplest definition of a solar cell is a device capable of convening the

solar radiation into electricity without going through a thermal process.

* Technically it is device generating electromotive force as a result of

absorption of ionising radiation. This effect is known as photovoltaic effect

Thus a solar cell is a transducer which converts the

sun's radiant energy directly into electrical energy

3.2 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHOTO VOLTAIC CONVERSION

The photo voltaic effect can be observed in nature in a variety of materials

but the materials having the best performance in sun light are the

semiconductors In a semiconductor which lies bet two extremes of conductor and

insulator, the atoms may have three, four or five electrons in the outer shell &

these electron can be freed only if some additional energy is supplied. These

semiconductor conducts the current slightly The conductivity of a semiconductor

can be changed by order of magnitude by introducing new foreign elements

called dopants. The conductivity of a semiconductor can be changed form 1000

to 0.001 mho cm Another property of a semiconductor is that the electric current

in it can be earned by electrons (negatively charged) or holes (positively

charged).

3.3 SOLARCELL MATERIAL

In a piece of pure semiconductor like silicon, there is no free charge

carrier of ordinary temperature But if this piece of silicon is doped with

phosphorous or arsenic there will be one extra electron per atom of the impurity

leading to N-type (Negative type) semiconductor Similarly another piece of pure

silicon is doped with boron (having one electron less than silicon) there will be

deficiency of electron (or excess of holes) leading to P-type semiconductor. If

these two pieces of silicon containing N-type & P-type impurities are connected

by some means, a junction at which the nature of the current carrier changes, is

created In fact a potential energy gap (I-g) is created at the junction , when
photons of sunlight having energy HV absorbed in semiconductors and HV is

greater than EG, the electrons will migrates from P-region to N-region & holes

will migrate from N-region to P-region. This charge separation creates on electric

field opposite to the electric field created by the diffusion of free electrons of the

N-region and in case the field created by charge separation predominates the

electric field created by the diffusion of free electrons from N-region to P-region

and holes from P-region to N-region. current will start flowing in the circuit as

shown in figure.

The other materials being considered for solar cells are cadmium sulphide

and gallium arsenide but there efficiency is quite low.

* PROPERTIES OF SOLAR CELL MATERIALS :-

(1) The semiconductor used in the cell should have high conversion

efficiency

(2) The dopants used for solar cell should have suitable energy level,

solubility & acceptable diffusion constant.

3.4 STEPS INVOLVED IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF SOLAR

PHOTOVOLTAICS.
3.4.1 GRID FORMATION :-

Grid formation is to make the metallic contact of back & front side of the

cell to collect charge carriers This should provide good ohmic contact low series

resistance’s, good adherence and good solderability The metals which are

generally used with silicon material are Titanium (Ti), Gold (An), Paladium (Pd).

silver (Ag), Aluminium (Al) etc The techniques which are generally adopted for

providing the metallic contact are vacuum evaporation, electroplating & screen

printing The Blank metallic contact on silicon P-tvpe region is of Aluminium which

is deposited by vacuum evaporation on the entire back surface.

The front contact is also made by vacuum evaporation after deciding the

grid shape and design. Layers of Titanium (Ti), Paladium (Pd) & silver (Ag) are

ore deposited one over the other by vacuum evaporation. The paladium layer

between Titanium and Silver is deposited to stop electrochemical reaction

causing corrosion in presence of moisture between Titanium and Silver.

Generally in a normal P-N junction cell grid lines arc about 0.3 cm apart £ cover

generally 5-10% of cell used This process is widely used to produce high

efficiency

3.4.2 ANTI – REFLECTIVE COATING (ARC)

ARC' is an important part of solar cell since the bare silicon has a

reflection coefficient of 0 33 to 0 54 The ARC" not only reduces reflection losses

but also lowers the surface recombination velocity. A single optimal layer of ARC

can reduce the reflection upto 10% & two layers can reduce the reflection upto

30% in the desired range of wavelength Generally ARC is produce on the solar

cell by vacuum evaporation of coating which are made up of Sio2, Sio, Al2o3 &

Si3o4. The average reflection can be further reduced b using two ARC inside the

one.

3.4.3 MODULE

Since generally circular cells are produced hence packing density of

module area remain uncovered. In case of square or hexagonal shape cells

better packing density are obtained since these cell arc thin, brittle, to be

protected from wheather and connection arc light, soft, they are sand switched or

encapsulate with a transparent cover at top. This not only provide the mechanical

strength of cell but also protect the cell from damage due to dirt, dust, birds,

foreign material and moistures penetration.

It also protect the metallic contacts, interconnection from wheather & wind.

3.5 CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING PRINCIPLE

At present, silicon photo voltaic cells are the only cells that have attained

commercial status Conventional silicon cells are thin wafers about 300 micro

meter in thickness and 3 to 6 cm in diameter sliced from single crystal of n-type

or p-type doped silicon. A shallow junction is formed at one end by diffusion of

the other type of impurity Metal electrodes made from a Ti-Ag solder are

attached to front and back side of the cell On the front side, the electrode is in the
form of metal grid with fingers which penults the sunlight to go through, while on

the back side, the electrode completely covers the surface. An antireflection

coating of SiO having a thickness of about 0.1 micro meter is also put on the top

surface

When radiation falls on a cell, it is absorbed land pairs of positive &

negative charges, called electron hole pair are created. The positive and

negative charges are separated because of the p-n junction. The direct current

there by produced is collected by the metal electrodes and flows to the external

load.

3.6 EFFICIENCY AND CHARACTERISTICS OF SOLAR CELL

Conversion efficiencies obtained for silicon cells range between 10 and

15% An important property of the material affecting the conversion efficiency is

the band gap energy (Eg). Photons of sunlight having energy (E) less than

band gap energy (Eg) are not usually absorbed On the other hand. Photons of

sunlight having 1. Tg have their energy partially utilised with the quantity (E Eg)

being wasted as heat R>r silicon, the value of l-]g is I 20 e\ This is close to

the optimum value desirable from the stand point of obtaining maximum

efficiency.

Apart from the band gap energy, the current voltage characteristics of a

solar cell also influences it's efficiency A typical characteristics is shown in figure

The current Isc obtained at zero voltage is called the short circuit current,

while the voltage Voc obtained with an open circuit is called the open circuit
voltage. The product of these quantities is the ideal power of the cell. The

maximum useful power is the area of the largest rectangle that can be formed

under the V-I curve. It the voltage and current corresponding 10 this situation are

denoted by Vm & Im, then the maximum useful power is Vm x Im. The ratio of

the maximum useful power to the ideal power is called the fill factor.

Fig

Typical values of the above quantities for a silicon cell are as follows

Voc = 450 to 600 mv

Isc = 30 to 50 mA/cm2

Fill factor 0.65 to 0.80

Other factor limiting the efficiency of a photo voltaic cells are

1) Reflection losses at the top surface

2) Shade due to charge collection grid at top surface

3) Incomplete absorption of photo energy.

4) In complete use of excess photon energy.

5) Collection loss.

6) Voltage factor loss.

7) Curve factor loss.

8) Screw and shunt resistance loss

Hence it is certain that the solar cell can not operated the theoretical

maximum efficiency because of the above limitations, out of which some are

avoidable but others arc intrinsic to the cell Some of the limitations can be

independently tracked while others are interrelated.

 CHAPTER -4

SOLAR PANEL DESIGN

It is possible to convert solar energy directly into electric energy by photo

voltaic process. The photo voltaic effect is the generation of an emf as a result of

the absorption of ionizing radiation. Energy conversion devices which are used

to convert sunlight to electricity by photo voltaic effect are known as photo voltaic

cells. Thus a solar cell is a transducer which converts the suns radient energy

directly into electricity and is basically semi – conductor diode capable of

developing a voltage of 0.5 to 1v and current density of 20 – 40mA per cm2

depending upon the materials used and the sun light conditions.

The solar cells and be connected in series and parallel and incorporated

in a module. Several modules may be interconnected to comprise a solar array.

In principle array sizes at a few megawatt level are possible, the only limitation

being the land requirement.

The power output of a cell, module or array is expressed in ‘watts peak’

which is the power output at midday under a clear sky sun.

Since a solar array consists of a number of modules, the size of the array

can be adjusted to suit the requirement. Initially the size can be kept small and

can be expended to cope with the increased requirement at a later stage. This

unique feature of photo voltaic system is not available with other power sources.

Since generally circular cell produced hence packing density of module

area remain uncovered. In case of square or hexagonal shape cell better packing

density are obtained. Since these cell are thin brittle to be protected from
wheather & connection are soft. They are sandwitched or encapsulated with a

transparent cover at top, this not only provide the mechanical strength of cell but

also protect the cell from damage due to dirt, dust, birds, Foreign material &

moistures penetration. It also protect the metallic contacts, interconnection from

wheather & wind.

The design of a solar photo voltaic system includes estimation of load

requirement, calculation, selection of array size to match load and selection of

storage battery capacity.

4.1 CALCULATION

4.1.1 For the power generated by a solar cell per unit area:-

Typical module containing 30 cell each of 7.5 cm diameter generates 18

watts.

Area occupied by 30 cells generating

18 watts = 30 x π x d2 / 4

=30x3.14x(7.5)2/4

= 1324.68 sq. cm.

Area required to generate 1 watts

= 1324.68 / 18

= 73.59 sq. cm.

So area required to generate

20 W = 73.59x20

= 1471.8 sq. cm.

4.2 MODULE DESIGN

Consider area of one cell as 7.5 x 3.5 cm and area of one strip 35 x

45 cm.

∴ No of cells in one strip = 9

Total No. of strips = 4

4.2.1 ARRANGEMENT OF CELLS IN THE MODULE :-

Arrangement of 4 strips each containing 9 cells of length 7.5 cm with gap

spacing of 0.4 cm between each cell and 1.9 cm from each side from protection

pints of view of the module.

Thus total length of 35 cm can be occupied as –

(7.5 X 4) + (0.4 X 3) + (1.9 X 2)

Arranging 9 cell each of 3.5 cm with gap spacing of 0.4 cm between each

cell and 5.15 cm from each side for protection points of view of the module.

Thus total length of 45 cm can be occupied as –

(3.5x9) + (0.4 x 8) + (5.15 x 2)

Hence, 4 cell can be arranged along 35 cm side and 9 cell can be arranged

along 45 cm side with proper spacing between them as shown in fig. 3.1
 CHAPTER -7

MODEL DISCRIPTION

Our project model represents the use of solar energy with the help of cell & it

also use conventional energy in the houses. In this module “solar lantern” in

provided to the houses for lighting purposes. The roof surface to the houses are

utilised for the plantation of cell. These cell are mounted on the strip with suitable

clearances. These strips are arranged in the rows & are inclined at an angle of

450 in the direction of opposite of the sun rays, between tow successive stripes is

determined such that it should be out of reach of the shadow from the other

strips. One cell of 31.5 sq. cm (7.5cm x 3.5 cm) area in mounted on our model

houses. The supply from this cell then goes to the battery, where the battery is

charged. Then it is connected to inverter circuit where it is converted to Ac & is

connected to load i.e. tube light. The power generated is direcrtly given to the

load i.e. tube light. When power generated is not available from the cell, the

battery is the source for the power requirement & generally that is during night

time.

This solar lantern consists of battery charges, inverter circuit etc.

7.1 Battery charger :-

1) Switch :-

A switch is provided in this circuit to enable or disable battery

charging through solar panel.

2) Diode :-
 Diode VA 158 is used in this circuit to regulate the voltage.

This diode regulates voltages to 15 V. this applied regulated

voltage is applied to battery directly.

7.2 AC mains for charging ;-

Various components used in this charging are –

a) Transformer

b) Rectifier

a) Transformer :-

A 230V / 12 – 0 –12 v , 18VA step down transformer is used.

Constant 12 v AC supply is obtained from this transformer. Output of

transformer is applied to rectifier.

b) Rectifier :-

Diodes 4007 form full wave center tapped rectifier which converts

A.C. supply to D.C. supply.

3) Battery ;-

A simple lead - acid battery of 12 v, 2.5 AH is used to store the

electricity.

7.3 INVERTER CIRCUIT :-

This circuit consists of –

 a) Preset :-

Preset is a tap changer of 4.7 k which creates rapid

switching on & off of a transistor.

b) Transistor :-

NPN – 2 N 3055 transistor is used. Function of this transistor

is to crate. AC square wave for the primary of the step – up transformer.

c) Transformer :-

A 12 v / 40 v step up transformer is used to step – up voltage

which is applied to the load.

d) Capacitor ;-

Capacitor is used as a resonant element which creates oscillations.

e) Resistors :-

Two resistor of 150 Ω & two resistor of 100 Ω are used. These are

used to limit the current flows through the circuit.

7.4 Working of solar lantern

7.4.1 Assembly

7.4.2 Operation

A) charging circuit

solar panel given output of 18 volt. By means of VA 158 diode this 18 volt is

regulate & given the 15 volt at cathode terminal of diode at current of 1.35 amp.
At cathode terminal of diode voltage is 15 volt & battery voltage is 0 volt. Voltage

difference is 15 volt & so battery is charge by full charging current of 1.35 amp.

As soon as the battery short to acquire the voltage, the voltage difference is

reduce and so charging current is also reduces. When battery charged up to 12 v

the voltage difference is reduced to 3 v. at this stage, the charging current is

negligible. At this current is negligible. At this current battery is not charge. So

preventing from over charging.

This 12 volt DC battery voltage is fed to inverter to convert this 12 volt DC

supply into AC supply. Inverter circuit consist of oscillating circuit & transistor as

switching device. The oscillation circuit involves resistor capacitor & inductor for

production of damped oscillation, this oscillation is applies to base of NPN

transistor as triggering pules. So this transistor is in forward biased & conducts.

Capacitor discharge through transistor giving one terminal of transformer as

when capacitor fully discharge base current is insufficient to maintain transistor

turned off.

Thus 12 v AC is obtained & applied to the primary of the transformer.

Secondary voltage of transformer is 40 voltage & this is gain to load. I.e. tube

light the preset is provided for adjusting the triggering rate of transistor by

adjusting the value of resistance. The on / off switch is provided for switching

operation of tube light.

B) AC mains charging An alternative sources

In cloudy weather when there is no proper sunlight so adopting another method

of charging the battery directly the AC supply.

 This charging circuit consist of step down x mer of 230 V/ 12-0-12 volt &

two diodes. This form center tapped full wave rectifier this rectifier convert AC

into is given to battery through diode (4077).

The diode connected to negative terminal of battery to ac mains.

The diode connected to base of transistor prevent transistor prevent

transistor from getting on when AC supply is available the switch s1 is provided

in between the solar panel & battery. When the battery is charged from solar

panel the switch S1 is in ON position. When battery is charged from AC supply

switch S1 is off position.

7.5 List of components

Sr. No. Components Specifications

1 Battery charger

i) Diode VA 158

ii) Switch 2A, 50 V

2 AC mains charger

i) Diode 4077

ii) Transformer 230 v/12-0-12v

3 Inverter circuits

i) Transistor 2N 3055

ii) Preset 4.7 K

iii) 2 Resistors 150 Ω

iv) 2 Resistors 100 Ω

v) capacitor 1µ F
 vi) transformer 12V/ 40V

7.6 Features :-

This project model of solar Lantern can be install any where as per

requirement. It is economical to have solar light free of cost. A separate provision

of charging battery on AC supply in the event of no sun light.

 CHAPTER - 9

TESTING RESULT AND CONCLUSION

9.1 Testing of Equipments :-

1. Solar Panel :-

Check the solar panel voltage with voltmeter which is 18v.

2. Diode

Black ring on the terminal of diode VA158 indicates that it is a cathode

terminal. Check the output of diode, which regulates voltage to 15v.

3. Battery

The battery is filled with sulfuric acid and distilled water. Solar panel is

then connected to battery through the diode VA158 and is charged. When

it is fully charged check the polarity of a battery with the help of digital

voltmeter.

4. Preset and transistor

Connect the positive terminal of battery to preset of 4.7k. This creates

rapid switching ‘ON’ and ‘OFF’ of a 2N3055 NPN transistor. The negative

terminal connected to collector of NPN – 2N 3055 transistor. Switching of

transistor from ON to OFF state produces AC square wave.

5. Transformer

AC square wave is applied to primary of the step up transformer. This

transformer step up the voltage to 40V and is applied to load. Third

winding, connected to base of transistor acts as oscillating element. This

 winding with capacitor and preset forms damped oscillator for turning ON

and OFF the transistor.

6. AC charging circuit

In cloudy season then there is no proper sun light, charge the battery with

the AC mains supply. For this charging, step down transformer of 230

V/12-0-12 and rectifier is required. Rectifier converts AC supply to DC

supply this rectified output is given to battery for charging purpose. When

switch S1 is in ON position charging of battery is done through solar

panel. Second when switch is in OFF position and AC supply is

connected by putting pin in AC mains battery is charged through AC

mains.

9.2 Result :-

1. Output voltage of solar panel = 18v

2. Voltage after diode VA158 = 15V

3. Battery is charged to 12V

4. Voltage at output transformer = 40 V

5. Output of step down transformer = 12 V AC

6. Output of rectifier = 12 V DC.

9.3 Conclusion :-

Thus obtained voltage when applied to rube rod, it glows. The solar

lantern designed for the said purpose converts power from photovoltaic or from

AC supply to the light energy of the lantern.

Thus following points can be concluded -

 Solar energy is very large, pollution free and inexhaustible source of energy

available in adequate quantities in almost all parts of world where people live.

 Solar photovoltaic is one of the direct method of solar energy conversion.

 Solar photovoltaic has enormous advantages over the conventional energy

generators, inspite of its high cost.

 The cost of the energy generated by solar photovoltaics is coming down

rapidly with the advance technology in production and plantation resulting in

saving in electricity bill.

 The power generated from solar photovoltaics can be stored in batteries for

fulfillment of the load demand.

 Also the power from AC mains is used for the lantern in rainy season where

solar energy can not be fulfill load demand.

 Thus last but not the least the solar photovoltaics can be efficiently used for

energy conservation during dark rights and high time.

 CHAPTER 10

REFERENCES

1. SCR Manual Sixth Edition

- R.W.FOX

- D.K.BARNEY

- A.P.CONNOLLY

2. Solar Energy Fundamentals & Applications

- H.P.GARG

- J. PRAKASH

3. Solar Energy

- S.P.SUKHATME

4. Modern Power Inverter

- MANAHAR LOTIA

5. Generation Of Electrical Energy

- B.R.GUPTA