Posthumanism - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Posthumanism#Philosophical_pos...

Posthumanism
Posthumanism or post-humanism (meaning "after humanism" or "beyond humanism") is a term
with at least seven definitions according to philosopher Francesca Ferrando:[1]

1. Antihumanism: any theory that is critical of traditional humanism and traditional ideas about
humanity and the human condition.[2]
2. Cultural posthumanism: a branch of cultural theory critical of the foundational assumptions of
humanism and its legacy[3] that examines and questions the historical notions of "human" and
"human nature", often challenging typical notions of human subjectivity and embodiment[4] and
strives to move beyond archaic concepts of "human nature" to develop ones which constantly
adapt to contemporary technoscientific knowledge.[5]
3. Philosophical posthumanism: a philosophical direction[6] which draws on cultural
posthumanism, the philosophical strand examines the ethical implications of expanding the circle
of moral concern and extending subjectivities beyond the human species.[4][7]
4. Posthuman condition: the deconstruction of the human condition by critical theorists.[8]
5. Posthuman transhumanism: a transhuman ideology and movement which seeks to develop and
make available technologies that eliminate aging, enable immortality and greatly enhance human
intellectual, physical, and psychological capacities, in order to achieve a "posthuman future".[9]
6. AI takeover: A variant of transhumanism in which humans will not be enhanced, but rather
eventually replaced by artificial intelligences. Some philosophers, including Nick Land, promote
the view that humans should embrace and accept their eventual demise.[10] This is related to the
view of "cosmism", which supports the building of strong artificial intelligence even if it may entail
the end of humanity, as in their view it "would be a cosmic tragedy if humanity freezes evolution at
the puny human level".[11][12][13]
7. Voluntary Human Extinction, which seeks a "posthuman future" that in this case is a future
without humans.[14]

Contents
Philosophical posthumanism
Emergence of philosophical posthumanism
Contemporary posthuman discourse
Relationship with transhumanism
Criticism
See also
References
Works cited

Philosophical posthumanism
Philosopher Ted Schatzki suggests there are two varieties of posthumanism of the philosophical
[15]
1 of kind:
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One, which he calls 'objectivism', tries to counter the overemphasis of the subjective or intersubjective
that pervades humanism, and emphasises the role of the nonhuman agents, whether they be animals
and plants, or computers or other things.[15]

A second prioritizes practices, especially social practices, over individuals (or individual subjects)
which, they say, constitute the individual.[15]

There may be a third kind of posthumanism, propounded by the philosopher Herman Dooyeweerd.
Though he did not label it as 'posthumanism', he made an extensive and penetrating immanent
critique of Humanism, and then constructed a philosophy that presupposed neither Humanist, nor
Scholastic, nor Greek thought but started with a different religious ground motive.[16] Dooyeweerd
prioritized law and meaningfulness as that which enables humanity and all else to exist, behave, live,
occur, etc. "Meaning is the being of all that has been created," Dooyeweerd wrote, "and the nature
even of our selfhood."[17] Both human and nonhuman alike function subject to a common 'law-side',
which is diverse, composed of a number of distinct law-spheres or aspects.[18] The temporal being of
both human and non-human is multi-aspectual; for example, both plants and humans are bodies,
functioning in the biotic aspect, and both computers and humans function in the formative and
lingual aspect, but humans function in the aesthetic, juridical, ethical and faith aspects too. The
Dooyeweerdian version is able to incorporate and integrate both the objectivist version and the
practices version, because it allows nonhuman agents their own subject-functioning in various aspects
and places emphasis on aspectual functioning.[19]

Emergence of philosophical posthumanism

Ihab Hassan, theorist in the academic study of literature, once stated:

Humanism may be coming to an end as humanism transforms itself into something one
must helplessly call posthumanism.[20]

This view predates most currents of posthumanism which have developed over the late 20th century
in somewhat diverse, but complementary, domains of thought and practice. For example, Hassan is a
known scholar whose theoretical writings expressly address postmodernity in society.[21] Beyond
postmodernist studies, posthumanism has been developed and deployed by various cultural theorists,
often in reaction to problematic inherent assumptions within humanistic and enlightenment
thought.[4]

Theorists who both complement and contrast Hassan include Michel Foucault, Judith Butler,
cyberneticists such as Gregory Bateson, Warren McCullouch, Norbert Wiener, Bruno Latour, Cary
Wolfe, Elaine Graham, N. Katherine Hayles, Benjamin H. Bratton, Donna Haraway, Peter Sloterdijk,
Stefan Lorenz Sorgner, Evan Thompson, Francisco Varela, Humberto Maturana, Timothy Morton,
and Douglas Kellner. Among the theorists are philosophers, such as Robert Pepperell, who have
written about a "posthuman condition", which is often substituted for the term "posthumanism".[5][8]

Posthumanism differs from classical humanism by relegating humanity back to one of many natural
species, thereby rejecting any claims founded on anthropocentric dominance.[22] According to this
claim, humans have no inherent rights to destroy nature or set themselves above it in ethical
considerations a priori. Human knowledge is also reduced to a less controlling position, previously
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seen as the defining aspect of the world. Human rights exist on a spectrum with animal rights and
posthuman rights.[23] The limitations and fallibility of human intelligence are confessed, even though
it does not imply abandoning the rational tradition of humanism.[24]

Proponents of a posthuman discourse, suggest that innovative advancements and emerging

technologies have transcended the traditional model of the human, as proposed by Descartes among
others associated with philosophy of the Enlightenment period.[25] In contrast to humanism, the
discourse of posthumanism seeks to redefine the boundaries surrounding modern philosophical
understanding of the human. Posthumanism represents an evolution of thought beyond that of the
contemporary social boundaries and is predicated on the seeking of truth within a postmodern
context. In so doing, it rejects previous attempts to establish 'anthropological universals' that are
imbued with anthropocentric assumptions.[22] Recently, critics have sought to describe the
emergence of posthumanism as a critical moment in modernity, arguing for the origins of key
posthuman ideas in modern fiction,[26] in Nietzsche,[27] or in a modernist response to the crisis of
historicity.[28]

The philosopher Michel Foucault placed posthumanism within a context that differentiated
humanism from enlightenment thought. According to Foucault, the two existed in a state of tension:
as humanism sought to establish norms while Enlightenment thought attempted to transcend all that
is material, including the boundaries that are constructed by humanistic thought.[22] Drawing on the
Enlightenment’s challenges to the boundaries of humanism, posthumanism rejects the various
assumptions of human dogmas (anthropological, political, scientific) and takes the next step by
attempting to change the nature of thought about what it means to be human. This requires not only
decentering the human in multiple discourses (evolutionary, ecological, technological) but also
examining those discourses to uncover inherent humanistic, anthropocentric, normative notions of
humanness and the concept of the human.

Contemporary posthuman discourse

Posthumanistic discourse aims to open up spaces to examine what it means to be human and
critically question the concept of "the human" in light of current cultural and historical contexts.[4] In
her book How We Became Posthuman, N. Katherine Hayles, writes about the struggle between
different versions of the posthuman as it continually co-evolves alongside intelligent machines.[29]
Such coevolution, according to some strands of the posthuman discourse, allows one to extend their
subjective understandings of real experiences beyond the boundaries of embodied existence.
According to Hayles's view of posthuman, often referred to as technological posthumanism, visual
perception and digital representations thus paradoxically become ever more salient. Even as one
seeks to extend knowledge by deconstructing perceived boundaries, it is these same boundaries that
make knowledge acquisition possible. The use of technology in a contemporary society is thought to
complicate this relationship.[30]

Hayles discusses the translation of human bodies into information (as suggested by Hans Moravec) in
order to illuminate how the boundaries of our embodied reality have been compromised in the
current age and how narrow definitions of humanness no longer apply. Because of this, according to
Hayles, posthumanism is characterized by a loss of subjectivity based on bodily boundaries.[4] This
strand of posthumanism, including the changing notion of subjectivity and the disruption of ideas
concerning what it means to be human, is often associated with Donna Haraway’s concept of the
cyborg.[4] However, Haraway has distanced herself from posthumanistic discourse due to other
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theorists’ use of the term to promote utopian views of technological innovation to extend the human
biological capacity[31] (even though these notions would more correctly fall into the realm of
transhumanism[4]).

While posthumanism is a broad and complex ideology, it has relevant implications today and for the
future. It attempts to redefine social structures without inherently humanly or even biological origins,
but rather in terms of social and psychological systems where consciousness and communication
could potentially exist as unique disembodied entities. Questions subsequently emerge with respect to
the current use and the future of technology in shaping human existence,[22] as do new concerns with
regards to language, symbolism, subjectivity, phenomenology, ethics, justice and creativity.[32]

Relationship with transhumanism

Sociologist James Hughes comments that there is considerable confusion between the two terms.
[33][34] In the introduction to their book on post- and transhumanism, Robert Ranisch and Stefan
Sorgner address the source of this confusion, stating that posthumanism is often used as an umbrella
term that includes both transhumanism and critical posthumanism.[33]

Although both subjects relate to the future of humanity, they differ in their view of
anthropocentrism.[35] Pramod Nayar, author of Posthumanism, states that posthumanism has two
main branches: ontological and critical.[36] Ontological posthumanism is synonymous with
transhumanism. The subject is regarded as “an intensification of humanism.”[37] Transhumanist
thought suggests that humans are not post human yet, but that human enhancement, often through
technological advancement and application, is the passage of becoming post human.[38]
Transhumanism retains humanism’s focus on the homo sapien as the center of the world but also
considers technology to be an integral aid to human progression. Critical posthumanism, however, is
opposed to these views.[39] Critical posthumanism “rejects both human exceptionalism (the idea that
humans are unique creatures) and human instrumentalism (that humans have a right to control the
natural world).”[36] These contrasting views on the importance of human beings are the main
distinctions between the two subjects.[40]

Transhumanism is also more ingrained in popular culture than critical posthumanism, especially in
science fiction. The term is referred to by Pramod Nayar as "the pop posthumanism of cinema and
pop culture."[36]

Criticism
Some critics have argued that all forms of posthumanism, including transhumanism, have more in
common than their respective proponents realize.[41] Linking these different approaches, Paul James
suggests that 'the key political problem is that, in effect, the position allows the human as a category
of being to flow down the plughole of history':

This is ontologically critical. Unlike the naming of ‘postmodernism’ where the ‘post’ does
not infer the end of what it previously meant to be human (just the passing of the
dominance of the modern) the posthumanists are playing a serious game where the
human, in all its ontological variability, disappears in the name of saving something
unspecified about us as merely a motley co-location of individuals and communities.[42]
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However, some posthumanists in the humanities and the arts are critical of transhumanism (the
brunt of Paul James's criticism), in part, because they argue that it incorporates and extends many of
the values of Enlightenment humanism and classical liberalism, namely scientism, according to
performance philosopher Shannon Bell:[43]

Altruism, mutualism, humanism are the soft and slimy virtues that underpin liberal
capitalism. Humanism has always been integrated into discourses of exploitation:
colonialism, imperialism, neoimperialism, democracy, and of course, American
democratization. One of the serious flaws in transhumanism is the importation of liberal-
human values to the biotechno enhancement of the human. Posthumanism has a much
stronger critical edge attempting to develop through enactment new understandings of the
self and others, essence, consciousness, intelligence, reason, agency, intimacy, life,
embodiment, identity and the body.[43]

While many modern leaders of thought are accepting of nature of ideologies described by
posthumanism, some are more skeptical of the term. Donna Haraway, the author of A Cyborg
Manifesto, has outspokenly rejected the term, though acknowledges a philosophical alignment with
posthumanism. Haraway opts instead for the term of companion species, referring to nonhuman
entities with which humans coexist.[31]

Questions of race, some argue, are suspiciously elided within the "turn" to posthumanism. Noting that
the terms "post" and "human" are already loaded with racial meaning, critical theorist Zakiyyah Iman
Jackson argues that the impulse to move "beyond" the human within posthumanism too often ignores
"praxes of humanity and critiques produced by black people",[44] including Frantz Fanon and Aime
Cesaire to Hortense Spillers and Fred Moten.[44] Interrogating the conceptual grounds in which such
a mode of “beyond” is rendered legible and viable, Jackson argues that it is important to observe that
"blackness conditions and constitutes the very nonhuman disruption and/or disruption" which
posthumanists invite.[44] In other words, given that race in general and blackness in particular
constitutes the very terms through which human/nonhuman distinctions are made, for example in
enduring legacies of scientific racism, a gesture toward a “beyond” actually “returns us to a
Eurocentric transcendentalism long challenged”.[45] Posthumanist scholarship, due to characteristic
rhetorical techniques, is also frequently subject to the same critiques commonly made of
postmodernist scholarship in the 1980s and 1990s.

See also
Metahuman
Posthuman
Posthumanization
Postmodernism
Journal of Posthuman Studies (https://www.psupress.org/Journals/jnls_JPHS.html)

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44. Jackson 2015, p. 216.
45. Jackson 2015, p. 217.

Works cited
Jackson, Zakiyyah Iman (June 2015). "Outer Worlds: The Persistence of Race in Movement
'Beyond the Human' " (https://www.academia.edu/12310146). Gay and Lesbian Quarterly (GLQ).

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