Department of computer science RVUC

Chapter One

Introduction to Information Technology and Data Processing

Introduction to Information Technology

Data versus Information

What is data?

There is a difference between the terms data and information. Data is an

individual fact /multiple facts, or a value/a set of values, but is not significant to
a business in and of itself. For example, the following are values with structure
but they aren't useful to anyone until given context:
February 15, 1993
D13193
$609,000
12%
47
Data values without business context

. Without this context the data is useless to the business. Giving data context, or
meaning, turns it into information. For example, the above numbers are more useful
with the added context:
Business context Data value
What is the date of the meeting about the fee increases? February 15, 1993
What was the license plate number of the car that hit you? D13193
What did Project 93-073 cost for 1992/93? $609,000
What is the budget reduction figure for next year? 12%
How many widgets did we sell last month? 47

 Information is data at work - data provided in response to a need or

question.

Data is collected for later use.

 Data is raw facts or figures.

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 Data is the product of symbols or representations of an event (e.g.

buying book) or facts about the world (e.g. number of continents), like
number, letter, pictures, lines, graphs, etc
 Data represents facts or figures obtained from experiments or surveys,
used as basis for making calculations or drawing conclusions
 In and of itself, data has no meaning. If I count the number of cars that
stop at the stop sign on my block per hour for a week, that's data. It may
be useful or not, depending on the context. It has no meaning until it is
placed in a context. It is like an event out of context, without a
meaningful relation to other things. It doesn't have a meaning of itself
and simply it exists and has no significance beyond its existence.
 If we are given a certain data, we can associate it to different things and
give it different meanings.
E.g. 1) If we take number "5", it can be associated with
- Cardinal number and has one meaning, and
- A number greater than 4 and less than 6 with another
meaning
2) If we take the word "time" it will have different meaning when
it is associated with different things:
- "being on time" -refers to punctuality
- "time never stops" - refers to the indefiniteness of time
3) If we take a statement: "it is raining" ...this is just statement of an
event without relation to other things.

 Therefore:
 Data without a context has no meaning
 But this doesn't mean that data are useless. They are the elements that are
inputted, stored and manipulated by the computer.
 The validity of a data (how far they reflect the reality or represent the
real world) is very important. They are valid as far as they accurately
represent the real world.

Information
When does data become information?
 When a whole lot of data, which is related to one subject, put together, it
yields information.
o E.g. Take a telephone book, it is developed by bringing different
data together (Name, Address and Telephone number)
In other words:
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Sets of data + relational connection among data sets = information

 Let's say I want to buy a car. I can collect a lot of data about makes of
cars, performance ratings, prices and so on. Once I do that, I have a lot
of information about cars and the car market. Unless we think of this
collection of data and put it in context (car/car market), it has no
meaning.
 What we perceive or understand is the relationship between pieces of
data, or between pieces of data and other information.

 Therefore,
Data + understanding of relationship = information

 Information is data that has been given a meaning by way of relational

connection. This relational connection converts data in to information. In
computer system for instance, a relational database makes information
from the data stored within it.
 Information is data with context. Therefore, information is context
dependent.

Examples:
 The temperature dropped to 15 degrees and then it started raining. The
data are:
o 15 degrees, and
o It is raining
It is the cause and effect relationship between the two that provides
information.
 If we take 1000 and 5%, they don't give meaning, but within the context
of bank account 1000 can represent the principal and 5% can be the
interest rate. When the data is with in context it becomes meaningful and
represents information.
 If we put data on people's smoking habits together with data on lung
cancer, we can produce information about the risk of smoking.
A red traffic light is a form of data. The meaning we attach to this data (i.e.,
STOP) is the information

Data is anything which be observed with our five sense organs. What we
observe is the state of matters. Data can be found in the form of sound,
animation, text, picture, photograph, or combination of these mentioned states.

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Information was defined as “a collection of meaningful facts and figures that

can be used as basic for guidance and decision making”. These facts are called
data. In general, data is a collection of raw facts that represent features, or
details about people, objects, places, ideas or events. Data is the raw material
for information. Hence, Information is a processed and an organized data.

Data Processing
Data processing is the manipulation of data into a more useful form. It includes
not only numerical calculations but also operations such as the classification of
data and the transmission of data from one place to another. In general, we
assume that these operations are performed by some kind of machine or
computer, although some of them could also be carried out manually.

The Data Process Cycle

The data processing cycle represents the chain of processing events in most data
processing applications. It consists of recording, transmission, reporting,
storage, and retrieval. The original data is first recorded in a form readable by a
system. Then the data are then transmitted to a computer that performs the data
processing functions. After processing the data, the computer reports summary
results to the program’s operator. The final step in the data processing cycle is
the retrieval of stored information in a later time. This basic in data processing
can be classified in to three parts: Input, Processing and Output.

Information is the processed data that man can understand and get knowledge
out of it. It is a collection of meaningful facts and figures that can be used as a
base for guidance and decision making. Information can be found in the form of
edited and formatted text, composed music sound, formatted and edited picture,
and manufactured goods or items. When it is said that information serves as a
base for guidance, it means information guides the activities of individuals,
business organization or societies. It is on the basis of relevant information that
we make decisions. Therefore information is collection of facts which are
necessary for the actions we make and the decisions we make.

Information
Information is not something that we get readily available. Either we have to
produce it or we should know where to look for it. Information can be obtained

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from different sources. In general, the various sources of information are

classified into two major categories.

1. Documentary Sources of Information

2. Non-Documentary Sources of Information

1. Documentary Sources of Information

Documentary sources are recorded sources of information in different forms.

The documentary sources are further categorized into three groups: Primary
sources, Secondary sources, and Tertiary sources. The order in which they are
available to public use is also in this sequence. That is, primary source appear
first, followed by secondary sources and finally tertiary sources are prepared
and made available for use.

I. Primary Documentary Sources

Primary documentary sources of information are the first published records of
original research and development undertakings. It may also be a description of
new application or interpretation of an old idea. These documents represent
unfiltered and original idea. They also constitute latest available information.
Mostly, researchers who produce new information make it available to
interested readers in the same field through the primary documentary sources.
Although primary documentary sources are important sources of information
they are unorganized and are rather difficult to be directly used as they are. In
most cases, they are further organized into secondary sources. However,
primary documentary sources are important because they highly contribute to
the development and strengthening of a given subject or discipline. The amount
of literature that is produced and made available in the form of primary
documentary sources determines the rate of growth and maturation of that
discipline. This is so because primary sources assist researchers to keep up to
date and be well informed of the new advancements in a particular field of
study. Primary sources can be published in a variety of forms. Some of these
forms are:
• Research Reports: These are reports produced regarding research and
development projects. These sometimes may be unpublished or semi-published
literature since it is not available through regular book trade channels. However,
they are available for interested parties under some kind of control.

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• Patents: This is an official document conferring s sole right to make, use or

sell a specific invention.
• Dissertations: These are research reports produced mostly by doctoral
students under the supervision of a guide or an advisor.
Primary documentary sources are not always in published form. There are some
unpublished primary sources like laboratory notebooks, memoranda, diaries,
internal research reports, inscription on stones and more.

II. Secondary Documentary Sources

Secondary documentary source of information are those sources, which are
either compiled form or referred to the primary source of information. Unlike
the primary sources, the secondary sources contain filtered, organized, digested
and repackaged knowledge rather than new knowledge. Some of the secondary
sources of information include:
• Periodicals: Not all periodicals report original work. There are some that
specialize, interpret, and provide opinions on developments reported in primary
sources.
• Indexes: Alphabetical list of topics, names, or titles of any important item
referring to materials presented in the main part of the work.
• Bibliographies: An arranged and organized list of primary and/or other
source relating to a given subject(s). Its major objective is to assist the user in
locating books or other reading materials that can be of any interest to him/her.
• Textbooks
• Reference books

III. Tertiary Documentary Sources

These contain information refined or distilled and collected from primary and
secondary sources of information. Tertiary sources are organized with the aim
of assisting the searcher of information in the use of primary and secondary
sources. Almost all of these sources do not contain subject matter knowledge.

2. Non-Documentary Sources of Information

Non-documentary sources are those that are not properly recorded pr
documented for public use. Non-documentary sources are those sources, which
are not intentionally organized and documented to serve a wide range of actual
and potential users. These sources form a substantial part of communication
particularly in science and technology and provide information that the primary
and secondary sources do not. They can be generally categorized into two:
Formal and Informal.

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The formal non-documentary sources include professional societies,

industries, research organizations, universities, government departments, and so
on. The user formally consults the formal non-documentary sources to get the
required information.

Informal non-documentary sources include conversation with colleagues,

visitors, attendance to professional meetings, and so on. These are live source
that are important in the process of exchange of information.
Therefore, non-documentary sources also constitute the major share of
information sources in our daily life.

The Value of Information

The value of information is directly related to how it helps the user or decision
maker. The value of information can be measured in terms of:
• The time it saves to make a decision.
• The increase in profit.
• The decrease in cost.

Characteristics of Valuable Information

To be valuable to users, information should have the following characteristics:
• Accuracy: It should be clear, free from any kind of errors and exactly reflects
the meaning of data on which it is based.
• Completeness: It should contain all necessary and important facts and figures
that are required for specific purpose.
• Economical: The benefits gained from obtaining the information should be
greater when compared to the cost of producing the information.
• Flexibility: This implies the use of information for variety of purposes with or
without modification.
• Reliability: The information should be dependable.
• Timeliness: Getting the information to the recipients within the needed time.
Too late information can be considered as useless.
• Relevance: The use of information for particular person. Accurate and timely
available information should be directed to the person who really
needs it.
• Accessibility: The smooth condition for authorized user(s) to get necessary
information easily in the right format.

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Department of computer science RVUC

Chapter two
HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF COMPUTER
Introduction

Let us begin with the word ‘cmpute’. It means ‘to calculate’. We all are familiar
with calculations in our day to day life. We apply mathematical operations like
addition, subtraction, multiplication, etc. and many other formulae for
calculations. Simpler calculations take less time. But complex calculations take
much longer time. Another factor is accuracy in calculations. So man explored
with the idea to develop a machine which can perform this type of arithmetic
calculation faster and with full accuracy. This gave birth to a device or machine
called ‘computer’.

The computer we see today is quite different from the one made in the
beginning. The number of applications of a computer has increased, the speed
and accuracy of calculation has increased. You must appreciate the impact of
computers in our day to day life. Reservation of tickets in Air Lines and
Railways from home, payment of telephone and electricity bills, deposits and
withdrawals of money from banks, business data processing, medical diagnosis,
weather forecasting, etc. are some of the areas where computer has become
extremely useful.

However, there is one limitation of the computer. Human beings do calculations

on their own. But computer is a dumb machine and it has to be given proper
instructions to carry out its calculation. This is why we should know how a
computer works.

WHAT IS COMPUTER?

A computer is any calculating device or machine, which is electronic,

mechanical or electromechanical. But that doesn’t mean that computer performs
only calculation. The name computer comes from a Latin word computer,
meaning “to rechon” or “to compute” and can be applied to abacus or any
adding machine as to the modern computer. However, the term Computer has
come to mean a special electronic device having certain definite characteristics.

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For a common man computer is simply a calculator, which works automatic and
quite fast. For a person who knows much about it, computer is a machine
capable of solving problems and manipulating data. It accepts data, processes
the data by doing some mathematical and logical operations and gives us the
desired output.

Therefore, we may define computer as a device that transforms data. Data can
be anything like marks obtained by you in various subjects. It can also be name,
age, sex, weight, height, etc. of all the students in your class or income, savings,
investments, etc., of a country. Computer can be defined in terms of its
functions. It can i) accept data ii) store data, iii) process data as desired, and iv)
retrieve the stored data as and when required and v) print the result in desired
format. You will know more about these functions as you go through the later
lessons.

Depending on the type of materials used and facilities available, the

developments of electronic computers are classified into five generations.

History of Computers

The history of computers can be summarized as follows

Abacus
 Invented by Chinese some 5000 years back
 Assumed to be the first adding machine. It consisted of rows of beads in
rectangular frame Beads represent place holders and performs arithmetic
operations

John Napier (1550-1617)

 Known for Napier bones used in multiplication and division

 It was an interpretation of the Abacus
 He also introduced the decimal points in computer usage.
 He is also known for invention of logarithms.

Blaise Pascal (French Mathematician)

 In 1642 invented the Pascaline calculator

 He also invented syringe and the Pascal law of pressure.

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Gottfried Leibniz

 In 1694, invented a calculator similar in intent to Pascaline but it uses

stepped cylinders like a music box.
 It was used to handle all operations (addition, subtraction, division, and
multiplication)
 Unfortunately, both Pascaline and this one were too complicated for mass
production.

Joseph Jacquard

 Introduced punched card loom in 1801

 Workers were against its mass production due to fear of unemployment.

Charles Babbage

 produced the first commercial calculator in 1822.

 “Difference engine”, steam powered, fully automatic.
 He got support from British government.
 He is also called the father of computing device.

 First Generation Computers (1940-1959)

The Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator (ENIAC) was the first
electronic calculator. It is said to be the first electronic computer. ENIAC could
perform 5000 additions per second. ENIAC did not fit on a desktop: it weight
30 tons, stood 2 stories high, and covered 15,000 square feet of floor space.
When it was turned on it used 200,000 watts of power. And the other is
UNIVAC. It is the first commercially available electronic computer and also to
handle both numeric and textual information.
First generation commuters, also called electronic vacuum tube computers, are
characterized by:
• Use of vacuum tube as its switching device.
• Receive input data from paper tape or punch cards.
• Computation speed is in rage of 3000-5000 additions per second.

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Second Generation Computers

In this period, computers become much smaller in size, faster, more reliable,
and much greater in processing capacity. Built-in error detecting devices were
installed and more efficient means were developed to input and retrieve data.
Operating system programs consisted of assemblers and compilers;
programming languages other than machine languages were introduced during
this generation. Second-generation computers are characterized by the use of
transistors as its switching devices. They have computation speed with rage of
2000-10000 additions per second.

Third Generation Computers

Third generation computers are characterized by the use of integrated circuits
instead of transistors which is facilitated by the invention of semi-conductors
(Silicon chips). Computers became accessed by a typewriter (Terminal) like
device remotely. Calculations were performed in microseconds and
nanoseconds. The memory of the computer was greatly improved by secondary
storage devices located outside the computer. Multiprocessing programs form
different sources could be run virtually at the same time on single centrally
located computer.

Fourth Generation Computers

They are characterized by the use of very large scale integrated circuits (VLSI).
Here personal computers and super `computers like CRAY and CYBER come
into existence. A microprocessor was also introduced. A microprocessor is a
tiny solid-state device, no bigger than a pea, which in itself is a small computer
capable of performing arithmetic and logic operation. Optical Readers, by
which whole documents can be fed into the computers, audio response
terminals, by which an operator can vocally introduce data or instructions, and
graphic display terminals, by which an operator can feed pictures into the
computer, were introduced.

Fifth Generation Computers

Fifth generation computers include the future computers. They are characterized
by the use of artificial intelligence & natural language interaction, and they
aimed at narrowing the gap between human beings and present day computers.

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Fifth generation computers are characterized mainly by the programs they use.
They use artificial intelligence systems that attempt to achieve humanlike
qualities of intelligence, including the ability to reason.

Summary of computer generations

As the generation increases the following factors also increases

- Their processing power
- Their processing speed
- Their Storage capacity
As the generation increases the following factors will Decreases
- Their size
- Their electric power consumption
- Heat they dissipate to the environment

Types of Computer

Computers vary enormously in their computational power, speed, memory, cost,

and physical size. There are 4 types of computer types: microcomputers,
minicomputers, mainframe computers, and supercomputers.
1. Microcomputers

Microcomputers use a microprocessor as their CPU and are also called personal
computers (PCs). They are relatively small or compact in size and are often
found on desktop. Microcomputers are known and identified by their brand
names: IBM, Apple, Dell, Hewlett Packard, Toshiba, etc. They are designed for
use in homes, schools, and office settings. Basically they can be grouped into
three in terms of their size, shape, and purposes: Palmtop, Laptop, and
Desktop computers.

2. Minicomputers

Minicomputers are larger and more powerful than most microcomputers but are
smaller and less powerful than mainframe computers. They are built to perform
complex computations while dealing efficiently with a high level of input and
output form users connected via terminals. Minicomputers cost less to buy and
maintain than mainframe computers. Compared to mainframe and
supercomputers, they are easy to use. Minicomputers are used in scientific

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laboratories, research centers, engineering firms (CAM & CAD), and industrial
process monitoring and manufacturing.

3. Mainframe Computers

Mainframe computers are large, powerful computers that are physically larger
than micros and minis and usually have processors with faster instruction
processing speeds. A mainframe computer is found in a special computer room
where environmental factors such as temperature, humidity, dust and air
conditions are closely monitored. Mainframe computers are designed for the
most intensive computational tasks. They are often shared by multiple users
connected to the computer via terminals. Unlike PCs and minicomputers that
can be operated by properly trained regular employees, mainframes require
special and highly qualified data processing professionals.

4. Supercomputers

Supercomputers are extremely powerful computers, designed for high-speed

processing. They are generally characterized as being the fastest, most
powerful, and most expensive computers. As many as sixty miles of wiring are
closely packed inside supercomputers, and tremendous demand of special
cooling requirements and the room should be air conditioned. They are used to
design automobiles, aircrafts, and spacecraft; forecast weather and global
climate. Supercomputers are also used extensively by the military for weapons
and defense systems research, and for encrypting and decoding sensitive
intelligence information. They are different than the others in that they are
designed to work on a single problem at a time, devoting their resources to the
solution of the problem. Highly trained data processing professionals are
required to operate supercomputers. These computers can take inputs from over
10,000 individual computers and users at the same time.
Classification by the method of operation (processing)
They are classified into three:
Analog, Digital and hybrid Computers
Analog
 Analog computers operate by measuring.
 They deal with continues variables, they don’t compute directly with
numbers, rather, they operate by measuring physical magnitude such as
pressure, temperature, voltage, current etc. 
Examples

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• Thermometer
• Voltmeter
• Speedometer
• Gasoline pomp
Digital Computers 
 Digital computers deal with discrete variables; they operate by counting
rather than measuring.
 They operate directly up on numbers (or digits) that represent numbers,
letters, or other special symbols. 
 Examples:
– Abacus
– Desk & pocket computers
– The general purpose computers
Hybrid computers
 The best features of analog and digital computers can be combined into a
single device to form a hybrid computer. A hybrid computer processes
the information by collecting input data with analog method, converts it
into digital quantities, processes the digital values and converts the output
from digital to analog form.

Example:
 In hospital insensitive-care unit analog devices may measure a patient’s
heart function, temperature and other vital signs. These measurements
may then be converted into numbers and supplied to a digital component
in the system. This component is used to monitor the patient’s vital signs
and to send an immediate signal to the nurse’s station if any abnormal
readings are detected.

Classification by purpose of application

 Computers can be applied or used for different purposes.
 Based upon their application, they are classified as special purpose or
general purpose computers.
Special purpose computers
 They are designed to solve a single type of problem, that is their
components and their functions are uniquely adapted to a specific
situation involving specific application.

General purpose computers

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 They are designed to solve variety of problems through the use of “store
program concept”.
 The same computer can be applied to solve another set of problem using
different program. General computers are more flexible and versatile.
Examples
• Micro computers
• Mini computers
• Super computers etc.

APPLICATION OF COMPUTERS
Why we use Computers?

The following are some of the capabilities and potential of Computers, which
are reasons for using Computers.

 Store and process large amount of information with high speed and
accuracy;
 Transmit information across continents via communication channels;
 Simulate events;
 Perform complex mathematical computations and make comparisons;
 Monitor ongoing industrial operations;
 Perform repetitive processes with great ease, speed, and reliability;

Therefore, computers are applicable for any functions, task or process that
requires these abilities.
The main areas of computer applications are categorized into:
a) Commercial or business applications
 Covers the use of computers for clerical, administrative, production
and business use.
Examples are:
 Text processing
 Accounting and Finance management
 Inventory control
 Database management
 Statistical analysis

b) Scientific, Engineering and Research applications

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 Using computers for scientific research, complex mathematical

calculations, design work, and analysis and control of physical
systems.
Examples are:
 Space technology
 Meteorological observatory systems
 Astronomical investigations
 Design of machines and
 Control of manufacturing process
 Nuclear control systems

Some specific examples on application of Computers

Computer communication
Computers can be used for communication purpose, for example airline
reservation system

Example: Ethiopian Airlines is a member of worldwide reservation system

called Gabriel system.
 The main database is located at Atlanta, Georgia
 More than 48 airlines including EAL share /extract/transmit
information using Gabriel

Facilities included:
 Booking of passengers on Domestic and International flight on EAL
or Other carrier (Ex.Lufthansa).
 Making hotel reservation for the travelers (i.e. the system is connected
with major hotels & travel agents)
 Massage correspondence with all stations which are members of
Gabriel (i.e. reconfirmation space availability, etc)
 Computer in Education
The use of computers in education ranges from assisting
teaching and learning process to managing it. Hence the
terms CAL (Computer Aided Learning) and CAI ( Computer
Aided Instruction).
Multiple choice questions can be processed.
 Computer in Medicine: In medicine, computers are used
o for analyzing medical research
o to aid in diagnosis
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o to hold details of patients

 Computers in Manufacturing
 stock and production control (CAM-Computer Aided
Manufacturing)
engineering design (CAD -Computer Aided Design e.g. Auto CAD)

Characteristics of Computers

- Speed: The speed of computers is measured in milliseconds, microseconds,

nanoseconds, or picoseconds.
- Accuracy: The accuracy of a computer system is very high provided that the
data and program given to it are accurate. Errors in computers data processing
are mostly human factor.
- Storage capacity: Computers can store large amount of data using their
memory units.
- Versatility: Computers can be programmed and applied for different
purposes. Various people to perform different programs can use the same
computer.
- Diligence: The computer does the same thing repeatedly. Computers can
handle very routine and repetitive tasks.

Decimal to Other Base System

Steps
 Step 1 − Divide the decimal number to be converted by the value of the new base.
 Step 2 − Get the remainder from Step 1 as the rightmost digit (least significant digit)
of new base number.
 Step 3 − Divide the quotient of the previous divide by the new base.
 Step 4 − Record the remainder from Step 3 as the next digit (to the left) of the new
base number.
Repeat Steps 3 and 4, getting remainders from right to left, until the quotient becomes zero
in Step 3.
The last remainder thus obtained will be the Most Significant Digit (MSD) of the new base
number.

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Example −
Decimal Number: 2910
Calculating Binary Equivalent −

Step Operation Result Remainder

Step 1 29 / 2 14 1

Step 2 14 / 2 7 0

7/2 3 1

Step 4 3/2 1 1

Step 5 1/2 0 1

As mentioned in Steps 2 and 4, the remainders have to be arranged in the reverse order so
that the first remainder becomes the Least Significant Digit (LSD) and the last remainder
becomes the Most Significant Digit (MSD).
Decimal Number − 2910 = Binary Number − 111012.

Other Base System to Decimal System

Steps
 Step 1 − Determine the column (positional) value of each digit (this depends on the
position of the digit and the base of the number system).
 Step 2 − Multiply the obtained column values (in Step 1) by the digits in the
corresponding columns.
 Step 3 − Sum the products calculated in Step 2. The total is the equivalent value in
decimal.

Example
Binary Number − 111012
Calculating Decimal Equivalent −

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Step Binary Number Decimal Number

Step 1 111012 ((1 × 24) + (1 × 23) + (1 × 22) + (0 × 21) + (1 × 20))10

Step 2 111012 (16 + 8 + 4 + 0 + 1)10

Step 3 111012 2910

Binary Number − 111012 = Decimal Number − 2910

Octal to binary.
Steps
 Step 1 − Convert the original number to a decimal number (base 10).
 Step 2 − Convert the decimal number so obtained to the new base number.

Example
Octal Number − 258
Calculating Binary Equivalent −

Step 1 − Convert to Decimal

Step Octal Number Decimal Number

Step 1 258 ((2 × 81) + (5 × 80))10

Step 2 258 (16 + 5 )10

Step 3 258 2110

Octal Number − 258 = Decimal Number − 2110

Step 2 − Convert Decimal to Binary

Step Operation Result Remainder

Step 1 21 / 2 10 1

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Step 2 10 / 2 5 0

Step 3 5 / 2 2 1

Step 4 2 / 2 1 0

Step 5 1 / 2 0 1

Decimal Number − 2110 = Binary Number − 101012

Octal Number − 258 = Binary Number − 101012

Binary to Octal
Steps
 Step 1 − Divide the binary digits into groups of three (starting from the right).
 Step 2 − Convert each group of three binary digits to one octal digit.

Example
Binary Number − 101012
Calculating Octal Equivalent −

Step Binary Number Octal Number

Step 1 101012 010 101

Step 2 101012 28 58

Step 3 101012 258

Binary Number − 101012 = Octal Number − 258

Binary to Hexadecimal
Steps

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 Step 1 − Divide the binary digits into groups of four (starting from the right).
 Step 2 − Convert each group of four binary digits to one hexadecimal symbol.

Example
Binary Number − 101012
Calculating hexadecimal Equivalent −

Step Binary Number Hexadecimal Number

Step 1 101012 0001 0101

Step 2 101012 110 510

Step 3 101012 1516

Binary Number − 101012 = Hexadecimal Number − 1516

Shortcut method - Hexadecimal to Binary

Steps
 Step 1 − Convert each hexadecimal digit to a 4 digit binary number (the hexadecimal
digits may be treated as decimal for this conversion).
 Step 2 − Combine all the resulting binary groups (of 4 digits each) into a single
binary number.

Example
Hexadecimal Number − 1516
Calculating Binary Equivalent −

Step Hexadecimal Number Binary Number

Step 1 1516 110 510

Step 2 1516 00012 01012

Step 3 1516 000101012

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Hexadecimal Number − 1516 = Binary Number − 101012

Octal Number System

Following are the characteristics of an octal number system.

Uses eight digits, 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7.

Also called base 8 number system.

Each position in an octal number represents a 0 power of the base (8). Example: 80

Last position in an octal number represents an x power of the base (8). Example:
8x where x represents the last position - 1.

Example
Octal Number − 125708
Calculating Decimal Equivalent −

Step Octal Number Decimal Number

Step 1 125708 ((1 × 84) + (2 × 83) + (5 × 82) + (7 × 81) + (0 × 80))10

Step 2 125708 (4096 + 1024 + 320 + 56 + 0)10

Step 3 125708 549610

Note − 125708 is normally written as 12570.

Hexadecimal Number System

Following are the characteristics of a hexadecimal number system.

Uses 10 digits and 6 letters, 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,A,B,C,D,E,F.

Letters represents numbers starting from 10. A = 10, B = 11, C = 12, D = 13, E = 14,
F = 15.

Also called base 16 number system.

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
Each position in a hexadecimal number represents a 0 power of the base (16).
Example − 160

Last position in a hexadecimal number represents an x power of the base (16).
Example − 16x where x represents the last position - 1.

Example
Hexadecimal Number − 19FDE16
Calculating Decimal Equivalent −

Step Hexadecimal Decimal Number

Number

Step 1 19FDE16 ((1 × 164) + (9 × 163) + (F × 162) + (D × 161) + (E ×

160))10

Step 2 19FDE16 ((1 × 164) + (9 × 163) + (15 × 162) + (13 × 161) + (14
× 160))10

Step 3 19FDE16 (65536 + 36864 + 3840 + 208 + 14)10

Step 4 19FDE16 10646210

Note − 19FDE16 is normally written as 19FDE.

How to convert from decimal to hex
Conversion steps:
1. Divide the number by 16.
2. Get the integer quotient for the next iteration.
3. Get the remainder for the hex digit.
4. Repeat the steps until the quotient is equal to 0.

Example #1
Convert 756210 to hex:
Division Remainder Remainder
Quotient Digit #
by 16 (decimal) (hex)

7562/16 472 10 A 0

472/16 29 8 8 1

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29/16 1 13 D 2

1/16 0 1 1 3
So 756210 = 1D8A16
Example #2
Convert 3563110 to hex:
Division Remainder Remainder
Quotient Digit #
by 16 (decimal) (hex)

35631/16 2226 15 F 0

2226/16 139 2 2 1

139/16 8 11 B 2

8/16 0 8 8 3
So 3563110 = 8B2F16
Decimal to hex conversion table
Decimal Hex
base 10 base 16
0 0
1 1
2 2
3 3
4 4
5 5
6 6
7 7
8 8
9 9
10 A
11 B
12 C
13 D

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14 E
15 F

How to convert from hex to decimal

A regular decimal number is the sum of the digits multiplied with power of 10.
137 in base 10 is equal to each digit multiplied with its corresponding power of 10:
13710 = 1×102+3×101+7×100 = 100+30+7
Hex numbers are read the same way, but each digit counts power of 16 instead of power of
10.
For hex number with n digits:
dn-1  ... d3 d2 d1  d0
Multiply each digit of the hex number with its corresponding power of 16 and sum:
decimal = dn-1×16n-1  + ... + d3×163 + d2×162 + d1×161+d0×160
Example #1
3B in base 16 is equal to each digit multiplied with its corresponding 16n:
3B16 = 3×161+11×160 = 48+11 = 5910
Example #2
E7A9 in base 16 is equal to each digit multiplied with its corresponding 16n:
E7A916 = 14×163+7×162+10×161+9×160 = 57344+1792+160+9 = 5930510
Example #3
0.8 in base 16:
0.816 = 0×160+8×16-1 = 0+0.5 = 0.510
Hex to binary conversion table
Hex Binary

0 0

1 1

2 10

3 11

4 100

5 101

6 110

7 111

8 1000

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9 1001

A 1010

B 1011

C 1100

D 1101

E 1110

F 1111

Binary to hex conversion table

Binary Hex

0 0

1 1

10 2

11 3

100 4

101 5

110 6

111 7

1000 8

1001 9

1010 A

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1011 B

1100 C

1101 D

1110 E

1111 F

How to convert from octal to decimal

A regular decimal number is the sum of the digits multiplied with 10n.
Example #1
137 in base 10 is equal to each digit multiplied with its corresponding 10n:
13710 = 1×102+3×101+7×100 = 100+30+7
Octal numbers are read the same way, but each digit counts 8n instead of 10n.
Multiply each digit of the hex number with its corresponding 8n.
Example #2
37 in base 8 is equal to each digit multiplied with its corresponding 8n:
378 = 3×81+7×80 = 24+7 = 31
Example #3
7014 in base 8 is equal to each digit multiplied with its corresponding power of 8:
70148 = 7×83+0×82+1×81+4×80= 3584+0+8+4 = 3596
Octal to decimal conversion table
Octal Decimal
base 8 base 10
0 0
1 1
2 2
3 3
4 4
5 5
6 6
7 7
10 8
11 9
12 10

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13 11
14 12
15 13
16 14
17 15
20 16
30 24
40 32
50 40
60 48
70 56
100 64

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Chapter Three
The Computer System
Modern day computer systems do vary in size, cost, and power depending on
the task they are required to perform. The internal architecture of these
computers may vary form one model to the other. However, the basic
conceptual organization is the same. The computer system is basically
categorized into two components: the hardware component and the software
component.
Hardware simply refers to the visible part of the computer or the physical pieces
of equipment in a computer system. A typical computer hardware system
consists of input devices, Central Processing Unit (CPU), output devices and
storage devices.
Software refers to the invisible part of the computer system. Software is the set
of instructions a computer uses to manipulate data, such as write a letter, to
draw a graph, to direct the general operation of the computer or to control the
arm of a Robot to weld a car’s body.
Generally speaking, a computer system is made up of hardware and software.
Hardware is a physical part that you can see, touch, and feel its existence and a
software is the set of instructions, called a program, that tells the computer what
to do and when to do it.
The Computer Hardware
The computer hardware carries out the activities of capturing, processing,
storing and communicating data and information. The following section gives a
brief account on the major components of the computer hardware system.
I. Input Devices

The parts of the computer hardwre that are used to convert data or information
into electronic machine-readable form are known as input devices. These units
are used to gather data for the microprocessor so that it can be processed. Input
devices allow us to enter data, programs, commands, and user responses into a
computer.
Keyboard
is an input device consisting of a set of typewriter-like keys that enable one to
enter data into a computer. The keys on the keyboard are often classified as
follows
 Alphanumeric keys - Letters and numbers
 Punctuation keys - comma, period, semicolon, etc.

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 Special keys- function keys, control keys, arrow keys, caps lock, etc.

In detail the following are descriptions of the keys of keyboard.

Escape key - Generally used to abort system actions.

Function keys - functions vary from program to program. For example F1 is
used to get helpmost of the times
Enter key - used to enter commands or to return to blank (new) lines in a
document.
Backspace key - used to move the cursor backwards, deleting backward.
Tab key - used to access tab stop.
Caps lock key–used to write small or capital letters.
Shift key - used to produce upper case or lower case letters and sometimes to
invoke commands
Control key & Alt key - commonly used in combination with other keys to enter
commands e g. Control home.
Insert key - used to enter characters.
Arrow keys - used to move the cursor around the display screen.
Delete keys - used to delete characters.
Num lock keys - used to activate/deactivate the numeric keypad.
Print screen keys - used to print the contents of the screen.

The arrangement of the keyboard's key may differ. The most common in
English- speaking countries is the QWERTY keyboard. It is called QWERTY
keyboard because the first five keys on the top row of letters spell Q, W, E, R,
T, and Y. The arrangement of keys in this case is based on typewriter (alphabets
and punctuation) and calculator (numeric pad). This is to make data entry easy.

The other type of keyboard layout is the Dvorak Keyboard. In this layout, the
most commonly used letters are placed in the most accessible places. The home
keys are the five English vowel letters A, O, E, U, I (for the left hand) & the
five most often used consonants (D, H, T, N, S) are the home keys for the right
hand.The next most frequently used letters are on the keys one row up, the next
easier position to reach.

Mouse
Mouse is a hand-operated device that controls the movement of the cursor or
pointer on a display screen. It is a small object that can be rolled along a rough
flat surface.

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Its name is derived from its shape, which looks a bit a mouse; its connecting
wire that one can imagine to be the mouse’s tail. Mouse was invented by
DouglasEngelbart of Stanford Research center in 1963.

Mouse can have as many as three buttons whose function depends on what
program is running
Left-button: for left click. E.g selecting text
Right-button: for right click. E.g see property of file
Middle button: for scrolling purpose. This button is sometimes missing.

Most mouse are connected to the system unit by a cable or cord. There are also
mouse that are not connected to system unit by a cable/cord. They are called
cordless mouse (wireless mouse). They communicate with system unit using
infrared light, similar technology used in remote controls, or radio waves.

Mouse has roller ball at the bottom. The roller ball converts mouse movements
into electronic signals.

Mouse pad - is a pad on which you can move a mouse. It provides more traction
than smooth surfaces such as glass & wood, so they make it easier to move a
mouse accurately.

Advantage: -easy to use

Use:
 making menu selection
 editing documents
 moving documents (i.e. dragging data from one location to another location)
 Opening and closing programs

Optical Recognition Systems

Optical recognition system uses light to read characters, codes, and marks, and
convert them into computer understandable format. There many types of optical
recognition systems:
 OCR (Optical Character Recognition)
 OMR (Optical Mark recognition)
 Barcode Reader
OCR

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OCR are scanners that read typewritten, computer printed, and in some cases hand
printed characters from ordinary documents. They scan the shape of character and
compare it with predefined font shapes found in memory. Based on the comparison,
they can convert the characters into computer code.

Use:
Enter documents found on paper into computer without the need to type it
using keyboard. This
makes the job easy.

Bar Code Reader

Bar code reader is a peripheral that reads bar codes printed on products. Bar
code uses a pattern or symbols to represent data. It consists of vertical lines and
spaces of different width. There are different kinds of bar codes; the most
commonly used is called UPC (Universal Product Code). It is used to identify
product manufacturer, product number, etc.

Fig bar code and bar code reader respectively

Use:
 Used in super market, grocery, etc to identify products and their price.
Speech Recognition Systems
Speech recognition is the ability of computers to recognize human speech. We
use microphone to enter the speech into computer. The computer then processes
the speech and performs the action ordered by speech.
It allows:
 To issue/enter commands to the computer. For example, instead of going to
start button-> programs->Microsoft Word to open Microsoft Word, we
simply speak into the microphone of the computer “Open Microsoft Word”.
Then the computer opens the program.
 To enter data using dictation instead of typing from keyboard. This makes
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data entry very easier.

Light Pen
Light pen is a light sensitive pen like device that is used in conjunction with
computer monitor. It is used by touching the screen with this device to create or
modify graphics. A light cell in the tip of the pen senses light from the screen to
determine the pen’s location on the screen.

Fig light pen and monitor

Use:
 to draw directly on the screen by using the screen as paper
 to select options for processing (to select from menu)

Joystick
Joystick uses the movement of vertical stem to direct pointer on the screen.
Often used with computer games
It has buttons you can press to activate events.

Touch Screen
Touch screen allow you to use finger instead of mouse or related input device. It
lets you to enter data or command (e.g. button click) by touching areas of the
screen. It enables you perform activities you perform with mouse using your
finger. It is not used to enter large amounts of data.

Used:
 To issue a command to software to perform a particular task like menu
selection, button click, etc
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 To choose from a list of options

Advantage:
 They are easy to use
 They are easy to learn even by no technical people
They are used to provide information in hotels, airports, and other public areas.

II. Output Devices

Output devices are used to get data out of a computer so that it can be
examined, analyzed or distributed to others. It converts information from
machine-understandable form to a human understandable form.
Two types of output:
Soft copy: displayed on monitor, projector, or similar devices
Hard copy: printed on paper

Examples
 The Visual Display Unit (VDU) or monitor or screen
 Printers (dot matrix, daisy wheel, laser printers)
 Plotters
 Voice (audio) response unit
 Disk drives

Monitor
Monitor is the most frequent type of output device. It consists of a display
surface called screen which displays output to the user. Image is displayed on
monitors using pattern of lighted dots. Each of these lighted dots is called pixel
a short form of picture element.

There are three types of monitor:

1) CRT (Cathode Ray Tube)
2) LCD (Liquid Crystal Display)
3) Plasma display

CRT Monitor
CRT is similar in size and technology to televisions. It uses electron guns that
emit electrons. These electrons are directed towards phosphorous coated screen.
The phosphorous coat glows (emits light) when hit by electron from electron
guns, thus creating visible things that we see.

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Disadvantage: -large size (bulky)

- consumes much power

Fig CRT monitor and electron gun

Yoke: moves electron beams across and down the screen by generating
electromagnetic field
Electron beams: negatively charged electrons moving towards the screen form
electron guns

Crystal Display
Crystal display is most commonly used in digital watches, clocks, calculators,
etc. In computer, they are commonly used for portable computers. E.g. laptop.

Liquid crystal uses liquid crystal for display purpose, not electron guns. The
liquid crystal is deposited between sheets of polarizing material.
Advantage over CRT: -small size which makes it easy to transport
-consumes less power which makes it suitable for laptop.

Gas Plasma
Gas plasma substitutes neon gas for liquid crystal. The neon gas glows and
produces pixels that form picture. It is used for portable computers

Advantage:
Better display quality than LCD but more expensive than LCD

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Printer
There are two types of output:
Soft copy: is information that is displayed on monitor, projector, etc.
Hard copy: a data that is printed on paper.
Printer is a device that enables us to produce a hard copy of
data/information. They have varying speeds, capabilities, and printing
methods.

III. The Central Processing Unit (CPU)

Central Processing Unit (CPU) is a microscopic circuitry that serves as the main
information processor in a computer. Information from an input device or
memory is communicated via the bus to the CPU, which is the center part of the
computer system that executes program instructions and performs the
computer’s processing activities.
Basic operations involve:
 The transfer of data between itself and the memory section.

 Manipulation of data in the memory section or stored internally.

 The transfer of data between itself and input/output devices.

Information is stored in a CPU memory location called a register. Registers

can be thought of as the CPU’s tiny scratchpad, temporarily storing instructions
or data. When a program is running, one register called the program counter
keeps track of which program instruction comes next. The CPU’s control unit
coordinates and times the CPU’s function, and it retrieves the next instruction
from memory.
In a typical sequence, the CPU locates the next instruction in the appropriate
memory device. The instruction then travels along the bus from the computer’s
memory to the CPU, where it is stored in a special instruction register.
Meanwhile, the program counter is incremented to prepare for the next
instruction. The current instruction is analyzed by a decoder, which determines
what the instruction will do. Any data the instruction needs are retrieved via the
bus and placed in the CPU’s registers. The CPU executes the instruction, and
the results are stored in another register or copied to specific memory locations.
The data processing efficiency or speed of a computer is chiefly influenced by
the speed of the chip (the microprocessor) and the width of the data path. When
we say Pentium IV machine are faster than Pentium III machines, we mean that
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the Pentium IV’s microchip is faster and it has a wider data transmission path
than the Pentium III’s.
Generally, CPU is a single microprocessor made from a wafer of semi-
conducting material, usually silicon, with millions of electrical components on
its surface. On a higher level, the CPU is actually a number of interconnected
processing units that are each responsible for one aspect of the CPU’s function.
Standard CPUs contain processing units that interpret and implement software
instructions, perform calculations and comparisons, make logical decisions,
temporarily store information for use by another of the CPU’s processing units,
keep track of the current step in the execution of the program, and allow the
CPU to communicate with the rest of the computer. Microprocessors are also
used in other advanced electronic systems, such as computer printers,
automobiles, and jet airliners.
The CPU has three major components:
i. The Control Unit

ii. The Arithmetic and Logic Unit and

iii. Register / Memory

i. The Control Unit (CU)

The Control Unit is responsible for controlling the overall operation of the
computer system. Its main function is to fetch, interpret, and control the
execution of program instruction stored in memory.
The control unit direct and coordinates all units of the computer. It tells the
input devices what data is to be input and where, the memory unit where to
store the data, the ALU where to find the data, what operations to perform and
where to store the results, and the output devices what information to record and
where to record it.
All computers activities occur based on the instructions that the control unit
receives from users. Instructions are the detailed descriptions of the actions to
be carried out during the input, processing, output, storage, and transmission.
Control unit does not execute the instruction by itself. Rather, it directs other
processing elements to execute the instructions.
ii. The Arithmetic/Logical Unit (ALU)

The ALU, another part of the CPU, basically consists of a set of electronic logic
circuits that perform required operations such as calculations and comparison. It
performs arithmetic and logical operations that underlie all computing

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capabilities. Typical operations performed by the ALU are Add, Subtract,

Multiply, Divide, Negate, Shift (Rotate), comparison like less than, greater than,
and equal to. The ALU normally works on two numbers at a time.
iii. Register / Memory

Register is part of the CPU, a place where data is stored temporarily in the CPU
when it enters for processing in to ALU from RAM and after processing until it
is returned back to the RAM.

IV. Storage Devices

Basically in the computer system there are two types of storage devices that
are Primary storage devices/Memory and Secondary storage
devices/External storage devices.

i. Primary storage devices / Memory

Memory consists of electronic components that store data including numbers,
letters of alphabet, graphics, and sound. Any data to be processed must be
stored in memory. Memory contains data or instructions for the processor to
execute, and also used for holding intermediate and final results of a
computation.
The amount of memory in computers typically is measured in kilobytes (KB) or
megabytes (MB). System memory consists of two main types. These are either
Random Access Memory (RAM) or Read Only Memory (ROM).
a. Read Only Memory (ROM)

ROM is static, non-volatile memory. Information (Data) which the computer

frequently needs for its operations are stored in the ROM. Data is permanently
recorded on the memory chips, so turning the computer off or lose of power
does not affect it. ROM is used to store the basic set of instructions, called
Basic Input-Output System (BIOS). The computer always needs BIOS to run
when it is first turned on. BIO is permanently stored on the computer chips.
b. Random Access Memory (RAM)

RAM is the main memory used by the CPU as it processes data. The word
“random access” represents that data or information can be written into or read
from any internal memory address at any time. The RAM is so fast that it is
possible to write to or read information from RAM in less than billionth of a
second. However, RAM stores data as long as the computer is turned on. If the

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computer is turned off or electric power is lost, all the data on the RAM will be
lost.
ii. Secondary storage devices
As mentioned earlier, RAM cannot be used to store data permanently.
Moreover, it is not large enough to store all of your program and data files. For
these reason the computer needs another form of storage devices called
secondary storage devices which are also called external storage devices.
Secondary Storage Devices (External Storage devices) provides permanent
storage of information or data and programs for retrieval by the computer.
Storage is process of retaining data or information for future use.
There are two types of secondary storage: magnetic storage and optical
storage. Hard disk drives store information in magnetic particles embedded in
a disk. Hard dick drives can store large amount of information and retrieve that
information very quickly. Floppy disk drives also store information in
magnetic particles embedded in removable disks (Floppies). Floppy disks store
less information than a hard disk drive and retrieve the information at a much
slower rate. Compact Disc (CD) drives store information on pits burned into
the surface of a disc of reflective material. A Digital Video Disc (DVD) looks
and works like a CD-ROM but can store more than 15 times as much
information. Flash Disks are designed with flash technology, a non-volatile
storage solution that does not lose its information once power is removed form
the disk. The disk contains no moving parts providing much greater protection
of data than conventional magnetic disk.
Computer Software
Software is invisible part of the computer system that causes the hardware, the
machines, to do work. It describes a set of instruction that control a computer or
communication network. In other words, software is a series of instructions that
tell the hardware what to do. It includes all set of information processing
instruction.
Type of software
Software as a whole falls in to two major classes based on the type of work
done by the programs. Theses categories are:-
1. System software: - which control the workings of the computer.

2. Application software: - which address the

multitude of task for which people use
computer.

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1. System software includes operating system. Instruction in the operating

system tells the computer how to perfume the function of loading,
storing, and executing an application program and how to transfer data.

An important component of system software is a set of programs called the

operating system without which you cannot even speak to your computer let
alone instructing it to do something serious.
Function of operating system
A computer’s operating system has three major functions. These are:-
i. Controlling operations: - operating system
coordinates and manipulates computer hardware,
such as computer memory, printer, disk,
keyboard, mouse, and monitor.

ii. Input output management: - it organizes file

on a variety of storage media, such as floppy
disc, hard drive, compact disc, and tape.

iii. Command processing: - the command processor

interprets what you enter using the keyboard or
other input devises in this respect; it is much like
and interprets. It also manages hardware errors and
the loss of data.

2. Application software’s

Personal computer users often use application software, for business,

scientific, and educational purpose. Application software refers to those
programs developed to meet particular user requirements for specific
application.
Some of the more commonly used applications are word processing,
electronic spreadsheet, presentation graphics, database, communications,
and electronics mail software.

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Computer system

Computer
system

Hardwar Softwar
e e
Input device
CPU
Output device Application System
Storage software software
device
Word
Language software Operating
Spreadsheet system
Database etc. Ms-dos

Windows 2000

Windows NT
Low level High level
language language UNIX etc.
Trubo bascal
Machine language Assembly
language C++

COBOL

Visual Basi ctc.

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Chapter Four
Operating System
The function of operating system is already be dealt on the previous Chapter.
This section is dedicated to deal with the most common operating system called
Windows XP version.
As discussed in the previous Unit an operating system is the set of computer
instructions, called a computer program that controls the allocation of computer
hardware such as memory, disk devices, printer, and CD-ROM drives, and
provides the capability for you to communicate with your computer. The most
popular and widely sued operating system is Microsoft Windows.
Understand the Windows XP Screen
Major parts of the Windows XP Screen include:
- Desktop: - This is the large, background area of the windows screen.
- My Documents: - This is a special folder that provides a convenient place to
store files and documents you create on your computer.

- My Computer: - This lets you see everything on your computer. It allows

browsing through your files and folders. It also allows accessing other
removable devices like floppy disk and flash memory.

- Recycle Bin: - This stores all the files you deleted from your computer. You
can use the Recycle Bin to retrieve files you’ve accidentally deleted.

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- Taskbar: - The taskbar usually at the bottom of your screen, and contain the
famous start button, which you use to start your program. Whenever you open
a program, or windows, an icon for that program appears on the task bar.

- Start Button: - The start button lets you quickly open your programs and
documents.
- Icon: - It is a small graphic image displayed on the screen to represent an
object that can be manipulated by the user. Icons are a significant factor in the
“user friendliness” of graphical user interfaces. There are two types of icons,
folder icons and file icons. A Folder is a container that holds files and other
folders. File Icons look different depending on the file they represent. There
are two types of files icons, Program Icons and Document Icons. Program
Icons show symbols representing a program file, such as Microsoft Word and
Microsoft Excel. Document Icons show rectangular documents accompanied
by symbols representing their program of origin.
Using the Mouse
A mouse is a pointing device used with Windows XP that is attached to the
computer by a cable. It contains two buttons the primary mouse button and
secondary mouse button. The primary mouse button is typically the left mouse
button and secondary mouse button is typically the right mouse button.
A Microsoft IntelliMouse includes a rolling wheel between the left and right
button.
Using the mouse we can perform the following operation
1. Point: - means you move the mouse across a flat surface until the mouse
pointer resets on the item of choice on the desktop.
2. Click: - means you press and release the left mouse button.
3. Double-Click: - quickly press and release the left mouse button twice
without moving the mouse, in rapid.
4. Drag: - Drag means holding down the mouse button on an icon or
window, move the item to desired location on the screen, and then release
the left mouse button.

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5. Right Drag: - means pointing an object, hold down the right mouse
button, move the item to the desired location, and release the right mouse
button. When you right drag an object, a context sensitive menu displays.
Working with window
The element building blocks of windows XP are on-screen boxes called
windows. It’s within these windows that you run programs, open file,
type text, and so on.
Common components or elements of windows
1. Title bar: - is located at the very top of the screen. It
displays the name of the document you are currently
using.
2. Menu bar: - It is directly below the title bar most of
the time and display the program menu name. The
menu begins with the word FILE and continues with
Edit, View and so on.
3. Tool bar: - Provide short cut to menu command. Most
of the time it located just below the menu bar.
4. Scroll bar: - There are horizontal and vertical bars on
the bottom and the right side of the screen that allow
you to see more of a document.
5. Status bar: - It is located at the very bottom of the
screen including document information.
6. Working Area: - It is a large area used to put
folder, to draw a picture, to write a text and so on
depending on the program type that you opened.
Working with file and folder
In order to understand fill management, you need to understand how
you computer store information. Filing cabinets store information in
files, which are organized and grouped in folder and kept in big
drawers. Computer also store information in files, which are also
organized and group in folders, and stored not in a big drawers but on
storage device.
Creating a new folder in desktop
1. Right click an empty area of the desktop

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2. Select NEW from short cut menu

3. Select FOLDER from sub menu of the short cut menu.
Renaming a folder
1. Right click on the folder you want to change the name.
2. Select RENAME from the short cut menu.
3. Type the name you want and pres ENTER key from the
keyboard or click an empty area.
Delete a folder or file
1. Right click on the folder or file you want to delete.
2. Select DELETE from the short cut menu.
3. The confirm File or confirm folder delete dialog box
appears, asking you are sure. Click YSE to confirm the
deletion or NO to cancel.
Customizing the Taskbar and Desktop
When you turn on your computer and windows loads and eventually pop to life
on your screen, the first things you see are the desktop and taskbar. The
taskbar is the control centre for windows-where you start and manage all your
programs. The desktop is your work space where you actually get your work
done.

Customizing start menu

1. Right click a blank area of the windows taskbar. a short cut menu for the
task bar papers
2. Select properties from the short cut menu. The task bar and start menu
property dialog box appears.
3. Click the start menu tab. You can select how the start menu looks and
behaves by selecting one of the following two options.
 Start Menu: - use the new windows XP start menu, which gives
you quick access to your documents, picture, and music, and
recently used programs.
 Classic start Menu: - use a start menu that has the same look and
behavior as earlier version of windows.
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4. Select the start menu style that you want to use. (start menu or classic
menu)
5. If you want, click customize…. to farther customize. Click OK when
you’re finished.
Adding wallpaper to the Desktop (changing the background of the desktop)
1. Right click a blank area of a desktop and select property from the short
cut menu.
2. Click the desktop tab
3. In the background section, select the picture name from the list.
4. If you want, Click the position combo box and select one of the list
(Center, Tile, Stretch) as your needs.
5. Click Apply.
Set up Screen Saver
A screen saver is a moving image that appears on the computer screen when
you have not used your computer for a while.
1. Right click a blank area on the desktop, and select properties from the
short cut menu.
2. Click the screen saver tab
3. Click the screen saver list arrow and select the image name from the
list.
4. Click the preview button to see what it look.
5. Click Apply.
If you want to display picture you draw on paint program as a screen saver
1. Right click a blank area on the desktop, and select properties from the
short cut menu.
2. Click the screen saver tab
3. Click the screen saver list arrow and select the image name from the list.
4. Click the preview button to see what it look.
5. Click Apply.
If you want to display your text on the screen saver
- Select 3D Text from screen saver list

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- Click the Settings button, in the new dialog box type your text in
Custom text filed.
- Click OK

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